Integrated CFD and Experimental Approach for Thermal Performance Evaluation of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchange

Integrated CFD and Experimental Approach for Thermal Performance Evaluation of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchange | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Integrated CFD and Experimental Approach for Thermal Performance Evaluation of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchange Shital Yashwant Waware, Sandeep Sadashiv Kore, Ashok Mache, Anant Sidhappa Kurhade This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7062204/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular heat exchanger by integrating Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with experimental validation. The heat exchanger model was developed using a concentric tube configuration, with water as the working fluid and copper as the heat exchanger material, chosen for its high thermal conductivity and effectiveness in heat transfer applications. The CFD simulations employed advanced numerical methods to accurately replicate heat transfer and flow dynamics, ensuring a precise representation of the physical processes occurring within the system. The numerical findings exhibited excellent agreement with experimental data, with deviations remaining below 2%, demonstrating the model’s reliability in capturing intricate heat transfer behaviors. Key outcomes of the study include the validation of energy conservation principles, accurate predictions of outlet temperatures for both hot and cold fluids, and an in-depth analysis of the interaction between flow and heat transfer under different operating conditions. These results emphasize the potential of CFD modeling for practical applications, such as optimizing tubular heat exchanger performance and exploring innovative design modifications. Additionally, the study highlights the significance of CFD as a powerful analytical tool for investigating thermal systems, offering a dependable framework for performance prediction, energy efficiency evaluation, and design optimization in heat exchanger technology. The findings contribute to advancing heat exchanger efficiency, supporting future research and technological developments in thermal system analysis and optimization. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Counter-flow tubular minijet Heat exchanger Thermal performance Experimental validation concentric tube geometry Heat transfer dynamics Energy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Major Findings The CFD model accurately predicted the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger, with simulation results deviating less than 2% from experimental data, demonstrating high reliability and precision. Key parameters such as Reynolds number, inlet temperature, and mass flow rate were found to significantly influence heat transfer efficiency, with turbulent flow conditions enhancing thermal performance through improved mixing. The validated CFD approach provides a dependable framework for optimizing heat exchanger design and operation, enabling advanced thermal management across industrial applications. 1. Introduction Heat exchangers are indispensable components in thermal systems, playing a crucial role in a diverse range of industries such as power generation, chemical processing, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC). Their primary function is to enable efficient heat transfer between two or more fluids, facilitating processes like energy recovery, temperature regulation, and the utilization of waste heat. These systems are vital for improving energy efficiency and ensuring effective thermal management across industrial applications. Among the various types of heat exchangers, tubular heat exchangers have emerged as a preferred choice due to their simplicity, durability, and high operational efficiency. Their robust design and adaptability make them well-suited for handling different operating conditions in demanding industrial environments. In recent years, the advent of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has transformed the way heat exchangers are analyzed and optimized. CFD has become an invaluable tool for engineers and researchers, enabling detailed numerical simulations of fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena within these systems. By providing a comprehensive understanding of the thermal and hydraulic interactions, CFD allows the identification of performance bottlenecks and facilitates the development of innovative designs to enhance efficiency and reliability. Tubular heat exchangers, in particular, benefit greatly from CFD analysis, as their performance depends heavily on precise control over the flow and thermal dynamics [ 1 – 3 ]. The ability to simulate various operating conditions and geometries makes CFD an essential tool in the optimization of heat exchanger performance. This paper focuses on evaluating the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular heat exchanger through CFD simulations coupled with experimental validation. The study delves into key parameters such as energy conservation, thermal efficiency, and the accuracy of the CFD model in replicating real-world conditions. By comparing the results of numerical simulations with experimental data, the research aims to validate the robustness and reliability of the CFD approach. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights into the operational characteristics of the heat exchanger and highlights opportunities for further optimization in its design and functionality. This work not only establishes the effectiveness of CFD in modeling heat exchanger systems but also underscores its potential for driving advancements in industrial heat transfer applications. Another study utilized CFD simulations to investigate the impact of the inner pipe embedded (U) fin shape on the efficiency of double-pipe heat exchangers, comparing its findings with existing literature to provide detailed insights into the flow and heat transfer patterns within such systems [ 4 ]. Additionally, this research examined the performance of a double-pipe heat exchanger equipped with a full-length tight-fit twisted tape, selecting various twist ratios to enhance heat transfer and improve overall efficiency [ 5 ]. Furthermore, the study evaluated the heat transfer rate in a double-pipe heat exchanger where cold water, suspended with CuO nanoparticles (average size 35 nm), flowed counter to a hot water pipe. The investigation maintained a constant velocity and discharge rate while varying the dispersion rate of the CuO nanoparticles [ 6 ]. CFD simulations have significantly enhanced the understanding of heat exchanger performance, including shell-and-tube designs with various tube arrangements and fin geometries. Researchers have extensively analyzed the effects of geometric parameters such as coil diameter, pitch, and pipe dimensions on helical double-pipe heat exchangers. Results show that increasing coil diameter improves heat transfer by enhancing secondary flow generation [ 7 ]. In counter-flow configurations, higher Reynolds numbers intensify convective heat transfer due to increased secondary flows. The Reynolds number, which determines the flow regime, improves turbulence at higher values, enhancing the effectiveness of wire inserts. These effects vary depending on fluid properties such as viscosity and density [ 8 ]. Nanofluids, with superior thermal conductivity, deliver higher heat transfer rates compared to conventional fluids. When combined with wire inserts, nanofluids can significantly improve efficiency [ 9 ]. Optimization studies using CFD tools have shown that an ideal combination of pitch and coil diameter maximizes heat transfer efficiency while minimizing pressure drops [ 10 ]. Comparisons between counter-flow and parallel-flow configurations reveal that counter-flow setups outperform parallel-flow designs due to better temperature gradient maintenance [ 11 ]. Advanced turbulence models, including k-ω SST and LES, have been tested for simulating heat transfer in helical double-pipe exchangers. The k-ω SST model has been identified as offering the best balance between computational cost and accuracy [ 12 ]. Secondary flows in helical configurations enhance fluid mixing and thermal contact, improving heat transfer in both laminar and turbulent regimes, as effectively captured in CFD simulations [ 13 ]. Material selection also plays a crucial role; studies indicate that copper pipes outperform stainless steel due to their higher thermal conductivity [ 14 ]. Several studies have validated CFD models with experimental data, demonstrating high reliability in predicting temperature profiles and heat transfer rates [ 15 ]. Fouling and scaling can reduce the effectiveness of wire inserts by decreasing turbulence and heat transfer rates, leading to higher maintenance costs and lower operational efficiency over time. However, CFD analyses show that improved heat transfer rates often result in increased pressure drops. Optimization strategies have been proposed to balance heat transfer efficiency with pressure drop and energy consumption. Unlike experimental methods, which primarily measure input and output conditions, CFD simulations provide a comprehensive view of the entire fluid domain, enabling detailed analysis of pressure, velocity, and temperature fields within the heat exchanger [ 16 ]. Smartphones within the 2-6W power range frequently experience thermal issues, especially during high-performance tasks such as gaming and camera processing [ 17 ]. This study explores the use of passive phase change material (PCM) cooling as an alternative to traditional cooling methods like heat pipes and convection, which often struggle under intense power loads [ 18 ]. The research involves simulations using FR4, silicon, and copper-clad boards with nine components, tested under varying airflow conditions [ 19 ]. Findings reveal that copper cladding significantly enhances cooling efficiency, reducing component temperatures to 30–47°C at an airflow of 5 m/s, decreasing the required airflow rate by 2 m/s, and improving IC chip thermal management by 1.50-11.12°C compared to other materials [ 20 ]. Additionally, an innovative minichannel PCM cooling system was examined, showing that N-Eicosane outperformed paraffin wax and ATP 78, reducing temperature from 53.234°C to 51.520°C, achieving 0.5°C and 1.35°C greater cooling efficiency, respectively [ 21 ]. Further advancements in cooling technologies include minijet impingement cooling [ 22 ], nanofluid-based cooling [ 23 ], water-efficient faucet designs [ 24 ], and twisted tape heat transfer improvements [ 25 – 27 ]. A comprehensive review on electronic cooling strategies highlights their effectiveness in extreme conditions, while research on Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel with dimethyl carbonate optimizes engine emissions and performance [ 28 ]. Innovations in solar collectors using recycled aluminum cans have improved drying efficiency, while numerical studies on substrate board thermal conductivity offer enhancements in electronic cooling. Additionally, aerodynamic studies integrating CFD and wind tunnel experiments have been conducted, and fuzzy logic-based heat transfer models have demonstrated the advantages of twisted tape inserts in heat exchangers [ 29 – 37 ]. Investigations on wavy corrugated twisted tape inserts reveal substantial heat transfer gains, emphasizing their effectiveness in forced convection applications. Further studies on electronic cooling focus on thermal performance across various substrate materials, integrating PCM for smartphone circuit cooling. Wind rose analysis is utilized to assess temperature fluctuations in wind turbines, while arc-welded curved plates are analyzed for their overlapping angles' impact on strength and deformation [ 38 – 42 ]. A comparative study evaluates the performance of mono-composite and metal leaf springs, while real-time automated surface finish measurement enhances precision in stepped holding shafts. Additional CFD simulations explore counter-flow helical double-pipe heat exchangers, HVACR duct design, and nanofluid applications to improve thermal management in heat exchangers. Moreover, novel energy-absorbing bumper designs are investigated for vehicle safety, while Tinospora cordifolia biocarbon is assessed as a green adsorbent for heavy metal removal, particularly zinc ions [ 43 – 46 ]. Studies on transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel plate thickness examine its effect on ultimate tensile strength in Nd:YAG laser butt-welded joints, impacting weld quality. Experimental research on mild steel curved plates analyzes their mechanical behavior under different thickness conditions. Computational studies explore IC chip thermal regulation using PCM, while fuzzy logic modeling predicts heat transfer efficiency in double-pipe heat exchangers with wavy twisted tape inserts. Finally, research on oxygen-containing additives in unleaded gasoline investigates their influence on exhaust emissions, highlighting potential environmental benefits [ 47 – 54 ]. This review explores advancements in engineering, including the machinability of aluminium-based hybrid composites, heat transfer enhancement in tubular heat exchangers via jet impingement, and the impact of oxygenated additives on vehicle emissions. It also compares the thermal performance of different coil heat exchangers, examines passive cooling of EV batteries using phase change materials, and investigates plastic waste as a sustainable fuel source [ 55 – 60 ]. Figure 1 illustrates the role of heat exchangers in thermal systems and highlights how CFD enables their performance analysis and optimization. The aim of this study is to evaluate the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger by integrating Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with experimental validation. The study focuses on accurately modeling heat transfer and flow dynamics within a concentric tube configuration, utilizing copper as the heat exchanger material due to its high thermal conductivity and water as the working fluid. Through numerical simulations and experimental comparisons, the research aims to validate the CFD model’s accuracy and reliability in predicting heat exchanger behavior, ensuring deviations remain below 2%. Additionally, the study seeks to explore the impact of varying operating conditions on energy conservation, outlet temperature predictions, and thermal efficiency. By establishing a robust CFD framework, this research aims to optimize heat exchanger performance, propose innovative design modifications, and demonstrate the potential of CFD as a powerful tool for performance prediction, energy efficiency assessment, and system optimization in industrial heat exchanger applications. The Table 1 provides a one-line overview of key aspects related to heat exchanger applications, CFD integration, validation methods, and innovative thermal enhancement strategies. Table 1 Summary of Heat Exchanger Performance Evaluation and CFD-Based Advancements in Thermal Systems Aspect Description Significance Key Parameters/Methods Applications Industrial Importance Heat exchangers are critical in thermal systems like power plants, HVAC, and chemical processing. Improve energy efficiency, recover waste heat, and regulate temperatures. Fluid flow interaction, temperature regulation, energy recovery Power generation, chemical industries, HVAC systems Heat Exchanger Type Tubular heat exchangers are preferred due to simplicity, robustness, and operational reliability. Handle a wide range of conditions in industrial environments. Concentric tube design, copper material, water as working fluid Industrial cooling, process heating, automotive systems CFD Integration CFD simulates flow and heat transfer dynamics in high resolution. Enhances understanding, design optimization, and predictive accuracy. k-ε turbulence model, SIMPLE algorithm, structured meshing Heat exchanger design, electronics cooling, aerodynamics, nanofluid studies Validation and Performance CFD results closely match experimental data with < 2% deviation. Confirms model reliability and real-world applicability. Outlet temperature, Reynolds number, effectiveness, Nusselt number Reliable heat exchanger modeling, industrial system analysis Innovative Enhancements Use of twisted tape, nanofluids, phase change materials (PCM), and AI modeling. Boosts heat transfer, reduces energy losses, and enhances cooling efficiency. Jet impingement, minichannel geometry, LES modeling, AI-driven optimization EV battery cooling, smartphone thermal management, waste heat recovery systems 2. Methodology 2.1 Geometry and Meshing The mesh model of a tubular minijet heat exchanger with clearly marked inlets and outlets for hot and cold water, arranged in a counter-flow configuration. A structured mesh is applied across the domain, with finer refinement near the walls to capture boundary layer effects and ensure accurate heat transfer simulations. The tubular design allows hot fluid to flow inside the inner tube and cold fluid in the annular space, enhancing heat transfer efficiency. This model is used for CFD simulations to analyze thermal performance and flow dynamics under different conditions. Mesh Model of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchanger and Cross-Sectional Mesh View is as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 respectively. The heat exchanger was modeled as a concentric tube with water as the working fluid and copper as the solid material. The computational domain was discretized with a structured mesh, ensuring numerical stability and accuracy: A structured mesh was utilized to ensure high numerical stability and accuracy. Regions near the walls were refined to effectively capture boundary layer effects. Mesh quality metrics were rigorously maintained (Table 2 ). Table 2 Mesh Quality Metrics for Computational Domain Sr. No. Parameter Description Value 1 Aspect Ratio Restricted in critical areas to promote uniformity and minimize numerical diffusion. Below 5 2 Skewness Maintained below a threshold to reduce the likelihood of numerical inaccuracies. Below 0.3 3 Orthogonal Quality Ensured high-quality mesh for solution stability and reliability. Above 0.95 2.2 Mesh Independence Study and Convergence Criteria Mesh independence tests were conducted to ensure the accuracy and efficiency of the numerical model used in this study as explained in Fig. 3 . These tests involved comparing simulation results across different mesh densities, ranging from coarse to fine, to identify the optimal balance between computational cost and numerical precision. The results of the tests showed that deviations between the medium and fine meshes were consistently below 1%, indicating that further refinement of the mesh would not significantly enhance accuracy. The medium mesh, comprising 1,731,884 cells, was determined to be sufficient for the study. This choice provided a practical balance, ensuring high computational efficiency without compromising the fidelity of the numerical simulations. The graph depicts the findings of a Mesh Independence Study, which examines how mesh density (the number of cells in the computational mesh) impacts simulation outcomes, such as efficiency or performance metrics. At lower mesh densities (fewer cells), the simulation results exhibit noticeable variations, indicating reduced accuracy. However, as the mesh density increases, the results gradually stabilize, particularly beyond 1.5 million cells, where further changes in the simulation outcomes become negligible. The following grid configurations were tested (Table 3 ). Table 3 Grid Configuration Grid Case Number of Elements Hot Fluid Outlet Temperature (°C) Deviation (%) Coarse 850,000 53.9 2.1 Medium 1,731,884 54.1 0.9 Fine 2,500,000 54.2 0.2 The results indicate that as the number of elements increased, the variation in the hot fluid outlet temperature reduced significantly. Beyond 1.73 million elements, the deviation between consecutive grid refinements was less than 0.2%, demonstrating that further refinement would not significantly improve accuracy. Thus, the medium grid with 1,731,884 elements was chosen for all simulations to ensure a balance between computational cost and numerical accuracy. To ensure numerical stability and accuracy, strict convergence criteria were applied as explained in Table 4 . The simulations were considered converged when the following conditions were met for all governing equations: Table 4 Convergence Criteria Residual Parameter Convergence Criteria Achieved Value Continuity Equation Residual < 10⁻⁴ < 10⁻⁵ Momentum Equations Residual < 10⁻⁴ < 10⁻⁶ Energy Equation Residual < 10⁻⁶ < 10⁻⁷ Turbulence Equations (k-ε) Residual < 10⁻⁵ < 10⁻⁶ Temperature Variation Steady for 500 iterations Steady after 450 iterations The energy equation was given a stricter convergence criterion due to its direct influence on heat transfer accuracy. Additionally, temperature stability was monitored over multiple iterations, and results were accepted only when variations remained within a negligible range for at least 500 consecutive iterations. The combination of these criteria ensured that the simulations were numerically stable and physically meaningful. 2.3 Numerical Schemes and Algorithms The numerical model was developed by solving the governing equations for mass, momentum, and energy. To achieve high numerical accuracy and minimize truncation errors, a second-order upwind scheme was employed for spatial discretization. This scheme was chosen for its ability to provide more accurate results in simulations involving flow and heat transfer. To handle the coupling between pressure and velocity fields, the Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations (SIMPLE) algorithm was utilized. This algorithm ensures mass conservation by iteratively solving the relationships between velocity and pressure corrections. The SIMPLE algorithm is widely recognized for its robustness and efficiency, making it suitable for steady-state simulations of fluid flow and heat transfer in complex geometries. 2.4 Boundary Conditions The boundary conditions applied in the model were carefully designed to replicate the operational conditions of the counter-flow tubular heat exchanger as closely as possible. These conditions ensured that the simulation results were realistic and comparable to experimental data. The numerical model was validated by comparing its results with established analytical and experimental data. This validation process demonstrated excellent agreement, confirming the robustness and reliability of the approach. Key boundary conditions are outlined below in Table 5 . Table 5 Boundary Conditions for CFD Simulations Sr. No. Boundary Condition Value / Description 1 No-Slip Condition Velocity at solid walls = 0 m/s 2 Adiabatic Walls Heat flux at walls = 0 W/m² 3 Hot Fluid Inlet Temperature 55°C, 75°C, 85°C (varied for different cases) 4 Cold Fluid Inlet Temperature 29°C (constant for all cases) 5 Hot Fluid Outlet Temperature (CFD Prediction) 54.1°C − 81.9°C (depending on inlet conditions) 6 Cold Fluid Outlet Temperature (CFD Prediction) 30.4°C − 32.6°C (depending on inlet conditions) 7 Hot Fluid Mass Flow Rate 0.065946 kg/s − 0.1154055 kg/s 8 Cold Fluid Mass Flow Rate 0.065946 kg/s 9 Outlet Pressure Constant atmospheric pressure (1 atm = 101325 Pa) 10 Flow Regime Laminar to Turbulent (depending on Reynolds number) 11 Reynolds Number (Hot Fluid) 500 < Re < 4000 (transition regime) 12 Reynolds Number (Cold Fluid) 450 < Re < 3800 13 Turbulence Model k-ε (RANS) turbulence model 14 Gravity Acceleration 9.81 m/s² 15 Time Dependency Steady-State Simulation The experimental setup was designed to validate the CFD simulations of the counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger. The setup consisted of a concentric tube heat exchanger where hot fluid flowed inside the inner tube, and cold fluid flowed in the annular space. Copper was chosen as the tube material due to its high thermal conductivity (400 W/m·K), while water was used as the working fluid for both hot and cold streams. The system was designed to analyze the heat transfer characteristics under varying inlet temperatures and mass flow rates. The experimental apparatus included two separate tanks for hot and cold water storage. Pumps were used to circulate water through the system at controlled flow rates. K-type thermocouples were placed at the inlet and outlet of both hot and cold water streams, and a digital temperature display unit recorded temperature readings. Rotameters were installed to regulate and monitor the flow rates, while a valve system allowed controlled variation of mass flow rates to study different conditions. A LabVIEW-based data acquisition system continuously recorded temperature and flow rate variations, ensuring accurate data collection for validation. To conduct the experiment, the hot and cold water circuits were started simultaneously. The flow rates were set according to predefined experimental conditions, and the system was allowed to reach steady-state conditions before recording measurements. Temperature readings at the inlet and outlet were taken for multiple test cases, ensuring reliability. The experiment was repeated under different temperature and mass flow rate combinations to examine the system's performance under various operating conditions. The heat transfer rate was calculated using the equation Q = m C_p ΔT, where Q represents the heat transfer rate, m is the mass flow rate, C_p is the specific heat capacity, and ΔT is the temperature difference between the inlet and outlet. The experimental results were compared with the CFD predictions, revealing a maximum deviation of less than 2%, confirming the accuracy and reliability of the CFD model. The findings demonstrated the efficiency of the counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger and validated the numerical approach used in the CFD simulations. 3. Governing Equations and CFD Models 3.1. The governing equations. Turbulence intensity plays a crucial role in convective heat transfer. A comparative study was conducted using different turbulence models, and the results indicate that the k-ε (RANS) model provides the best balance of accuracy and computational cost. The k-ε turbulence model is a widely used two-equation model that provides an effective way to account for turbulent effects in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. It predicts turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate (ε) to model turbulence behavior efficiently. The following sections outline its governing equations, turbulent viscosity formulation, model constants, and implementation in CFD simulations. Heat transfer due to conduction and convection was modeled explicitly, while radiative heat transfer was neglected because the outer surface of the heat exchanger was insulated. The conservation equations included: Continuity Equation : $$\:\frac{\partial\:{\rho\:}}{\partial\:\text{t}}+\nabla\:\cdot\:\left({\rho\:}\overrightarrow{\text{v}}\right)=0$$ 1 Energy Equation $$\:\frac{\partial\:\text{p}\text{H}}{\partial\:\text{t}}+\nabla\:\:\bullet\:\left(\text{p}\overrightarrow{\text{V}}\text{H}\right)=\nabla\:\bullet\:(\text{K}\nabla\:\text{T})$$ 2 Navier-Stokes Momentum Equation $$\:\frac{\partial\:{\rho\:}\overrightarrow{\text{v}}}{\partial\:\text{t}}+\nabla\:\cdot\:\left({\rho\:}\overrightarrow{\text{v}}\overrightarrow{\text{v}}\right)=-\nabla\:\text{p}+{\mu\:}{\nabla\:}^{2}\overrightarrow{\text{v}}+{\rho\:}\overrightarrow{\text{g}}+\overrightarrow{\text{S}}$$ 3 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Equation(k- \(\:\in\:\) ) $$\:\frac{\partial\:\left(\text{p}\text{K}\right)}{\partial\:\text{t}}+\nabla\:\bullet\:\left(\text{p}\text{K}\overrightarrow{\text{V}}\right)=\nabla\:\bullet\:\left[\left({\mu\:}+\frac{{{\mu\:}}_{\text{t}}}{{{\sigma\:}}_{\text{k}}}\right)\nabla\:\text{K}\right]+{\text{G}}_{\text{k}}-\text{p}\text{ϵ}$$ 4 Heat Transfer Rate Equation $$\:\text{Q}=\dot{\text{m}}\times\:\text{c}\text{p}\times\:{\varDelta\:\text{T}}_{\text{h}\text{o}\text{t}/\text{c}\text{o}\text{l}\text{d}}$$ 5 Convection Heat Transfer Equation $$\:\text{Q}=\text{h}\times\:\text{A}\times\:\varDelta\:\text{T}$$ 6 LMTD for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger $$\:\text{L}\text{M}\text{T}\text{D}=\frac{\left({\Delta\:}{\text{T}}_{1}-{\Delta\:}{\text{T}}_{2}\right)}{\text{l}\text{n}\left(\frac{{\Delta\:}{\text{T}}_{1}}{{\Delta\:}{\text{T}}_{2}}\right)}\:$$ 7 Efficiency of Heat Exchanger Equation $$\:\text{n}=\frac{{({\text{T}}_{\text{i}\text{n}}-{\text{T}}_{\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}})}_{\text{h}\text{o}\text{t}}}{({\text{T}}_{\text{h}\text{o}\text{t}\left(\text{i}\text{n}\right)}-{\text{T}}_{\text{c}\text{o}\text{l}\text{d}\left(\text{i}\text{n}\right)})}\times\:100$$ 8 3.2. Detailed Parametric Study on Heat Exchanger Performance A comprehensive parametric study was conducted to understand the influence of various operational parameters on the performance of the counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger. The parameters analyzed include Reynolds number, fluid properties, inlet temperature variations, mass flow rate, and turbulence intensity. The study aims to determine the effect of these variables on heat transfer efficiency, outlet temperatures, and overall system performance. 3.2.1. Influence of Reynolds Number The Reynolds number plays a critical role in determining the heat transfer characteristics within the heat exchanger. A transition from laminar to turbulent flow significantly enhances convective heat transfer due to increased mixing and secondary flow generation as explained in Table 6 . Table 6 Influence of Reynolds Number Reynolds Number (Re) Flow Regime Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m²·K) Nusselt Number (Nu) 500 Laminar 235 4.3 2000 Transitional 415 12.8 4000 Turbulent 715 28.6 6000 Fully Turbulent 1020 41.2 The results show that as Reynolds number increases, both the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number increase significantly. This indicates improved convective heat transfer with turbulent flow due to enhanced fluid mixing. 3.2.2. Influence of Fluid Properties The thermal properties of the working fluid, including density, viscosity, specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity, strongly affect heat exchanger performance as explained in Table 7 . Table 7 Fluid Properties Fluid Density (kg/m³) Viscosity (Pa·s) Specific Heat (J/kg·K) Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K) Water 997 0.00089 4184 0.6 Water, due to its high specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity, provides the best heat transfer characteristics. 3.2.3. Influence of Inlet Temperature Variation As shown in the Table 8 the hot fluid inlet temperature rises while the cold fluid inlet stays constant, the heat transfer rate increases, but the effectiveness shows diminishing gains at higher temperature differences. Table 8 Inlet Temperature Variation Hot Fluid Inlet Temp (°C) Cold Fluid Inlet Temp (°C) Heat Transfer Rate (W) Effectiveness (%) 55 29 512 72.3 75 29 638 78.4 85 29 724 81.2 Increasing the hot fluid inlet temperature while keeping the cold fluid inlet constant leads to a higher heat transfer rate. However, effectiveness increases non-linearly, indicating diminishing returns at extreme temperature differences . 3.2.4. Influence of Mass Flow Rate Table 9 Mass Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) Hot Fluid Outlet Temp (°C) Cold Fluid Outlet Temp (°C) Heat Transfer Rate (W) 0.05 52.1 30.1 432 0.10 53.5 31.4 610 0.15 54.6 32.1 785 An increase in mass flow rate leads to higher heat transfer rates, but the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids decreases, indicating a trade-off between energy efficiency and overall heat transfer capacity as shown in Table 9 . 4. Results and Discussion The comparative analysis between experimental and CFD simulation results for the counter-flow shell-and-tube heat exchanger with perforations reveals a high degree of concordance, underlining the reliability and accuracy of the CFD model. Quantitative assessment of hot water outlet temperatures across all six cases demonstrates minimal discrepancies in Table 9 . Experimentally observed values range from 53°C to 83°C, while CFD predictions span 53.6°C to 83°C, yielding an average deviation of only 0.36%. This consistency underscores the predictive capability of the CFD approach in modeling thermal behaviors in Table 10 . Table 10 .Temperature Analysis of Cold and Hot Water Case Cold Water Inlet Temp. Hot Water Inlet Temp. Cold Water Outlet Temp. Hot Water Outlet Temp. o C o C o C o C Case A 29 55 30.6 54.1 Case B 29 75 31.9 73.3 Case C 29 85 32.6 83 Case D 29 55 30.4 53.6 Case E 29 75 31.5 72.5 Case F 29 85 32.1 81.9 Similarly, cold water outlet temperatures show close alignment between the experimental and simulated results. Experimentally measured temperatures fall between 30.5°C and 32°C, while CFD simulations predict values between 30.4°C and 32.6°C, with a maximum deviation of 1.88%. Such results confirm the robustness of the CFD methodology in capturing the heat exchange characteristics within the system. The study also examines water density, revealing values of 994 kg/m³ in CFD simulations and 989.19 kg/m³ experimentally. This slight variation (approximately 0.48%) corresponds to the differences in experimental conditions but does not significantly influence thermal outcomes, as evidenced by the strong correlation between predicted and observed results as explained in Fig. 5 . The Fig. 6 present a comparison between CFD and experimental results for hot and cold water outlet temperatures in a counter-flow heat exchanger. Graph A demonstrates excellent agreement for hot water, with deviations under 2%, indicating high model accuracy. Graph B shows slightly greater dispersion for cold water, yet the results remain consistent and within acceptable limits. Overall, the CFD model effectively replicates experimental data, validating its reliability in predicting the performance of the heat exchanger. Graphical representations further validate the model effectiveness, with linear correlations evident between predicted and experimental data for outlet temperatures. These findings reinforce the reliability of CFD simulations in capturing the complex heat transfer dynamics of counter-flow heat exchangers. From an application perspective, the precision of the CFD model makes it a viable tool for optimizing the performance of heat exchangers under various operating conditions. The negligible deviations observed (< 2%) highlight the model's capability for replicating real-world systems, offering a robust framework for performance prediction and design enhancement in thermal systems. The CFD analysis of the tubular heat exchanger was conducted under various input conditions (Cases A to F) to evaluate its thermal performance and heat transfer efficiency. Each case involved different inlet temperatures and mass flow rates for the hot and cold fluids, as detailed below: In Case A Fig. 7 , the cold fluid inlet temperature was set at 29°C and the hot fluid inlet at 55°C, with mass flow rates of 0.065946 kg/s and 0.1154055 kg/s for the cold and hot fluids, respectively. The cold fluid outlet temperature reached 30.59°C, while the hot fluid outlet temperature dropped slightly to 54.12°C. The temperature distribution contours highlighted effective heat transfer along the exchanger, with a gradual increase in cold fluid temperature and a minor decrease in hot fluid temperature due to the counter-flow configuration. In Case B, Fig. 8 , the hot fluid inlet temperature was increased to 75°C, while other conditions remained the same as in Case A. The cold fluid outlet temperature rose to 31.94°C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature dropped to 73.30°C. The analysis showed improved heat absorption by the cold fluid, and the structured mesh facilitated uniform heat transfer along the length of the exchanger. The counter-flow arrangement maximized the thermal gradient, ensuring efficient performance. For Case C, figure 9, the hot fluid inlet temperature was further increased to 85°C. The cold fluid outlet temperature rose to 32.69°C, while the hot fluid outlet temperature decreased to 83.00°C. The contour plots revealed a smooth and consistent temperature gradient, highlighting the exchanger's ability to transfer heat efficiently. The results emphasized the role of the counter-flow arrangement in maintaining optimal heat transfer. In Case D, figure 10, the mass flow rates of the cold and hot fluids were balanced at 0.065946 kg/s, with inlet temperatures of 29°C and 55°C, respectively. The cold fluid outlet temperature was 30.41°C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature dropped to 53.62°C. The analysis indicated a steady and controlled heat transfer process, with uniform interaction between the fluids. The structured flow paths and finer mesh near the walls captured boundary layer effects, ensuring numerical accuracy. Case E, figure 11, involved balanced mass flow rates with a higher hot fluid inlet temperature of 75°C. The cold fluid outlet temperature increased to 31.57°C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature decreased to 72.51°C. The temperature contours illustrated efficient heat exchange, and the counter-flow configuration maintained a favorable temperature gradient. The steady-state thermal process reflected optimal flow conditions, ensuring effective heat transfer. In Case F, Fig. 12, the hot fluid inlet temperature was set at 85°C while maintaining balanced mass flow rates. The cold fluid outlet temperature rose to 32.19°C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature decreased to 81.94°C. The analysis demonstrated efficient heat transfer, with the counter-flow arrangement enabling consistent thermal interaction. The results suggested that the exchanger was well-optimized under these conditions. The CFD simulations demonstrated the effectiveness of the tubular heat exchanger in transferring heat between the hot and cold fluids. The counter-flow configuration ensured a consistent temperature gradient, enhancing heat transfer efficiency. While the cold fluid experienced noticeable temperature increases, the hot fluid exhibited controlled temperature drops, indicating optimized thermal performance. Adjustments to flow rates, heat exchanger dimensions, or surface area enhancements could further improve the system efficiency. 4.1 Comparative Analysis of CFD Results and Experimental Data A comparative analysis between the CFD simulations and experimental data is presented in the Table 11 . Key parameters such as outlet temperatures, heat transfer rates, and percentage deviations are evaluated to assess the accuracy and reliability of the CFD model. Table 11 Comparative Analysis Sr. No. Parameter Experimental Data CFD Prediction Deviation (%) 1 Hot Water Outlet Temperature (°C) 53.0–83.0 53.6–83.0 0.36 2 Cold Water Outlet Temperature (°C) 30.5–32.0 30.4–32.6 1.88 3 Heat Transfer Rate (W) Varied across cases Consistent with experimental < 2.0 4 Flow Regime Transitional (Re 500–4000) Similar (Re 500–4000) Negligible 5 Turbulence Model Accuracy N/A k-ε (RANS) accurately modeled turbulence Validated 6 Error Sources Thermocouple placement, insulation losses Numerical discretization, turbulence assumptions Minimized by calibration 5. Conclusion Heat exchangers are vital components in thermal systems, facilitating efficient heat transfer across a wide range of industrial applications such as power generation, chemical processing, and HVAC systems. The performance and design optimization of these systems are critical for achieving energy efficiency and reliability. This study analyzed the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular heat exchanger using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) coupled with experimental validation, leading to the following key findings: The CFD model demonstrated high reliability, with deviations consistently below 2% between simulated and experimental results, confirming its accuracy in replicating real-world heat exchanger behavior. Analytical validation confirmed energy conservation, demonstrating that the heat lost by the hot fluid closely matched the heat gained by the cold fluid, ensuring robust and accurate thermal energy balance. The model successfully captured the thermal dynamics of the heat exchanger, including conduction and convection mechanisms, with minimal discrepancies between simulated and experimental results, highlighting its precision and robustness. The validated CFD model provides a reliable framework for optimizing heat exchanger performance, supporting advanced design configurations such as perforated tubes and fins to enhance thermal efficiency. Its adaptability makes it a valuable tool for diverse applications, including power generation, chemical processing, and HVAC systems. This study integrates Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) with experimental analysis to evaluate the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger. The model proved highly accurate, with less than 2% deviation from experimental results. Model Accuracy: The CFD simulation reliably predicted thermal behaviors, aligning closely with measured experimental data. Key Parameter Sensitivity: Heat transfer performance was significantly influenced by Reynolds number, mass flow rate, and inlet temperature. Turbulent Flow Advantage: Transitioning to turbulent regimes enhanced convective heat transfer due to better fluid mixing. Thermal Behavior Validation: The model accurately mirrored temperature distributions and energy balance across varying conditions. Design Optimization Potential: CFD results offer a reliable framework for improving heat exchanger designs and enhancing efficiency. Industry Relevance: The approach supports performance improvement in sectors like power generation, HVAC, and chemical processing. Scope for Advanced Research: The study opens avenues for future work involving nanofluids, AI-assisted modeling, and advanced turbulence simulations. 6. Future Research Directions While this study has provided valuable insights into the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger, several aspects warrant further investigation to enhance heat exchanger efficiency, reliability, and applicability. Future research should focus on advanced turbulence modeling, novel working fluids, geometry optimization, and the integration of AI-driven approaches to improve thermal performance. The following key research directions are suggested: Advanced CFD Models and Turbulence Modeling: Future studies should explore high-fidelity turbulence models such as Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) to improve the accuracy of heat transfer predictions in complex flow regimes. Multi-Phase and Nano-Fluid Applications: Investigating the impact of multiphase flows and nano-fluid suspensions (e.g., CuO, Al2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles) on heat exchanger performance can lead to significant thermal efficiency improvements. The effect of nanoparticle concentration, viscosity variations, and stability should be analyzed. Geometric Optimization for Enhanced Heat Transfer: Optimizing heat exchanger design through parametric studies and machine learning techniques can provide more efficient configurations. The use of twisted tape inserts, vortex generators, and extended surfaces should be examined to enhance convective heat transfer. Integration with Renewable Energy Systems: The application of heat exchangers in renewable energy-based systems, such as solar thermal collectors and geothermal heat pumps, should be explored. Future studies should focus on CFD-assisted optimization of heat exchangers for sustainable energy applications. AI and Data-Driven Optimization Approaches: Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning can be utilized to predict optimal heat exchanger performance, detect faults, and automate design improvements. AI-driven predictive models could significantly reduce computational costs and enhance efficiency. Experimental Validation under Real-World Conditions: Further experimental studies under varying operating conditions, including transient flow rates, different working fluids, and dynamic thermal loads, should be conducted. This will help refine CFD models and validate numerical predictions for practical applications. Declarations Availability of data and materials- All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. Additional datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests - The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding - This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Authors' contributions – Shital Yashwant Waware: Conceptualization, CFD simulation, experimental validation, and manuscript writing. Sandeep Sadashiv Kore: Supervision, methodology design, and manuscript review. Ashok Mache: Data analysis and result interpretation. Anant Sidhappa Kurhade: Literature review, manuscript editing, and validation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements - The authors would like to thank the Department of Mechanical Engineering at BRACT’s Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune, and Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology, Pune, for providing laboratory facilities and academic support during this research. Authors' information - Shital Yashwant Waware is a research scholar focused on thermal engineering and heat exchanger optimization using CFD. Clinical Trial: Not applicable References Incropera, F. P., & DeWitt, D. P. (2007). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. Wiley. Patankar, S. V. (1980). 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A comprehensive evaluation of recent studies investigating nanofluids utilization in heat exchangers. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sci. 2024;119(2):160-72. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.119.2.160172 Upadhe SN, Mhamane SC, Kurhade AS, Bapat PV, Dhavale DB, Kore LJ. Water Saving and Hygienic Faucet for Public Places in Developing Countries. InTechno-Societal 2018: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advanced Technologies for Societal Applications-Volume 1 2020 (pp. 617-624). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16848-3_56 Sidhappa KA, Hande MS, Patil MS, Mask MV. Heat Transfer Enhancement by using Twisted Tape Inserts with circular holes in forced convection. International journal of innovations in engineering research and technology. 2016 Mar;3(3):1-7. Kurhade AS, Kardekar NB, Bhambare PS, Waware SY, Yadav RS, Pawar P, Kirpekar S. A comprehensive review of electronic cooling technologies in harsh field environments: obstacles, progress, and prospects. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (6): 557-79. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45212 Kurhade AS, Waware SY, Bhambare PS, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Patil VN. A comprehensive study on Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel and dimethyl carbonate blends: Performance optimization and emission control in diesel engines. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (5): 499-507. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45188 Kurhade AS, Waware SY, Munde KH, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Patil P, Patil VN, Dalvi SA. Performance of solar collector using recycled aluminium cans for drying. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (5): 455-61. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/44643 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Bhambare PS, Dixit SM, Waware SY. Numerical investigation on the influence of substrate board thermal conductivity on electronic component temperature regulation. J Adv Res Numer Heat Trans. 2024;23(1):28-37. https://doi.org/10.37934/arnht.23.1.2837 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Kondhalkar GE, Darade MM, Yadav RS, Biradar R, Waware SY, Charwad GA. Optimizing aerofoil design: A comprehensive analysis of aerodynamic efficiency through CFD simulations and wind tunnel experiments. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 17:713-24. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45361 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Darade MM, Dhumal JR, Kardile CS, Biradar R, Patil SP, Waware SY. Predicting heat transfer enhancement with twisted tape inserts using fuzzy logic techniques in heat exchangers. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 17:743-50. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45348 Kurhade AS, Kadam AA, Biradar R, Bhambare PS, Gadekar T, Patil P, Yadav RS, Waware SY. Experimental investigation of heat transfer from symmetric and asymmetric IC Chips mounted on the SMPS board with and without PCM. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sc. 2024;121(1):137-4. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.121.1.137147 Patil P, Kardekar N, Yadav R, Kurhade A, Kamble D. Nanofluids: An Experimental Study for MQL Grinding. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2023;71(12):2751-6. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2023/41766 Patil P, Kardekar N, Yadav R, Kurhade A, Kamble D. Al2O3 nanofluids: An experimental study for MQL grinding. J Mines Met Fuels. 2023; 2751-6. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2023/41766 Kurhade AS, Bhambare PS, Desai VP, Murali G, Yadav RS, Patil P, Gadekar T, Biradar R, Kirpekar S, Charwad GA, Waware SY. Investigating the effect of heat transfer influenced by the application of wavy corrugated twisted tape inserts in double pipe heat exchangers. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sc.[Internet]. 2024;122(2):146-55. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.122.2.146155 Kurhade AS, Murali G, Jadhav PA, Bhambare PS, Waware SY, Gadekar T, Yadav RS, Biradar R, Patil P. Performance analysis of corrugated twisted tape inserts for heat transfer augmentation. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sci. 2024;121(2):192-200. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.121.2.192200 Kurhade MA, Dange MM, Nalawade DB. Effect of wavy (Corrugated) twisted tape inserts on heat transfer in a double pipe heat exchanger. International journal of innovations in engineering research and technology. 2015;2(1):1-8. Kurhade AS, Gadekar T, Siraskar GD, Jawalkar SS, Biradar R, Kadam AA, Yadav RS, Dalvi SA, Waware SY, Mali CN. Thermal Performance Analysis of Electronic Components on Different Substrate Materials. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Oct 30:1093-8. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45569 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Jawalkar SS, Gadekar T, Bhambare PS, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Waware SY, Mali CN. The impact of circular holes in twisted tape inserts on forced convection heat transfer. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (9): 1005–12. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45505 Kurhade AS, Darade MM, Siraskar GD, Biradar R, Mahajan RG, Kardile CS, Waware SY, Yadav RS. State-of-the-Art Cooling Solutions for Electronic Devices Operating in Harsh Conditions. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 27:843-61. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45374 Kurhade AS, Warke P, Maniyar K, Bhambare PS, Waware SY, Deshpande S, Harsur S, Ingle M, Kolhe P, Patil PA, Jadhav P. The wind rose analysis of temperature variation with sensor implantation technique for a wind turbine. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sci. 2024;122(1):1-8. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.122.1.118 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Bhambare PS, Keloth D, Kaithari SM, Waware SY. Enhancing Smartphone Circuit Cooling: A Computational Study of PCM Integration. J. Adv. Res. Numer. Heat Trans. 2024 Nov 30;27(1):132-45. https://doi.org/10.37934/arnht.27.1.132145 Yadav RS, Gadekar T, Gundage V, Patil P, Patil A, Patil P, Patil A, Sutar R, Kurhade AS. Numerical and Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Overlapping Angle on Strength and Deformation of Curved Plate Joined Using Arc Welding Process. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Oct 30:1059-66. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45697 Yadav RS, Nimbalkar A, Gadekar T, Patil P, Patil VN, Gholap AB, Kurhade AS, Dhumal JR, Waware SY. Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Mono-Composite and Metal Leaf Spring. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 27:815-27. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45325 Deshpande SV, Pawar RS, Keche AJ, Kurhade A. Real time surface finish measurement of stepped holding shaft by automatic system. Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Systems. 2025 Jan 17. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219686725500386 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Bhambare PS, Murali G, Deshpande SV, Warke PS, Waware SY. Simulation and Analysis of Heat Transfer in Counter-Flow Helical Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers Using CFD. International Journal of Modern Physics C. 2025 Jan 10. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0129183125500433 Parkar A, Yadav RS, Chopade R, Dhavase N, Dhumal JR, Mankar SP, Patil S, Ghuge K, Giri B, Kurhade AS. Automating the Two-Dimensional Design of Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration (HVACR) Ducts using Computer Programming Language: An Algorithmic Approach. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:211-20. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47335 Kurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Darade MM, Murali G, Katkar TR, Patil SP, Charwad GA, Waware SY, Yadav RS. Enhancement in Heat Transfer with Nanofluids in Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:165-72. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47225 Kurhade AS, Chougule SM, Kharat PV, Kondhalkar GE, Murali G, Raut PN, Charwad GA, Waware SY, Yadav RS. Integrated Approach to Enhance Vehicle Safety: A Novel Bumper Design with Energy-Absorbing Mechanisms. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:27-35. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47168 Raut PN, Dolas AS, Chougule SM, Darade MM, Murali G, Waware SY, Kurhade AS. Green Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal: A Study on Zinc Ion Uptake by Tinospora cordifolia Biocarbon. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:21-5. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47121 Yadav R, Nimbalkar A, Kirpekar S, Patil PJ, Dalvi SA, Jadhav PA, Kurhade AS, Wakchaure GN. Effect of Transformed-Induced Plasticity Steel Plate Thickness on Ultimate Tensile Strength of Butt Welded Joint using Nd: YAG Laser. International Journal of Vehicle Structures and Systems. 2024 Dec 31;16(6). Yadav RS, Gandhi P, Veeranjaneyulu K, Gaji R, Kirpekar S, Pawar D, Khairnar YS, Patil S, Kurhade AS, Patil SP. Influence of Plate Thickness on the Mechanical Behaviour of Mild Steel Curved Plates: An Experimental Study. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Dec 11:1319-27. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/46253 Kurhade AS, Bhambare PS, Siraskar GD, Mukesh S, Dixit PS, Waware SY. Computational Study on Thermal Management of IC Chips with Phase Change Materials. Kurhade AS, Dange MM, Nalawade DB. Fuzzy Logic Modeling of Heat Transfer in a double Pipe Heat Exchanger with Wavy (Corrugated) Twisted Tape Inserts. International Journal of Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology.;2(1):1-8. Patil, Suhas Prakashrao, Sandeep Sadashiv Kore, Satish Suresh Chinchanikar, and Shital Yashwant Waware. "Characterization and machinability studies of aluminium-based hybrid metal matrix composites-A critical review." Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 101, no. 2 (2023): 137-63. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.101.2.137163 Waware¹, Shital Yashwant, Sandeep Sadashiv Kore, and Suhas Prakashrao Patil. "Heat transfer enhancement in tubular heat exchanger with jet impingement: A review." (2023). https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.101.2.825 Kurhade, Anant Sidhappa, Gulab Dattrao Siraskar, Prachi Narendra Raut, Ashadevi Sopan Dolas, Govindarajan Murali, Sagar Arjun Dalvi, Shital Yashwant Waware, and Rahul Shivaji Yadav. "Investigating the Impact of Oxygenated Additives on Exhaust Emissions from Unleaded Gasoline Vehicles." Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47410 Purandare, Pramod, Rahul Shivaji Yadav, Anurag Ashokkumar Nema, Atul Kulkarni, Swanand Kirpekar, Barister Giri, Prashant Ashok Patil, Manoj Jagdale, and Anant Sidhappa Kurhade. "Comparative Study of Helical Coil, Spiral Coil and Conical Coil (90O) Heat Exchanger for Single Phase Fluid Flow." Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47396 Kurhade, Anant Sidhappa, Gulab Dattrao Siraskar, Sagar Arjun Dalvi, Pallavi Vishnu Kharat, Nilesh Ambaji Jadhav, Varsharani Dilip Shelkande, Govindarajan Murali, Shital Yashwant Waware, and Rahul Shivaji Yadav. "Passive Cooling of EV Batteries Using Phase Change Material: A Simulation Study." Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47368 Kurhade, Anant Sidhappa, Pallavi Vishnu Kharat, Sukhadip Mhankali Chougule, Milind Manikrao Darade, Madhuri Mohanrao Karad, Govindarajan Murali, Girish Anant Charwad, Shital Yashwant Waware, and Rahul Shivaji Yadav. "Harnessing the Power of Plastic Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Fuel Production." Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47354 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Y. Patil Institute of Technology Pimpri, Pune","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anant","middleName":"Sidhappa","lastName":"Kurhade","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-07 07:08:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7062204/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7062204/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88351210,"identity":"a305a993-c4fa-4555-882c-9297359c2c58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 14:23:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":93662,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverview of Heat Exchangers and CFD Optimization\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/c14e7274db40b302d3849835.jpg"},{"id":88348235,"identity":"02ba0b1c-ae35-44f5-9547-2f9fc747f279","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71182,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMesh Model of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchanger\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/79d2588957520475f6e98c51.jpg"},{"id":88348243,"identity":"4473ba92-b160-442e-88a8-3fb3039b0bd9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54176,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCross-Sectional Mesh View of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchanger\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/7306c3c16a24fa979b671e8c.jpg"},{"id":88348260,"identity":"a16e65a4-e4f0-4116-ad16-a9a42b025d1a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69761,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMesh Independence Study: Simulation Results vs. Mesh Density\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/cd10f1ba33ca6cdca31df131.jpg"},{"id":88349618,"identity":"6e6538c9-a509-4322-98e7-e33d9fb51c2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 14:07:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31621,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of CFD and Experimental Results for Hot Water Outlet Temperature\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/6cc92b5c31871b84674473b8.jpg"},{"id":88348249,"identity":"59fedd94-9b1c-44ad-b376-4effad741b2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28847,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of CFD and Experimental Results for Cold Water Outlet Temperature\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/bf2c0a2bde664a8ad5098ac6.jpg"},{"id":88350610,"identity":"781f84d7-e760-41f3-aae0-d46d3d1de217","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 14:15:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82902,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCFD Simulation of a Tubular Mini-Jet Heat Exchanger for Case A (a,b,c)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/072c1e3d95a977940a862e5a.jpg"},{"id":88348247,"identity":"c2fa792e-1352-484d-8163-dfe80186c974","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79955,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCFD Simulation of a Tubular Mini-Jet Heat Exchanger for Case B (a,b,c)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/b6e556fcb02a0fc843195080.jpg"},{"id":88348284,"identity":"b1a72d98-5952-4ed5-867a-378ed4988fee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76264,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCFD Simulation of a Tubular Mini-Jet Heat Exchanger for Case C (a,b,c)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/f18178ee88fd3826d65b876a.jpg"},{"id":88348237,"identity":"a993826e-095f-436b-a943-a0e6780f6566","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66026,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCFD Simulation of a Tubular Mini-Jet Heat Exchanger for Case D (a,b,c)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/a08a5223a12f91e4d1a75e43.jpg"},{"id":88350608,"identity":"4d11e39d-a6f8-4e5f-b847-8402bd8c774b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 14:15:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":87785,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCFD Simulation of a Tubular Mini-Jet Heat Exchanger for Case E (a,b,c)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/d3636db86b7582958ad6c820.jpg"},{"id":88348256,"identity":"906c3d4d-c173-4885-9789-27e04209f344","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 13:59:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74287,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCFD Simulation of a Tubular Mini-Jet Heat Exchanger for Case F (a,b,c)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/744a34f00baed4de296c948a.jpg"},{"id":92164397,"identity":"4fade5c4-e7b2-404c-b950-091fcedfe810","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-25 10:39:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2317364,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7062204/v1/ead9bd59-b616-4200-af18-dfae333316f9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Integrated CFD and Experimental Approach for Thermal Performance Evaluation of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchange","fulltext":[{"header":"Major Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe CFD model accurately predicted the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger, with simulation results deviating less than 2% from experimental data, demonstrating high reliability and precision. Key parameters such as Reynolds number, inlet temperature, and mass flow rate were found to significantly influence heat transfer efficiency, with turbulent flow conditions enhancing thermal performance through improved mixing. The validated CFD approach provides a dependable framework for optimizing heat exchanger design and operation, enabling advanced thermal management across industrial applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eHeat exchangers are indispensable components in thermal systems, playing a crucial role in a diverse range of industries such as power generation, chemical processing, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC). Their primary function is to enable efficient heat transfer between two or more fluids, facilitating processes like energy recovery, temperature regulation, and the utilization of waste heat. These systems are vital for improving energy efficiency and ensuring effective thermal management across industrial applications. Among the various types of heat exchangers, tubular heat exchangers have emerged as a preferred choice due to their simplicity, durability, and high operational efficiency. Their robust design and adaptability make them well-suited for handling different operating conditions in demanding industrial environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the advent of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has transformed the way heat exchangers are analyzed and optimized. CFD has become an invaluable tool for engineers and researchers, enabling detailed numerical simulations of fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena within these systems. By providing a comprehensive understanding of the thermal and hydraulic interactions, CFD allows the identification of performance bottlenecks and facilitates the development of innovative designs to enhance efficiency and reliability. Tubular heat exchangers, in particular, benefit greatly from CFD analysis, as their performance depends heavily on precise control over the flow and thermal dynamics [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The ability to simulate various operating conditions and geometries makes CFD an essential tool in the optimization of heat exchanger performance. This paper focuses on evaluating the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular heat exchanger through CFD simulations coupled with experimental validation. The study delves into key parameters such as energy conservation, thermal efficiency, and the accuracy of the CFD model in replicating real-world conditions. By comparing the results of numerical simulations with experimental data, the research aims to validate the robustness and reliability of the CFD approach. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights into the operational characteristics of the heat exchanger and highlights opportunities for further optimization in its design and functionality. This work not only establishes the effectiveness of CFD in modeling heat exchanger systems but also underscores its potential for driving advancements in industrial heat transfer applications. Another study utilized CFD simulations to investigate the impact of the inner pipe embedded (U) fin shape on the efficiency of double-pipe heat exchangers, comparing its findings with existing literature to provide detailed insights into the flow and heat transfer patterns within such systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, this research examined the performance of a double-pipe heat exchanger equipped with a full-length tight-fit twisted tape, selecting various twist ratios to enhance heat transfer and improve overall efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the study evaluated the heat transfer rate in a double-pipe heat exchanger where cold water, suspended with CuO nanoparticles (average size 35 nm), flowed counter to a hot water pipe. The investigation maintained a constant velocity and discharge rate while varying the dispersion rate of the CuO nanoparticles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. CFD simulations have significantly enhanced the understanding of heat exchanger performance, including shell-and-tube designs with various tube arrangements and fin geometries. Researchers have extensively analyzed the effects of geometric parameters such as coil diameter, pitch, and pipe dimensions on helical double-pipe heat exchangers. Results show that increasing coil diameter improves heat transfer by enhancing secondary flow generation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In counter-flow configurations, higher Reynolds numbers intensify convective heat transfer due to increased secondary flows. The Reynolds number, which determines the flow regime, improves turbulence at higher values, enhancing the effectiveness of wire inserts. These effects vary depending on fluid properties such as viscosity and density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNanofluids, with superior thermal conductivity, deliver higher heat transfer rates compared to conventional fluids. When combined with wire inserts, nanofluids can significantly improve efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Optimization studies using CFD tools have shown that an ideal combination of pitch and coil diameter maximizes heat transfer efficiency while minimizing pressure drops [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Comparisons between counter-flow and parallel-flow configurations reveal that counter-flow setups outperform parallel-flow designs due to better temperature gradient maintenance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Advanced turbulence models, including k-ω SST and LES, have been tested for simulating heat transfer in helical double-pipe exchangers. The k-ω SST model has been identified as offering the best balance between computational cost and accuracy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Secondary flows in helical configurations enhance fluid mixing and thermal contact, improving heat transfer in both laminar and turbulent regimes, as effectively captured in CFD simulations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Material selection also plays a crucial role; studies indicate that copper pipes outperform stainless steel due to their higher thermal conductivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Several studies have validated CFD models with experimental data, demonstrating high reliability in predicting temperature profiles and heat transfer rates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFouling and scaling can reduce the effectiveness of wire inserts by decreasing turbulence and heat transfer rates, leading to higher maintenance costs and lower operational efficiency over time. However, CFD analyses show that improved heat transfer rates often result in increased pressure drops. Optimization strategies have been proposed to balance heat transfer efficiency with pressure drop and energy consumption. Unlike experimental methods, which primarily measure input and output conditions, CFD simulations provide a comprehensive view of the entire fluid domain, enabling detailed analysis of pressure, velocity, and temperature fields within the heat exchanger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Smartphones within the 2-6W power range frequently experience thermal issues, especially during high-performance tasks such as gaming and camera processing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. This study explores the use of passive phase change material (PCM) cooling as an alternative to traditional cooling methods like heat pipes and convection, which often struggle under intense power loads [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The research involves simulations using FR4, silicon, and copper-clad boards with nine components, tested under varying airflow conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Findings reveal that copper cladding significantly enhances cooling efficiency, reducing component temperatures to 30\u0026ndash;47\u0026deg;C at an airflow of 5 m/s, decreasing the required airflow rate by 2 m/s, and improving IC chip thermal management by 1.50-11.12\u0026deg;C compared to other materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, an innovative minichannel PCM cooling system was examined, showing that N-Eicosane outperformed paraffin wax and ATP 78, reducing temperature from 53.234\u0026deg;C to 51.520\u0026deg;C, achieving 0.5\u0026deg;C and 1.35\u0026deg;C greater cooling efficiency, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Further advancements in cooling technologies include minijet impingement cooling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], nanofluid-based cooling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], water-efficient faucet designs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], and twisted tape heat transfer improvements [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. A comprehensive review on electronic cooling strategies highlights their effectiveness in extreme conditions, while research on Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel with dimethyl carbonate optimizes engine emissions and performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Innovations in solar collectors using recycled aluminum cans have improved drying efficiency, while numerical studies on substrate board thermal conductivity offer enhancements in electronic cooling. Additionally, aerodynamic studies integrating CFD and wind tunnel experiments have been conducted, and fuzzy logic-based heat transfer models have demonstrated the advantages of twisted tape inserts in heat exchangers [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30 CR31 CR32 CR33 CR34 CR35 CR36\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Investigations on wavy corrugated twisted tape inserts reveal substantial heat transfer gains, emphasizing their effectiveness in forced convection applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther studies on electronic cooling focus on thermal performance across various substrate materials, integrating PCM for smartphone circuit cooling. Wind rose analysis is utilized to assess temperature fluctuations in wind turbines, while arc-welded curved plates are analyzed for their overlapping angles' impact on strength and deformation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39 CR40 CR41\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. A comparative study evaluates the performance of mono-composite and metal leaf springs, while real-time automated surface finish measurement enhances precision in stepped holding shafts. Additional CFD simulations explore counter-flow helical double-pipe heat exchangers, HVACR duct design, and nanofluid applications to improve thermal management in heat exchangers. Moreover, novel energy-absorbing bumper designs are investigated for vehicle safety, while Tinospora cordifolia biocarbon is assessed as a green adsorbent for heavy metal removal, particularly zinc ions [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR44 CR45\" citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies on transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel plate thickness examine its effect on ultimate tensile strength in Nd:YAG laser butt-welded joints, impacting weld quality. Experimental research on mild steel curved plates analyzes their mechanical behavior under different thickness conditions. Computational studies explore IC chip thermal regulation using PCM, while fuzzy logic modeling predicts heat transfer efficiency in double-pipe heat exchangers with wavy twisted tape inserts. Finally, research on oxygen-containing additives in unleaded gasoline investigates their influence on exhaust emissions, highlighting potential environmental benefits [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR48 CR49 CR50 CR51 CR52 CR53\" citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. This review explores advancements in engineering, including the machinability of aluminium-based hybrid composites, heat transfer enhancement in tubular heat exchangers via jet impingement, and the impact of oxygenated additives on vehicle emissions. It also compares the thermal performance of different coil heat exchangers, examines passive cooling of EV batteries using phase change materials, and investigates plastic waste as a sustainable fuel source [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR56 CR57 CR58 CR59\" citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the role of heat exchangers in thermal systems and highlights how CFD enables their performance analysis and optimization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to evaluate the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger by integrating Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with experimental validation. The study focuses on accurately modeling heat transfer and flow dynamics within a concentric tube configuration, utilizing copper as the heat exchanger material due to its high thermal conductivity and water as the working fluid. Through numerical simulations and experimental comparisons, the research aims to validate the CFD model\u0026rsquo;s accuracy and reliability in predicting heat exchanger behavior, ensuring deviations remain below 2%. Additionally, the study seeks to explore the impact of varying operating conditions on energy conservation, outlet temperature predictions, and thermal efficiency. By establishing a robust CFD framework, this research aims to optimize heat exchanger performance, propose innovative design modifications, and demonstrate the potential of CFD as a powerful tool for performance prediction, energy efficiency assessment, and system optimization in industrial heat exchanger applications. The Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e provides a one-line overview of key aspects related to heat exchanger applications, CFD integration, validation methods, and innovative thermal enhancement strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSummary of Heat Exchanger Performance Evaluation and CFD-Based Advancements in Thermal Systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey Parameters/Methods\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApplications\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndustrial Importance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat exchangers are critical in thermal systems like power plants, HVAC, and chemical processing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImprove energy efficiency, recover waste heat, and regulate temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFluid flow interaction, temperature regulation, energy recovery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower generation, chemical industries, HVAC systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat Exchanger Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTubular heat exchangers are preferred due to simplicity, robustness, and operational reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHandle a wide range of conditions in industrial environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentric tube design, copper material, water as working fluid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndustrial cooling, process heating, automotive systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFD Integration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFD simulates flow and heat transfer dynamics in high resolution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnhances understanding, design optimization, and predictive accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ek-ε turbulence model, SIMPLE algorithm, structured meshing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat exchanger design, electronics cooling, aerodynamics, nanofluid studies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValidation and Performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFD results closely match experimental data with \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2% deviation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfirms model reliability and real-world applicability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutlet temperature, Reynolds number, effectiveness, Nusselt number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReliable heat exchanger modeling, industrial system analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInnovative Enhancements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse of twisted tape, nanofluids, phase change materials (PCM), and AI modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoosts heat transfer, reduces energy losses, and enhances cooling efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJet impingement, minichannel geometry, LES modeling, AI-driven optimization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEV battery cooling, smartphone thermal management, waste heat recovery systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.1 Geometry and Meshing\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mesh model of a tubular minijet heat exchanger with clearly marked inlets and outlets for hot and cold water, arranged in a counter-flow configuration. A structured mesh is applied across the domain, with finer refinement near the walls to capture boundary layer effects and ensure accurate heat transfer simulations. The tubular design allows hot fluid to flow inside the inner tube and cold fluid in the annular space, enhancing heat transfer efficiency. This model is used for CFD simulations to analyze thermal performance and flow dynamics under different conditions. Mesh Model of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchanger and Cross-Sectional Mesh View is as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe heat exchanger was modeled as a concentric tube with water as the working fluid and copper as the solid material. The computational domain was discretized with a structured mesh, ensuring numerical stability and accuracy:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA structured mesh was utilized to ensure high numerical stability and accuracy. Regions near the walls were refined to effectively capture boundary layer effects. Mesh quality metrics were rigorously maintained (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMesh Quality Metrics for Computational Domain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspect Ratio\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRestricted in critical areas to promote uniformity and minimize numerical diffusion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBelow 5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaintained below a threshold to reduce the likelihood of numerical inaccuracies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBelow 0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrthogonal Quality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnsured high-quality mesh for solution stability and reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbove 0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Mesh Independence Study and Convergence Criteria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMesh independence tests were conducted to ensure the accuracy and efficiency of the numerical model used in this study as explained in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. These tests involved comparing simulation results across different mesh densities, ranging from coarse to fine, to identify the optimal balance between computational cost and numerical precision. The results of the tests showed that deviations between the medium and fine meshes were consistently below 1%, indicating that further refinement of the mesh would not significantly enhance accuracy. The medium mesh, comprising 1,731,884 cells, was determined to be sufficient for the study. This choice provided a practical balance, ensuring high computational efficiency without compromising the fidelity of the numerical simulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe graph depicts the findings of a Mesh Independence Study, which examines how mesh density (the number of cells in the computational mesh) impacts simulation outcomes, such as efficiency or performance metrics. At lower mesh densities (fewer cells), the simulation results exhibit noticeable variations, indicating reduced accuracy. However, as the mesh density increases, the results gradually stabilize, particularly beyond 1.5\u0026nbsp;million cells, where further changes in the simulation outcomes become negligible. The following grid configurations were tested (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrid Configuration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrid Case\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of Elements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Fluid Outlet Temperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeviation (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoarse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e850,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMedium\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,731,884\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e54.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,500,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results indicate that as the number of elements increased, the variation in the hot fluid outlet temperature reduced significantly. Beyond 1.73\u0026nbsp;million elements, the deviation between consecutive grid refinements was less than 0.2%, demonstrating that further refinement would not significantly improve accuracy. Thus, the medium grid with 1,731,884 elements was chosen for all simulations to ensure a balance between computational cost and numerical accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo ensure numerical stability and accuracy, strict convergence criteria were applied as explained in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The simulations were considered converged when the following conditions were met for all governing equations:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConvergence Criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual Parameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConvergence Criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAchieved Value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuity Equation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁵\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMomentum Equations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁶\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy Equation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁶\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁷\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbulence Equations (k-ε)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁵\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10⁻⁶\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTemperature Variation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteady for 500 iterations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteady after 450 iterations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe energy equation was given a stricter convergence criterion due to its direct influence on heat transfer accuracy. Additionally, temperature stability was monitored over multiple iterations, and results were accepted only when variations remained within a negligible range for at least 500 consecutive iterations. The combination of these criteria ensured that the simulations were numerically stable and physically meaningful.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Numerical Schemes and Algorithms\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe numerical model was developed by solving the governing equations for mass, momentum, and energy. To achieve high numerical accuracy and minimize truncation errors, a second-order upwind scheme was employed for spatial discretization. This scheme was chosen for its ability to provide more accurate results in simulations involving flow and heat transfer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo handle the coupling between pressure and velocity fields, the Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations (SIMPLE) algorithm was utilized. This algorithm ensures mass conservation by iteratively solving the relationships between velocity and pressure corrections. The SIMPLE algorithm is widely recognized for its robustness and efficiency, making it suitable for steady-state simulations of fluid flow and heat transfer in complex geometries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Boundary Conditions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe boundary conditions applied in the model were carefully designed to replicate the operational conditions of the counter-flow tubular heat exchanger as closely as possible. These conditions ensured that the simulation results were realistic and comparable to experimental data. The numerical model was validated by comparing its results with established analytical and experimental data. This validation process demonstrated excellent agreement, confirming the robustness and reliability of the approach. Key boundary conditions are outlined below in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoundary Conditions for CFD Simulations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoundary Condition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue / Description\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo-Slip Condition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVelocity at solid walls\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0 m/s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdiabatic Walls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat flux at walls\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0 W/m\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Fluid Inlet Temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u0026deg;C, 75\u0026deg;C, 85\u0026deg;C (varied for different cases)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Fluid Inlet Temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026deg;C (constant for all cases)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Fluid Outlet Temperature (CFD Prediction)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.1\u0026deg;C \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;81.9\u0026deg;C (depending on inlet conditions)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Fluid Outlet Temperature (CFD Prediction)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.4\u0026deg;C \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;32.6\u0026deg;C (depending on inlet conditions)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Fluid Mass Flow Rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065946 kg/s \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.1154055 kg/s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Fluid Mass Flow Rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065946 kg/s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutlet Pressure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstant atmospheric pressure (1 atm\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;101325 Pa)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlow Regime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLaminar to Turbulent (depending on Reynolds number)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReynolds Number (Hot Fluid)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Re\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4000 (transition regime)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReynolds Number (Cold Fluid)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e450\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Re\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3800\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbulence Model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ek-ε (RANS) turbulence model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGravity Acceleration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.81 m/s\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime Dependency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteady-State Simulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experimental setup was designed to validate the CFD simulations of the counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger. The setup consisted of a concentric tube heat exchanger where hot fluid flowed inside the inner tube, and cold fluid flowed in the annular space. Copper was chosen as the tube material due to its high thermal conductivity (400 W/m\u0026middot;K), while water was used as the working fluid for both hot and cold streams. The system was designed to analyze the heat transfer characteristics under varying inlet temperatures and mass flow rates. The experimental apparatus included two separate tanks for hot and cold water storage. Pumps were used to circulate water through the system at controlled flow rates. K-type thermocouples were placed at the inlet and outlet of both hot and cold water streams, and a digital temperature display unit recorded temperature readings. Rotameters were installed to regulate and monitor the flow rates, while a valve system allowed controlled variation of mass flow rates to study different conditions. A LabVIEW-based data acquisition system continuously recorded temperature and flow rate variations, ensuring accurate data collection for validation. To conduct the experiment, the hot and cold water circuits were started simultaneously. The flow rates were set according to predefined experimental conditions, and the system was allowed to reach steady-state conditions before recording measurements. Temperature readings at the inlet and outlet were taken for multiple test cases, ensuring reliability. The experiment was repeated under different temperature and mass flow rate combinations to examine the system's performance under various operating conditions. The heat transfer rate was calculated using the equation Q\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;m C_p ΔT, where Q represents the heat transfer rate, m is the mass flow rate, C_p is the specific heat capacity, and ΔT is the temperature difference between the inlet and outlet. The experimental results were compared with the CFD predictions, revealing a maximum deviation of less than 2%, confirming the accuracy and reliability of the CFD model. The findings demonstrated the efficiency of the counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger and validated the numerical approach used in the CFD simulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Governing Equations and CFD Models","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. The governing equations.\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbulence intensity plays a crucial role in convective heat transfer. A comparative study was conducted using different turbulence models, and the results indicate that the k-ε (RANS) model provides the best balance of accuracy and computational cost.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe k-ε turbulence model is a widely used two-equation model that provides an effective way to account for turbulent effects in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. It predicts turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate (ε) to model turbulence behavior efficiently. The following sections outline its governing equations, turbulent viscosity formulation, model constants, and implementation in CFD simulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat transfer due to conduction and convection was modeled explicitly, while radiative heat transfer was neglected because the outer surface of the heat exchanger was insulated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe conservation equations included:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eContinuity Equation\u003c/b\u003e:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\frac{\\partial\\:{\\rho\\:}}{\\partial\\:\\text{t}}+\\nabla\\:\\cdot\\:\\left({\\rho\\:}\\overrightarrow{\\text{v}}\\right)=0$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEnergy Equation\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\frac{\\partial\\:\\text{p}\\text{H}}{\\partial\\:\\text{t}}+\\nabla\\:\\:\\bullet\\:\\left(\\text{p}\\overrightarrow{\\text{V}}\\text{H}\\right)=\\nabla\\:\\bullet\\:(\\text{K}\\nabla\\:\\text{T})$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNavier-Stokes Momentum Equation\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\frac{\\partial\\:{\\rho\\:}\\overrightarrow{\\text{v}}}{\\partial\\:\\text{t}}+\\nabla\\:\\cdot\\:\\left({\\rho\\:}\\overrightarrow{\\text{v}}\\overrightarrow{\\text{v}}\\right)=-\\nabla\\:\\text{p}+{\\mu\\:}{\\nabla\\:}^{2}\\overrightarrow{\\text{v}}+{\\rho\\:}\\overrightarrow{\\text{g}}+\\overrightarrow{\\text{S}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTurbulent Kinetic Energy Equation(k-\u003c/b\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\in\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\frac{\\partial\\:\\left(\\text{p}\\text{K}\\right)}{\\partial\\:\\text{t}}+\\nabla\\:\\bullet\\:\\left(\\text{p}\\text{K}\\overrightarrow{\\text{V}}\\right)=\\nabla\\:\\bullet\\:\\left[\\left({\\mu\\:}+\\frac{{{\\mu\\:}}_{\\text{t}}}{{{\\sigma\\:}}_{\\text{k}}}\\right)\\nabla\\:\\text{K}\\right]+{\\text{G}}_{\\text{k}}-\\text{p}\\text{ϵ}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHeat Transfer Rate Equation\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{Q}=\\dot{\\text{m}}\\times\\:\\text{c}\\text{p}\\times\\:{\\varDelta\\:\\text{T}}_{\\text{h}\\text{o}\\text{t}/\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{d}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e5\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConvection Heat Transfer Equation\u003cdiv id=\"Equ6\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ6\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{Q}=\\text{h}\\times\\:\\text{A}\\times\\:\\varDelta\\:\\text{T}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e6\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLMTD for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger\u003cdiv id=\"Equ7\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ7\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{L}\\text{M}\\text{T}\\text{D}=\\frac{\\left({\\Delta\\:}{\\text{T}}_{1}-{\\Delta\\:}{\\text{T}}_{2}\\right)}{\\text{l}\\text{n}\\left(\\frac{{\\Delta\\:}{\\text{T}}_{1}}{{\\Delta\\:}{\\text{T}}_{2}}\\right)}\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e7\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEfficiency of Heat Exchanger Equation\u003cdiv id=\"Equ8\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ8\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{n}=\\frac{{({\\text{T}}_{\\text{i}\\text{n}}-{\\text{T}}_{\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}})}_{\\text{h}\\text{o}\\text{t}}}{({\\text{T}}_{\\text{h}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\left(\\text{i}\\text{n}\\right)}-{\\text{T}}_{\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{d}\\left(\\text{i}\\text{n}\\right)})}\\times\\:100$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e8\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Detailed Parametric Study on Heat Exchanger Performance\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive parametric study was conducted to understand the influence of various operational parameters on the performance of the counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger. The parameters analyzed include Reynolds number, fluid properties, inlet temperature variations, mass flow rate, and turbulence intensity. The study aims to determine the effect of these variables on heat transfer efficiency, outlet temperatures, and overall system performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Influence of Reynolds Number\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Reynolds number plays a critical role in determining the heat transfer characteristics within the heat exchanger. A transition from laminar to turbulent flow significantly enhances convective heat transfer due to increased mixing and secondary flow generation as explained in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluence of Reynolds Number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReynolds Number (Re)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlow Regime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat Transfer Coefficient (W/m\u0026sup2;\u0026middot;K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNusselt Number (Nu)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLaminar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e235\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransitional\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbulent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e715\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFully Turbulent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results show that as Reynolds number increases, both the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number increase significantly. This indicates improved convective heat transfer with turbulent flow due to enhanced fluid mixing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Influence of Fluid Properties\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe thermal properties of the working fluid, including density, viscosity, specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity, strongly affect heat exchanger performance as explained in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFluid Properties\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFluid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity (kg/m\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eViscosity (Pa\u0026middot;s)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecific Heat (J/kg\u0026middot;K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThermal Conductivity (W/m\u0026middot;K)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e997\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00089\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater, due to its high specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity, provides the best heat transfer characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. Influence of Inlet Temperature Variation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in the Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e the hot fluid inlet temperature rises while the cold fluid inlet stays constant, the heat transfer rate increases, but the effectiveness shows diminishing gains at higher temperature differences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInlet Temperature Variation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Fluid Inlet Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Fluid Inlet Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat Transfer Rate (W)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffectiveness (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e512\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e638\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e724\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncreasing the hot fluid inlet temperature while keeping the cold fluid inlet constant leads to a higher heat transfer rate. However, effectiveness increases non-linearly, indicating diminishing returns at extreme temperature differences .\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.4. Influence of Mass Flow Rate\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMass Flow Rate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMass Flow Rate (kg/s)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Fluid Outlet Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Fluid Outlet Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat Transfer Rate (W)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e432\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e610\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e785\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn increase in mass flow rate leads to higher heat transfer rates, but the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids decreases, indicating a trade-off between energy efficiency and overall heat transfer capacity as shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe comparative analysis between experimental and CFD simulation results for the counter-flow shell-and-tube heat exchanger with perforations reveals a high degree of concordance, underlining the reliability and accuracy of the CFD model. Quantitative assessment of hot water outlet temperatures across all six cases demonstrates minimal discrepancies in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. Experimentally observed values range from 53\u0026deg;C to 83\u0026deg;C, while CFD predictions span 53.6\u0026deg;C to 83\u0026deg;C, yielding an average deviation of only 0.36%. This consistency underscores the predictive capability of the CFD approach in modeling thermal behaviors in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.Temperature Analysis of Cold and Hot Water\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Water Inlet Temp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Water Inlet Temp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Water Outlet Temp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Water Outlet Temp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase C\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase D\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase E\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, cold water outlet temperatures show close alignment between the experimental and simulated results. Experimentally measured temperatures fall between 30.5\u0026deg;C and 32\u0026deg;C, while CFD simulations predict values between 30.4\u0026deg;C and 32.6\u0026deg;C, with a maximum deviation of 1.88%. Such results confirm the robustness of the CFD methodology in capturing the heat exchange characteristics within the system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study also examines water density, revealing values of 994 kg/m\u0026sup3; in CFD simulations and 989.19 kg/m\u0026sup3; experimentally. This slight variation (approximately 0.48%) corresponds to the differences in experimental conditions but does not significantly influence thermal outcomes, as evidenced by the strong correlation between predicted and observed results as explained in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e present a comparison between CFD and experimental results for hot and cold water outlet temperatures in a counter-flow heat exchanger. Graph A demonstrates excellent agreement for hot water, with deviations under 2%, indicating high model accuracy. Graph B shows slightly greater dispersion for cold water, yet the results remain consistent and within acceptable limits. Overall, the CFD model effectively replicates experimental data, validating its reliability in predicting the performance of the heat exchanger. Graphical representations further validate the model effectiveness, with linear correlations evident between predicted and experimental data for outlet temperatures. These findings reinforce the reliability of CFD simulations in capturing the complex heat transfer dynamics of counter-flow heat exchangers. From an application perspective, the precision of the CFD model makes it a viable tool for optimizing the performance of heat exchangers under various operating conditions. The negligible deviations observed (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2%) highlight the model's capability for replicating real-world systems, offering a robust framework for performance prediction and design enhancement in thermal systems. The CFD analysis of the tubular heat exchanger was conducted under various input conditions (Cases A to F) to evaluate its thermal performance and heat transfer efficiency. Each case involved different inlet temperatures and mass flow rates for the hot and cold fluids, as detailed below:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Case A Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, the cold fluid inlet temperature was set at 29\u0026deg;C and the hot fluid inlet at 55\u0026deg;C, with mass flow rates of 0.065946 kg/s and 0.1154055 kg/s for the cold and hot fluids, respectively. The cold fluid outlet temperature reached 30.59\u0026deg;C, while the hot fluid outlet temperature dropped slightly to 54.12\u0026deg;C. The temperature distribution contours highlighted effective heat transfer along the exchanger, with a gradual increase in cold fluid temperature and a minor decrease in hot fluid temperature due to the counter-flow configuration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Case B, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, the hot fluid inlet temperature was increased to 75\u0026deg;C, while other conditions remained the same as in Case A. The cold fluid outlet temperature rose to 31.94\u0026deg;C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature dropped to 73.30\u0026deg;C. The analysis showed improved heat absorption by the cold fluid, and the structured mesh facilitated uniform heat transfer along the length of the exchanger. The counter-flow arrangement maximized the thermal gradient, ensuring efficient performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor Case C, figure 9, the hot fluid inlet temperature was further increased to 85\u0026deg;C. The cold fluid outlet temperature rose to 32.69\u0026deg;C, while the hot fluid outlet temperature decreased to 83.00\u0026deg;C. The contour plots revealed a smooth and consistent temperature gradient, highlighting the exchanger\u0026apos;s ability to transfer heat efficiently. The results emphasized the role of the counter-flow arrangement in maintaining optimal heat transfer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Case D, figure 10, the mass flow rates of the cold and hot fluids were balanced at 0.065946 kg/s, with inlet temperatures of 29\u0026deg;C and 55\u0026deg;C, respectively. The cold fluid outlet temperature was 30.41\u0026deg;C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature dropped to 53.62\u0026deg;C. The analysis indicated a steady and controlled heat transfer process, with uniform interaction between the fluids. The structured flow paths and finer mesh near the walls captured boundary layer effects, ensuring numerical accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCase E, figure 11, involved balanced mass flow rates with a higher hot fluid inlet temperature of 75\u0026deg;C. The cold fluid outlet temperature increased to 31.57\u0026deg;C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature decreased to 72.51\u0026deg;C. The temperature contours illustrated efficient heat exchange, and the counter-flow configuration maintained a favorable temperature gradient. The steady-state thermal process reflected optimal flow conditions, ensuring effective heat transfer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Case F, Fig.\u0026nbsp;12, the hot fluid inlet temperature was set at 85\u0026deg;C while maintaining balanced mass flow rates. The cold fluid outlet temperature rose to 32.19\u0026deg;C, and the hot fluid outlet temperature decreased to 81.94\u0026deg;C. The analysis demonstrated efficient heat transfer, with the counter-flow arrangement enabling consistent thermal interaction. The results suggested that the exchanger was well-optimized under these conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe CFD simulations demonstrated the effectiveness of the tubular heat exchanger in transferring heat between the hot and cold fluids. The counter-flow configuration ensured a consistent temperature gradient, enhancing heat transfer efficiency. While the cold fluid experienced noticeable temperature increases, the hot fluid exhibited controlled temperature drops, indicating optimized thermal performance. Adjustments to flow rates, heat exchanger dimensions, or surface area enhancements could further improve the system efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Comparative Analysis of CFD Results and Experimental Data\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA comparative analysis between the CFD simulations and experimental data is presented in the Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e. Key parameters such as outlet temperatures, heat transfer rates, and percentage deviations are evaluated to assess the accuracy and reliability of the CFD model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab11\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 11\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparative Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental Data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFD Prediction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeviation (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHot Water Outlet Temperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.0\u0026ndash;83.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.6\u0026ndash;83.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Water Outlet Temperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.5\u0026ndash;32.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.4\u0026ndash;32.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat Transfer Rate (W)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVaried across cases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsistent with experimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlow Regime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransitional (Re 500\u0026ndash;4000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar (Re 500\u0026ndash;4000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegligible\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbulence Model Accuracy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ek-ε (RANS) accurately modeled turbulence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValidated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eError Sources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThermocouple placement, insulation losses\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumerical discretization, turbulence assumptions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinimized by calibration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eHeat exchangers are vital components in thermal systems, facilitating efficient heat transfer across a wide range of industrial applications such as power generation, chemical processing, and HVAC systems. The performance and design optimization of these systems are critical for achieving energy efficiency and reliability. This study analyzed the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular heat exchanger using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) coupled with experimental validation, leading to the following key findings:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe CFD model demonstrated high reliability, with deviations consistently below 2% between simulated and experimental results, confirming its accuracy in replicating real-world heat exchanger behavior.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnalytical validation confirmed energy conservation, demonstrating that the heat lost by the hot fluid closely matched the heat gained by the cold fluid, ensuring robust and accurate thermal energy balance.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe model successfully captured the thermal dynamics of the heat exchanger, including conduction and convection mechanisms, with minimal discrepancies between simulated and experimental results, highlighting its precision and robustness.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe validated CFD model provides a reliable framework for optimizing heat exchanger performance, supporting advanced design configurations such as perforated tubes and fins to enhance thermal efficiency.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIts adaptability makes it a valuable tool for diverse applications, including power generation, chemical processing, and HVAC systems.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study integrates Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) with experimental analysis to evaluate the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger. The model proved highly accurate, with less than 2% deviation from experimental results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel Accuracy:\u003c/strong\u003e The CFD simulation reliably predicted thermal behaviors, aligning closely with measured experimental data.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKey Parameter Sensitivity:\u003c/strong\u003e Heat transfer performance was significantly influenced by Reynolds number, mass flow rate, and inlet temperature.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTurbulent Flow Advantage:\u003c/strong\u003e Transitioning to turbulent regimes enhanced convective heat transfer due to better fluid mixing.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThermal Behavior Validation:\u003c/strong\u003e The model accurately mirrored temperature distributions and energy balance across varying conditions.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDesign Optimization Potential:\u003c/strong\u003e CFD results offer a reliable framework for improving heat exchanger designs and enhancing efficiency.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndustry Relevance:\u003c/strong\u003e The approach supports performance improvement in sectors like power generation, HVAC, and chemical processing.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScope for Advanced Research:\u003c/strong\u003e The study opens avenues for future work involving nanofluids, AI-assisted modeling, and advanced turbulence simulations.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"6.\tFuture Research Directions","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhile this study has provided valuable insights into the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular minijet heat exchanger, several aspects warrant further investigation to enhance heat exchanger efficiency, reliability, and applicability. Future research should focus on advanced turbulence modeling, novel working fluids, geometry optimization, and the integration of AI-driven approaches to improve thermal performance. The following key research directions are suggested:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdvanced CFD Models and Turbulence Modeling:\u003c/strong\u003e Future studies should explore high-fidelity turbulence models such as Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) to improve the accuracy of heat transfer predictions in complex flow regimes.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMulti-Phase and Nano-Fluid Applications:\u003c/strong\u003e Investigating the impact of multiphase flows and nano-fluid suspensions (e.g., CuO, Al2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles) on heat exchanger performance can lead to significant thermal efficiency improvements. The effect of nanoparticle concentration, viscosity variations, and stability should be analyzed.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeometric Optimization for Enhanced Heat Transfer:\u003c/strong\u003e Optimizing heat exchanger design through parametric studies and machine learning techniques can provide more efficient configurations. The use of twisted tape inserts, vortex generators, and extended surfaces should be examined to enhance convective heat transfer.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntegration with Renewable Energy Systems:\u003c/strong\u003e The application of heat exchangers in renewable energy-based systems, such as solar thermal collectors and geothermal heat pumps, should be explored. Future studies should focus on CFD-assisted optimization of heat exchangers for sustainable energy applications.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAI and Data-Driven Optimization Approaches:\u003c/strong\u003e Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning can be utilized to predict optimal heat exchanger performance, detect faults, and automate design improvements. AI-driven predictive models could significantly reduce computational costs and enhance efficiency.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperimental Validation under Real-World Conditions:\u003c/strong\u003e Further experimental studies under varying operating conditions, including transient flow rates, different working fluids, and dynamic thermal loads, should be conducted. This will help refine CFD models and validate numerical predictions for practical applications.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials-\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. Additional datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions \u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShital Yashwant Waware: Conceptualization, CFD simulation, experimental validation, and manuscript writing.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Sandeep Sadashiv Kore: Supervision, methodology design, and manuscript review.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ashok Mache: Data analysis and result interpretation.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Anant Sidhappa Kurhade: Literature review, manuscript editing, and validation.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors would like to thank the Department of Mechanical Engineering at BRACT\u0026rsquo;s Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune, and Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology, Pune, for providing laboratory facilities and academic support during this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; information -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eShital Yashwant Waware is a research scholar focused on thermal engineering and heat exchanger optimization using CFD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIncropera, F. P., \u0026amp; DeWitt, D. P. (2007). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. Wiley.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatankar, S. V. (1980). Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow. McGraw-Hill.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVersteeg, H. K., \u0026amp; Malalasekera, W. (2007). An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method. Pearson.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHasan, M. F., Danışmaz, M., \u0026amp; Majel, B. M. (2023). 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McLaughlin. \u0026quot;Heat transfer in tube coils with laminar and turbulent flow.\u0026quot; International journal of heat and mass transfer 6, no. 5 (1963): 387-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-021-10804-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHam, Jeonggyun, Yunchan Shin, and Honghyun Cho. \u0026quot;Theoretical investigation of the influence of pipe diameter and exit channel width in welded plate heat exchanger on heat exchanger performance.\u0026quot; Heat and Mass Transfer (2019): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00231-019-02733-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eU. U. Rehman, \u0026ldquo;Heat transfer optimization of shell-and-tube heat exchanger through CFD studies\u0026rdquo; (2011): 25\u0026ndash;26.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eM. Ghazikhani, E. Noorifar, and A. Sharafi, \u0026ldquo;Experimental investigation of different kinds of vortex generator on a gas liquid finned-tube heat exchanger using exergy analysis,\u0026rdquo; Journal of Solid and Fluid Mechanics 2, no. 4 (2013): 61\u0026ndash;75.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaruah, Monoj, Anupam Dewan, and Pinakeswar Mahanta. \u0026quot;Performance of Elliptical Pin Fin Heat Exchanger with Three Elliptical Perforations.\u0026quot; CFD letters 3, no. 2 (2011): 65 \u0026ndash; 73.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHeydari, Ali, Mostafa Shateri, and Sina Sanjari. \u0026quot;Numerical analysis of a small size baffled shell-and-tube heat exchanger using different nano-fluids.\u0026quot; Heat Transfer Engineering 39, no. 2 (2018): 141-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/01457632.2017.1288052\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSolanki, Anand Kumar, and Ravi Kumar. \u0026quot;Condensation of R-134a inside dimpled helically coiled tube-in-shell type heat exchanger.\u0026rdquo;Applied Thermal Engineering 129(2018):535-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.10.026\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSolanki, Anand Kumar, and Ravi Kumar. \u0026quot;Two-phase flow condensation heat transfer characteristic of R-600a inside the horizontal smooth and dimpled helical coiled tube in shell type heat exchanger.\u0026quot; International Journal of Refrigeration 107 (2019): 155-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2019.07.017\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZuo, Jia-Wei, Kok-Cheong Wong, and Hoon Kiat Ng. \u0026quot;The Thermal Performance of Three-Layered Microchannel Heat Sink with Tapered Channel Profile.\u0026quot; Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 56, no. 1 (2019): 147-156.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMajidi, Davood, Hashem Alighardashi, and Fatola Farhadi. \u0026quot;Experimental studies of heat transfer of air in a double- pipe helical heat exchanger.\u0026quot; Applied Thermal Engineering 133 (2018): 276-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.01.057\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade A, Talele V, Rao TV, Chandak A, Mathew VK. Computational study of PCM cooling for electronic circuit of smart-phone. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2021 Jan 1;47:3171-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.284\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Rao TV, Mathew VK, G. Patil N. Effect of thermal conductivity of substrate board for temperature control of electronic components: A numerical study. International Journal of Modern Physics C. 2021 Oct 26;32(10):2150132. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0129183121501321\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Murali G. Thermal control of IC chips using phase change material: A CFD investigation. International Journal of Modern Physics C. 2022 Dec 28;33(12):2250159. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0129183122501595\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Murali G, Rao TV. CFD Approach for Thermal Management to Enhance the Reliability of IC Chips.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaware SY, Kore SS, Kurhade AS, Patil SP. Innovative Heat Transfer Enhancement in Tubular Heat Exchanger: An Experimental Investigation with Minijet Impingement. Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences. 2024 Apr 30;116(2):51-8. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.116.2.5158\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Patil P, Kardekar NB, Waware SY, Munde KH, Nimbalkar AG, Murali G. Predictive placement of IC chips using ANN-GA approach for efficient thermal cooling. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sc. 2024;118(2):137-4. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.118.2.137147\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaware SY, Chougule SM, Yadav RS, Biradar R, Patil P, Munde KH, Kardekar NB, Nimbalkar AG, Kurhade AS, Murali G, Kore SS. A comprehensive evaluation of recent studies investigating nanofluids utilization in heat exchangers. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sci. 2024;119(2):160-72. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.119.2.160172\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUpadhe SN, Mhamane SC, Kurhade AS, Bapat PV, Dhavale DB, Kore LJ. Water Saving and Hygienic Faucet for Public Places in Developing Countries. InTechno-Societal 2018: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advanced Technologies for Societal Applications-Volume 1 2020 (pp. 617-624). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16848-3_56\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSidhappa KA, Hande MS, Patil MS, Mask MV. Heat Transfer Enhancement by using Twisted Tape Inserts with circular holes in forced convection. International journal of innovations in engineering research and technology. 2016 Mar;3(3):1-7.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Kardekar NB, Bhambare PS, Waware SY, Yadav RS, Pawar P, Kirpekar S. A comprehensive review of electronic cooling technologies in harsh field environments: obstacles, progress, and prospects. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (6): 557-79. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45212\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Waware SY, Bhambare PS, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Patil VN. A comprehensive study on Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel and dimethyl carbonate blends: Performance optimization and emission control in diesel engines. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (5): 499-507. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45188\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Waware SY, Munde KH, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Patil P, Patil VN, Dalvi SA. Performance of solar collector using recycled aluminium cans for drying. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (5): 455-61. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/44643\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Bhambare PS, Dixit SM, Waware SY. Numerical investigation on the influence of substrate board thermal conductivity on electronic component temperature regulation. J Adv Res Numer Heat Trans. 2024;23(1):28-37. https://doi.org/10.37934/arnht.23.1.2837\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Kondhalkar GE, Darade MM, Yadav RS, Biradar R, Waware SY, Charwad GA. Optimizing aerofoil design: A comprehensive analysis of aerodynamic efficiency through CFD simulations and wind tunnel experiments. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 17:713-24. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45361\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Darade MM, Dhumal JR, Kardile CS, Biradar R, Patil SP, Waware SY. Predicting heat transfer enhancement with twisted tape inserts using fuzzy logic techniques in heat exchangers. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 17:743-50. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45348\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Kadam AA, Biradar R, Bhambare PS, Gadekar T, Patil P, Yadav RS, Waware SY. Experimental investigation of heat transfer from symmetric and asymmetric IC Chips mounted on the SMPS board with and without PCM. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sc. 2024;121(1):137-4. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.121.1.137147\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatil P, Kardekar N, Yadav R, Kurhade A, Kamble D. Nanofluids: An Experimental Study for MQL Grinding. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2023;71(12):2751-6. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2023/41766\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatil P, Kardekar N, Yadav R, Kurhade A, Kamble D. Al2O3 nanofluids: An experimental study for MQL grinding. J Mines Met Fuels. 2023; 2751-6. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2023/41766\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Bhambare PS, Desai VP, Murali G, Yadav RS, Patil P, Gadekar T, Biradar R, Kirpekar S, Charwad GA, Waware SY. Investigating the effect of heat transfer influenced by the application of wavy corrugated twisted tape inserts in double pipe heat exchangers. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sc.[Internet]. 2024;122(2):146-55. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.122.2.146155\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Murali G, Jadhav PA, Bhambare PS, Waware SY, Gadekar T, Yadav RS, Biradar R, Patil P. Performance analysis of corrugated twisted tape inserts for heat transfer augmentation. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sci. 2024;121(2):192-200. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.121.2.192200\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade MA, Dange MM, Nalawade DB. Effect of wavy (Corrugated) twisted tape inserts on heat transfer in a double pipe heat exchanger. International journal of innovations in engineering research and technology. 2015;2(1):1-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Gadekar T, Siraskar GD, Jawalkar SS, Biradar R, Kadam AA, Yadav RS, Dalvi SA, Waware SY, Mali CN. Thermal Performance Analysis of Electronic Components on Different Substrate Materials. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Oct 30:1093-8. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45569\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Jawalkar SS, Gadekar T, Bhambare PS, Biradar R, Yadav RS, Waware SY, Mali CN. The impact of circular holes in twisted tape inserts on forced convection heat transfer. J Mines Met Fuels. 2024; 72 (9): 1005\u0026ndash;12. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45505\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Darade MM, Siraskar GD, Biradar R, Mahajan RG, Kardile CS, Waware SY, Yadav RS. State-of-the-Art Cooling Solutions for Electronic Devices Operating in Harsh Conditions. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 27:843-61. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45374\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Warke P, Maniyar K, Bhambare PS, Waware SY, Deshpande S, Harsur S, Ingle M, Kolhe P, Patil PA, Jadhav P. The wind rose analysis of temperature variation with sensor implantation technique for a wind turbine. J Adv Res Fluid Mech Therm Sci. 2024;122(1):1-8. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.122.1.118\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Bhambare PS, Keloth D, Kaithari SM, Waware SY. Enhancing Smartphone Circuit Cooling: A Computational Study of PCM Integration. J. Adv. Res. Numer. Heat Trans. 2024 Nov 30;27(1):132-45. https://doi.org/10.37934/arnht.27.1.132145\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYadav RS, Gadekar T, Gundage V, Patil P, Patil A, Patil P, Patil A, Sutar R, Kurhade AS. Numerical and Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Overlapping Angle on Strength and Deformation of Curved Plate Joined Using Arc Welding Process. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Oct 30:1059-66. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45697\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYadav RS, Nimbalkar A, Gadekar T, Patil P, Patil VN, Gholap AB, Kurhade AS, Dhumal JR, Waware SY. Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Mono-Composite and Metal Leaf Spring. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Sep 27:815-27. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/45325\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDeshpande SV, Pawar RS, Keche AJ, Kurhade A. Real time surface finish measurement of stepped holding shaft by automatic system. Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Systems. 2025 Jan 17. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219686725500386\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Bhambare PS, Murali G, Deshpande SV, Warke PS, Waware SY. Simulation and Analysis of Heat Transfer in Counter-Flow Helical Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers Using CFD. International Journal of Modern Physics C. 2025 Jan 10. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0129183125500433\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eParkar A, Yadav RS, Chopade R, Dhavase N, Dhumal JR, Mankar SP, Patil S, Ghuge K, Giri B, Kurhade AS. Automating the Two-Dimensional Design of Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration (HVACR) Ducts using Computer Programming Language: An Algorithmic Approach. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:211-20. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47335\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Siraskar GD, Darade MM, Murali G, Katkar TR, Patil SP, Charwad GA, Waware SY, Yadav RS. Enhancement in Heat Transfer with Nanofluids in Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:165-72. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47225\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Chougule SM, Kharat PV, Kondhalkar GE, Murali G, Raut PN, Charwad GA, Waware SY, Yadav RS. Integrated Approach to Enhance Vehicle Safety: A Novel Bumper Design with Energy-Absorbing Mechanisms. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:27-35. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47168\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaut PN, Dolas AS, Chougule SM, Darade MM, Murali G, Waware SY, Kurhade AS. Green Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal: A Study on Zinc Ion Uptake by Tinospora cordifolia Biocarbon. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2025 Jan 7:21-5. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47121\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYadav R, Nimbalkar A, Kirpekar S, Patil PJ, Dalvi SA, Jadhav PA, Kurhade AS, Wakchaure GN. Effect of Transformed-Induced Plasticity Steel Plate Thickness on Ultimate Tensile Strength of Butt Welded Joint using Nd: YAG Laser. International Journal of Vehicle Structures and Systems. 2024 Dec 31;16(6).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYadav RS, Gandhi P, Veeranjaneyulu K, Gaji R, Kirpekar S, Pawar D, Khairnar YS, Patil S, Kurhade AS, Patil SP. Influence of Plate Thickness on the Mechanical Behaviour of Mild Steel Curved Plates: An Experimental Study. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels. 2024 Dec 11:1319-27. https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2024/46253\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Bhambare PS, Siraskar GD, Mukesh S, Dixit PS, Waware SY. Computational Study on Thermal Management of IC Chips with Phase Change Materials.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade AS, Dange MM, Nalawade DB. Fuzzy Logic Modeling of Heat Transfer in a double Pipe Heat Exchanger with Wavy (Corrugated) Twisted Tape Inserts. International Journal of Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology.;2(1):1-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatil, Suhas Prakashrao, Sandeep Sadashiv Kore, Satish Suresh Chinchanikar, and Shital Yashwant Waware. \u0026quot;Characterization and machinability studies of aluminium-based hybrid metal matrix composites-A critical review.\u0026quot; Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 101, no. 2 (2023): 137-63. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.101.2.137163\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaware\u0026sup1;, Shital Yashwant, Sandeep Sadashiv Kore, and Suhas Prakashrao Patil. \u0026quot;Heat transfer enhancement in tubular heat exchanger with jet impingement: A review.\u0026quot; (2023). https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.101.2.825\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade, Anant Sidhappa, Gulab Dattrao Siraskar, Prachi Narendra Raut, Ashadevi Sopan Dolas, Govindarajan Murali, Sagar Arjun Dalvi, Shital Yashwant Waware, and Rahul Shivaji Yadav. \u0026quot;Investigating the Impact of Oxygenated Additives on Exhaust Emissions from Unleaded Gasoline Vehicles.\u0026quot; Journal of Mines, Metals \u0026amp; Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47410\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePurandare, Pramod, Rahul Shivaji Yadav, Anurag Ashokkumar Nema, Atul Kulkarni, Swanand Kirpekar, Barister Giri, Prashant Ashok Patil, Manoj Jagdale, and Anant Sidhappa Kurhade. \u0026quot;Comparative Study of Helical Coil, Spiral Coil and Conical Coil (90O) Heat Exchanger for Single Phase Fluid Flow.\u0026quot; Journal of Mines, Metals \u0026amp; Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47396\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade, Anant Sidhappa, Gulab Dattrao Siraskar, Sagar Arjun Dalvi, Pallavi Vishnu Kharat, Nilesh Ambaji Jadhav, Varsharani Dilip Shelkande, Govindarajan Murali, Shital Yashwant Waware, and Rahul Shivaji Yadav. \u0026quot;Passive Cooling of EV Batteries Using Phase Change Material: A Simulation Study.\u0026quot; Journal of Mines, Metals \u0026amp; Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47368\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKurhade, Anant Sidhappa, Pallavi Vishnu Kharat, Sukhadip Mhankali Chougule, Milind Manikrao Darade, Madhuri Mohanrao Karad, Govindarajan Murali, Girish Anant Charwad, Shital Yashwant Waware, and Rahul Shivaji Yadav. \u0026quot;Harnessing the Power of Plastic Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Fuel Production.\u0026quot; Journal of Mines, Metals \u0026amp; Fuels 73, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.18311/jmmf/2025/47354\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Counter-flow tubular minijet, Heat exchanger, Thermal performance, Experimental validation, concentric tube geometry, Heat transfer dynamics, Energy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7062204/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7062204/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the thermal performance of a counter-flow tubular heat exchanger by integrating Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with experimental validation. The heat exchanger model was developed using a concentric tube configuration, with water as the working fluid and copper as the heat exchanger material, chosen for its high thermal conductivity and effectiveness in heat transfer applications. The CFD simulations employed advanced numerical methods to accurately replicate heat transfer and flow dynamics, ensuring a precise representation of the physical processes occurring within the system. The numerical findings exhibited excellent agreement with experimental data, with deviations remaining below 2%, demonstrating the model\u0026rsquo;s reliability in capturing intricate heat transfer behaviors. Key outcomes of the study include the validation of energy conservation principles, accurate predictions of outlet temperatures for both hot and cold fluids, and an in-depth analysis of the interaction between flow and heat transfer under different operating conditions. These results emphasize the potential of CFD modeling for practical applications, such as optimizing tubular heat exchanger performance and exploring innovative design modifications. Additionally, the study highlights the significance of CFD as a powerful analytical tool for investigating thermal systems, offering a dependable framework for performance prediction, energy efficiency evaluation, and design optimization in heat exchanger technology. The findings contribute to advancing heat exchanger efficiency, supporting future research and technological developments in thermal system analysis and optimization.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Integrated CFD and Experimental Approach for Thermal Performance Evaluation of a Tubular Minijet Heat Exchange","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-05 13:59:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7062204/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"05764fe1-7e81-4950-84ac-c46c0af511b0","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-25T10:38:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-05 13:59:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7062204","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7062204","identity":"rs-7062204","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}