Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Classroom Air Quality and Thermal Comfort as Determinants of Respiratory Health Risks in Urban Pre-Tertiary Institutions

Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Classroom Air Quality and Thermal Comfort as Determinants of Respiratory Health Risks in Urban Pre-Tertiary Institutions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Classroom Air Quality and Thermal Comfort as Determinants of Respiratory Health Risks in Urban Pre-Tertiary Institutions Aimuanmwosa Frank Eghomwanre, Michael Ovbare Akharame This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9227545/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Poor indoor environmental quality (IEQ) remains a significant driver of pediatric morbidity, yet data on the interplay between particulate matter (PM), building design, and health in tropical schools are sparse. In this study, the spatio-temporal dynamics of classroom air quality and thermal comfort were investigated to identify the key environmental determinants of respiratory health risks among primary and secondary school students in Benin City, Nigeria. IEQ parameters (PM 2.5 , PM 10 , CO, and CO 2 ) and thermal indices were monitored across six schools for ten weeks. Health data were collected through modified BMR questionnaires and analysed using descriptive, inferential, and multivariate logistic regression. To estimate non-carcinogenic health risks, the hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated using the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( US EPA) framework. The PM 2.5 and PM 10 concentrations ranged from 11.2–81.4 µg/m³ and 20.1–138.6 µg/m³, respectively. The CO 2 concentration peaked at 729.3 ± 28.4 ppm, while high temperature‒humidity index (THI) values (28.3–30.1) indicated severe heat discomfort. Health risk assessment revealed that all HQ values for PM 2.5 and PM 10 remained below unity (HQ < 1), suggesting that students were not at immediate risk of chronic non-carcinogenic effects; however, respiratory symptoms were highly prevalent: coughing (58.2%), phlegm (32.5%), and chest pain (26.7%). Multivariate analysis revealed that high PM risk was a near-perfect predictor of coughing (p < 0.001) and significantly increased the odds of chest pain (Crude OR = 2.74; p = 0.001). Poor sanitation was the strongest predictor of phlegm production (AOR = 5.54; 95% CI: 1.35–22.80; p = 0.018) after adjustment for confounders, including age, sex, and socio-economic status. This study highlights the critical link between a school-built environment and students' respiratory health. While chronic risk thresholds (HQs) were not exceeded, particulate matter and sanitation were the primary drivers of acute respiratory symptoms. These findings suggest that targeted spatio-temporal interventions, such as improved cleaning protocols and air quality policies, are essential for mitigating health risks and optimizing the learning environment. Indoor air quality Particulate matter Respiratory symptoms Thermal comfort School health policy Logistic regression Full Text Supplementary Files SuplementaryData.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 13 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 06 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 31 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9227545","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":622221156,"identity":"d66248ce-a6cc-482a-aff4-d86a06ddb414","order_by":0,"name":"Aimuanmwosa Frank Eghomwanre","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1173-7281","institution":"University of Benin Faculty of Life Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aimuanmwosa","middleName":"Frank","lastName":"Eghomwanre","suffix":""},{"id":622221157,"identity":"e9ec2bf9-5c96-444e-acc1-5d7a8483cda0","order_by":1,"name":"Michael Ovbare Akharame","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Benin Faculty of Life Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"Ovbare","lastName":"Akharame","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-25 23:39:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9227545/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9227545/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107297362,"identity":"67a7c5ea-9573-47f9-a157-fe25a8246409","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-20 06:57:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":516834,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscriptclean.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9227545/v1_covered_410633bb-a3a6-4cb7-adc4-cbe7e1166e47.pdf"},{"id":107297308,"identity":"4602de11-822e-4560-a949-73ef6cda6a9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-20 06:57:28","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":53314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SuplementaryData.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9227545/v1/2f7cf205bee646c483e0c9a6.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Classroom Air Quality and Thermal Comfort as Determinants of Respiratory Health Risks in Urban Pre-Tertiary Institutions","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Indoor air quality, Particulate matter, Respiratory symptoms, Thermal comfort, School health policy, Logistic regression","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9227545/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9227545/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePoor indoor environmental quality (IEQ) remains a significant driver of pediatric morbidity, yet data on the interplay between particulate matter (PM), building design, and health in tropical schools are sparse. In this study, the spatio-temporal dynamics of classroom air quality and thermal comfort were investigated to identify the key environmental determinants of respiratory health risks among primary and secondary school students in Benin City, Nigeria. IEQ parameters (PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, CO, and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) and thermal indices were monitored across six schools for ten weeks. Health data were collected through modified BMR questionnaires and analysed using descriptive, inferential, and multivariate logistic regression. To estimate non-carcinogenic health risks, the hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated using the United States Environmental Protection Agency \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eUS EPA) framework. The PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e concentrations ranged from 11.2\u0026ndash;81.4 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3; and 20.1\u0026ndash;138.6 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3;, respectively. The CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e concentration peaked at 729.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.4 ppm, while high temperature‒humidity index (THI) values (28.3\u0026ndash;30.1) indicated severe heat discomfort. Health risk assessment revealed that all HQ values for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e remained below unity (HQ\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1), suggesting that students were not at immediate risk of chronic non-carcinogenic effects; however, respiratory symptoms were highly prevalent: coughing (58.2%), phlegm (32.5%), and chest pain (26.7%). Multivariate analysis revealed that high PM risk was a near-perfect predictor of coughing (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and significantly increased the odds of chest pain (Crude OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.74; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). Poor sanitation was the strongest predictor of phlegm production (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.54; 95% CI: 1.35\u0026ndash;22.80; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018) after adjustment for confounders, including age, sex, and socio-economic status. This study highlights the critical link between a school-built environment and students' respiratory health. While chronic risk thresholds (HQs) were not exceeded, particulate matter and sanitation were the primary drivers of acute respiratory symptoms. These findings suggest that targeted spatio-temporal interventions, such as improved cleaning protocols and air quality policies, are essential for mitigating health risks and optimizing the learning environment.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Classroom Air Quality and Thermal Comfort as Determinants of Respiratory Health Risks in Urban Pre-Tertiary Institutions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-20 06:56:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9227545/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2026-04-15T10:49:10+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-13T10:43:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-06T04:53:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2026-04-01T02:04:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3eaaeb0c-826e-4dd7-b582-06e1e71becfa","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 20th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-20T06:56:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-20 06:56:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9227545","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9227545","identity":"rs-9227545","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}