A Green Synthesis by Pulse Laser Ablation in Liquid to Form Core@Shell Nanoparticles for High- Performance Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents

A Green Synthesis by Pulse Laser Ablation in Liquid to Form Core@Shell Nanoparticles for High- Performance Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Green Synthesis by Pulse Laser Ablation in Liquid to Form Core@Shell Nanoparticles for High- Performance Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents Zahraa Sahib Shanon, Mushtaq Talib Al-Helaly This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7394303/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in BioNanoScience → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Nanoparticles have emerged as promising platforms due to their unique properties. Increasing resistance to antibiotics and antioxidants represents a pressing global health challenge that requires new therapeutic and preventive solutions. This study aimed to prepare new nanoparticles with an inner core of palladium and titanium dioxide and a shell of silicon dioxide by pulse laser ablation in liquid technique, investigate their properties, and subsequently evaluate their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Their structures and morphological properties were examined, and the results demonstrated the successful preparation of homogeneous nanoparticles with an average size of (20–50) nm. The purity of the material and homogeneous spherical shape were confirmed. It was also observed that the nanoparticles had a maximum absorption peak at 316 nm. Antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria was evaluated using the agar diffusion method, with the largest inhibition zone being 24.9 mm² and 16.6 mm² at low minimum inhibitory concentrations of less than 100 µg/ml. Antioxidant activity was evaluated, revealing high antioxidant activity at a concentration of 100 µg/mL, which demonstrated a 90% free radical scavenging capacity of the nanoparticles at this concentration. This study confirms the ability of core-shell nanoparticles to enhance the combined properties of these materials, making them effective antibacterial and antioxidant agents, and thus opening new avenues for the development of alternative antibiotic treatments and antioxidants in medical and pharmaceutical applications. Triple core shell Titanium dioxide anti-bacterial antioxidant Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1. INTRODUCTION Nanoparticles are particles with a size ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers and have a large surface area to volume ratio. This area enhances their physical and chemical properties, making them antimicrobial agents [ 1 ]. Either they are made of a noble metal or element, or metal oxides [ 2 ]. Due to the development of many side effects of diseases, this necessitates the selection of metal oxides with biocompatible noble metals. Multiple chemical and physical techniques have been used to synthesize nanoparticles, including electrospinning technology, sol-gel [ 3 ], and a two-step hydrothermal method [ 4 ]. Still, the PLAL method is a safe, effective, easy, and non-polluting method. The technological developments in various fields, semiconductors, including metal oxides, have gained popularity. Nanoscale titanium dioxide is characterized by its high ionization and wide energy range, which has led to its widespread use in photocatalysis, biomedical engineering, cosmetics, and sunscreens [ 5 ]. One of the most important advantages of pulsed laser ablation is that it is a one-step, top-down process. It is therefore clean and non-polluting, producing no ions or impurities. It also lacks the need for high-vacuum pumping systems, making it an environmentally friendly method. [ 6 ]. So, to prepare core-shell nanoparticles [ 7 ], as shown in Fig. 1 this environmentally friendly technique, known as pulsed laser ablation, is used. Titanium dioxide is a white, inorganic solid that is insoluble in water and chemically inert. It is used in the manufacture of catalysts and cosmetics. It does not occur naturally and is the ninth most abundant element in compounds found in rocks and minerals[ 8 ]. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have unique optical properties, making them suitable for various applications [ 9 – 12 ]. Adding titanium dioxide nanoparticles to palladium and silicon dioxide nanoparticles can significantly modify these properties [ 13 ]. Palladium enhances photocatalytic activity and modifies optical properties [ 14 , 15 ] by enhancing charge separation and reducing electron-hole recombination, thus improving photocatalytic efficiency [ 16 ]. While silicon dioxide acts as a support or surface modifier, enhancing the dispersion of titanium dioxide nanoparticles, preventing agglomeration, and increasing the surface area available for reaction [ 17 ]. Palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles exhibit antibacterial activity, particularly against E. coli. Subhan et. al. found that the presence of palladium enhances the antibacterial activity of titanium dioxide [ 18 ]. Dang et. al., however, had a different opinion regarding the effectiveness of titanium dioxide nanoparticles combined with silicon dioxide in coating formulations [ 19 ]. Regarding the antioxidant activity, TiO 2 demonstrated antioxidant properties through its photocatalytic properties[ 20 – 22 ], leading to the formation of reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide radicals and hydroxyl radicals [ 23 , 24 ]. In addition, Pd and SiO 2 nanoparticles had antioxidant activity, which enhances the formation of oxygen vacancies and increases the dispersion of the solution[ 25 , 26 ]. The study aimed to determine if the core-shell nanostructure can effectively suppress the surface effect and reduce the rate of non-radiative transmission in nanoparticles. Research groups have studied the properties of TiO 2 and SiO 2 , or TiO 2 and Pd, but our research focuses on adding palladium to titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles form a core-shell [ 27 ]. 2. MATERIALS and METHODS Palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles were prepared by pulsed laser ablation. High-purity palladium (99.9%), 1 cm in diameter and 1 mm in thickness, titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) and silicon dioxide (99.9%), both purchased from Hong Wu Nano, China, were used. 5 grams of these materials were compressed in a 5-ton hydraulic press to form a 1 cm diameter and 1 cm thick disc. A pulsed Nd:YAG laser with a wavelength of 532 nm, an energy of 1000 mJ, and a repetition rate of 4 Hz. Four samples were prepared using the three elements. Palladium was initially placed in a glass beaker containing deionized water and ablated by the laser. The color of the liquid turned light gray, indicating the formation of nanoparticles. After that, a TiO 2 disk was placed, and pulsed laser beams were shone on it. The color of the colloidal solution changed to an emulsion. The final step was to put a SiO 2 disk in a solution of Pd and TiO 2 particles and subject the disk to ablation using the laser. The solution was placed on a magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes to maintain its dispersion and prevent clumping. After that, the solution was placed in an ultrasonic for 5 minutes as shown in Fig. 2 . At the end of the experiment, a three-element solution was formed in the form of a core-shell. The above steps were repeated for different ablation periods (5, 10, 15, 20) minutes. To characterize the core-shell nanoparticles, multiple characterization techniques were used, including UV-Vis spectroscopy with wavelengths from 310 to 800 nm, while scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction were used to determine the properties, surface morphology, elemental content, and purity of the samples. To determine the crystal size using the Scherrer equation, X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used. 3. RESULTS and DISCUSION 3.1. Description of Pd@TiO 2 @SiO 2 The absorption spectra, was measured using a SHIMADZU 1650, Japan UV-Vis spectrometer. The formation of nanoparticles was confirmed by UV-Vis spectroscopy over a wavelength range of 307 nm to 800 nm. The absorption curve shows a strong absorption peak at 316 nm for the core-shell nanoparticles, as shown in Fig. 3 . This is similar to the absorption peak [ 28 ] found for individual titanium dioxide nanoparticles by pulsed laser ablation. Plasmon resonance peaks appear in the plasmon resonance region of TiO 2 due to its high concentration in the sample and its role as the shell for this nanoparticle structure. The presence of palladium nanoparticles may also affect the optical properties, enhancing visible light activity. 3.2. The analysis of XRD The phase and structure of the core-shell Pd@TiO 2 @SiO 2 nanoparticles were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) by placing the samples in a device that uses copper radiation at a voltage of 40 kilovolts and a current of 30 milliamperes. The sharp core-shell peak is characterized by its highly crystalline nature. Figure 4 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of all Pd@TiO 2 @SiO 2 samples at different ablation times, recorded over a diffraction angle range of 19°–80°. The most indicated peaks of 2θ are at 27.5°, 36.1°, 37.21, 39.2°, 40°,44.1°, 50.1°, 54.4°, and 68°. These peaks correspond to the following crystal planes: (110), (130), (101), (002), (111), (210), (211), and (220), respectively as represented in Table (1). This is consistent with the JCPDS card of Pd(03-065-9523)[ 29 ], TiO 2 (00-75-1537)[ 30 ], and SiO 2 (00-022-1536)[ 31 ]. X-ray diffraction confirms the formation of the triple core@shell. Using the cheerier equation, $$\:Crysttiline\:Size\:=\frac{\:0.9\lambda\:}{\beta\:\:cos\theta\:}$$ 1 ……………………… Where \(\:\beta\:\) : the Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), \(\:\lambda\:\) : the wavelength of x-ray 1.054 o A ,and θ: is Bragg angle. The average crystalline size of the nanoparticles was determined, ranging from 10.7 to 26.6 nm. The presence of Pd and SiO 2 indicates the presence of a pure TiO 2 [ 15 ]. Table 1 Structural properties of Pd@TiO 2 @SiO 2 at different ablation duration Duration of Ablation (min.) 2θ (deg) hkl FWHM (β) (deg) Crystallite Size (nm) Average C.Size (nm) 20 27.5 110 0.402 20.22667726 19.83 37.21 101 0.327 25.63505482 50.1 200 0.686 12.67522894 54.3 211 0.421 20.82729185 15 27.5 110 0.311 26.12721519 21.14 37.21 101 0.481 17.47229492 50.1 200 0.3811 22.85118861 54.3 211 0.4838 18.15222865 10 27.5 110 0.3902 20.8535635 21.57 37.21 101 0.3279 25.6428272 50.1 200 0.5868 14.84088739 54.3 211 0.3513 24.94577814 5 27.5 110 0.3022 26.92942719 22.72 37.21 101 0.3279 25.64049294 50.1 200 0.4968 17.52844103 54.3 211 0.4213 20.81025083 3.3. Morphological Properties Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) is essential for analyzing the morphology, size, and shape of palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles. It provides information about the surface nature and degree of agglomeration of the nanoparticles, as well as high-resolution imaging. Figures (5and 6) shows FESEM images of samples prepared by pulsed laser ablation in deionized water, demonstrating the spherical shape of the nanoparticles for all samples. Four samples were prepared with different preparation times (ablation times). The first sample had an ablation time of 20 minutes Fig. (5a), and scanning analysis revealed an average nanoparticle size of 37.9 nm. The second sample, shown in Fig. (5b) with an ablation time of 15 minutes, had spherical nanoparticles with an average size of 39.5 nm. The average nanoparticle size for the 10-minutes ablation time was 43.1 nm Fig. (6a) and 46.2 nm for the 5-minutes ablation time Fig. (6b). This is consistent with the fact that there is a decrease in the size of the nanoparticles with increasing ablation time[ 32 ]. Using energy dispersive X-ray (EDS) technology, the chemical elements present in the samples were determined, as well as the composition of the elements, such as the relative error of weight and the weight percentage, Table (2). It was noted that the presence of nanoparticles of palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide was observed in weight percentages ranging between (48%to 24%) with the percentage represented in the form of peaks in the graph as in Fig. 7 where the x-axis represents the energy of the X-rays, while the vertical axis represents the number of X-ray electrons. Table 2 EDS analysis the percentage ratio of Pd@TiO 2 @SiO 2 nanoparticles Element Atomic % Weight % O 48.9 39.6 Ti 8.1 9.5 Pd 1.8 2.2 Si 24.2 34.4 4. Nanoparticle-mediated bacterial inhibition Using the agar diffusion method, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was studied and determined. Mueller-Hinton agar plates with a diameter of 9 mm were prepared and incubated overnight at 37°C. They were created using a sterile gel punch before cultivation. Dilutions of 100 microliters of bacteria were spread on the plates and a volume of nanoparticles was taken at diluted concentrations of 100, 50, and 25, 12.5 micrograms/ml as shown in Fig. 8 to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of nanoparticles to inhibit Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Figure 8 shows the inhibition zones diameters that were measured using the Image J program. It was observed at Fig. 9 (A and B) that the core-shell nanoparticles efficiently inhibited bacteria at concentrations of 100 and 50 µg/ml (1 and 2), with the maximum inhibition zone diameters ranging from 24.9 mm 2 to 16.6 mm 2 against E. coli and 20 to 11 mm against Staphylococcus in the sample prepared during a 20-minute eradication period. Table 3 shows the inhibition zones diameters for all samples prepared during different eradication periods. The minimum inhibitory concentration was 50 µg/ml, while the diluted concentrations of 25 and 12.5 µg/ml (3 and 4) in the agar shown in Fig. 8 represent bacterial resistance to the nanoparticles. The inhibition zones diameters were zero. It was found that the antibacterial effect increased with increasing nanoparticle concentration, i.e., with increasing ablation time. Due to the small size of the nanoparticles, the best effect was against E. coli, as the presence of palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide in the form of a core-shell enhanced each other's effectiveness against bacterial cells. The mechanism of nanoparticle activity may occur in two stages: the first is by causing damage to the outer membrane of the bacterial cell wall through the electrostatic interaction between the cell wall and the nanoparticles. Secondly, by creating an active oxygen environment that represents oxidative stress due to the presence of metal oxides [ 19 ] such as TiO 2 and SiO 2 , which damage enzymes and proteins present in the bacterial cell. The high effectiveness can be explained by the ability of nanoparticles to generate reactive oxygen species even in the absence of light, which leads to damage to the rigidity of the cell membrane, inhibition of metabolic processes, and ultimately cell death [ 33 ]. The efficiency was clearly better than the efficiency of the elements as antibacterial whether they were single [ 34 ], Bimetal and oxide [ 35 , 36 ]or trimetallic with oxide in the form of a core shell [ 37 ]. Table 3 sensitivity of nanoparticles from the positive and negative gram bacteria Duration of ablation Name of Bacteria 100 µg/ml 50 µg/ml The Inhibition Zone/ mm 20 min. E. coli 24.9 16.6 S. aureus 20 11 15 min. E. coli 17.5 14.5 S. aureus 19.4 17.7 10 min. E. coli 16.8 12.1 S. aureus 18.8 14.56 5 min. E. coli 13 11 S. aureus 15 12 5. The activity of Pd@TiO@ SiO NPs. as an antioxidant agent To evaluate the antioxidant activity of nanoparticles, the DPPH assay is used to assess free radical scavenging activity. This assay relies on donating a hydrogen atom or electron to a stable free radical. This occurs when nanoparticles, which act as free radical scavengers, are added. The following reaction occurs[ 38 ]: DPPH + N.Ps(A-H)◊ DPPH-H + A After this process, the purple radical turns yellow, i.e., the change in absorbance is directly proportional to the amount of free radicals removed. As shown in Fig. 10 , it was observed that the ability of nanoparticles to scavenge free radicals increases with longer ablation times and smaller particle sizes and is highest in the sample with a particle size of 37.9 nm, due to the increased surface area available for reaction. 5. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, a new trimetallic core-shell nanoparticles of Pd@TiO₂@SiO₂ were prepared by using a laser of Nd: YAG second-harmonic 532 nm, a repetition rate of 4Hz, and an energy of 1000 mJ, and characterized using XRD, UV, EDS, and FESEM. The nanoparticles exhibited a well-defined crystalline structure and a uniform nanoscale morphological structure as spherical, demonstrating significantly improved biological performance compared to pure TiO₂, SiO₂, and Pd. Expressed a high efficiency against various bacteria (E. Coli, S. aureus) and a high inhibition zone. The antioxidant test results showed 90% radical scavenging activity in the sample after a 20-minute duration of ablation. These results indicate the favorable use of nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent and are useful in medical bioapplications, such as antibacterial coatings and sunscreen creams. Abbreviations TiO 2 Titanium dioxide SiO 2 Silicon dioxide Pd Palladium NPs Nanoparticles. Declarations Compliance with Ethical Standards Funding: There's no funding received to conduct this study. Ethics declarations: not applicable Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. **Note: Using the tools in the link https://app.biorender.com/, the authors draw and design Author Contribution Zahraa Sahib Shanon: Writing – review & editing, writing the original manuscript draft, development of the Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.Mushtaq Talib Al-Helaly: Writing – review & editing, writing the original manuscript draft, development of the Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Acknowledgement The authors are appreciative of the department of physics, college of Education at Al-Qadisiayh University and to the Head of the department, Prof. Dr. Saleem Azara Hussain, and to Prof. Dr. Abd Alhussain Khadyair, and Prof. Dr. Sahib AlKinani for their support. References Beyene, G., Senbeta, T., Mesfin, B., et al. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7394303","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":510465620,"identity":"338b18f2-59a5-435f-b74f-b37f49e6d223","order_by":0,"name":"Zahraa Sahib Shanon","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCRDBBuV84GGQ42eAirARoYWxcYYMg7FkAylamnlsGBI3HEC2Fwswl+4xYPhQdpjBnL39+QOeHAbGzcdzICJ87AlYtVjOOWPAOOPcYQbLnjOGDRJnGJjNzryBiLDxPMCqxeBGjgEzb9thEIOxwbCHgc0MJsImgd0WsJa/YC3pDxsS/zHwGM+AiuDVwgjWkmDYcICHQcJAAiqCS4vljLSCgz3n0nlAfpnZwAPUceYZRASXX8wlkjc++FFmLQcMsQef//DY1Pe3Q0Xk23E4jIHD4ACQ5jGA8EHRlMAAFgExsGthfwBlwEECBmMUjIJRMApGNgAAu65cIblUDsQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Educational Directorate of Ad Diwaniyah","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zahraa","middleName":"Sahib","lastName":"Shanon","suffix":""},{"id":510465621,"identity":"cca5b1ec-fced-4a46-b699-b2ac741ff4ce","order_by":1,"name":"Mushtaq Talib Al-Helaly","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Al-Qadisiyah","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mushtaq","middleName":"Talib","lastName":"Al-Helaly","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-17 20:38:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7394303/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7394303/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-025-02313-7","type":"published","date":"2026-01-02T15:57:32+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90838709,"identity":"4ecb63d7-087c-46f4-a88b-354016dfbde6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:31:45","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56423,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePulse Laser Ablation in Liquid Mechanisms [19].\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/ca2b73b860812a0724f19114.png"},{"id":90838710,"identity":"1b15ebb5-471a-4049-abc2-36acaa7e2aec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:31:45","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53556,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSynthesis core@shell nanoparticles by pulse laser ablation in liquid **\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/6a9b9c65f151b3feaf8fbd1e.png"},{"id":90838715,"identity":"22aacd43-e449-427a-9d19-baaa1f57ba2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:31:45","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":260577,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe curve of absorption Vs wavelength for Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e NPs.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/80247d7f15225dc1c1143ba3.png"},{"id":90839264,"identity":"e83e5195-5ae3-44d8-a064-570393a4067c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:47:45","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":310956,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePeaks of Pattern diffraction of\u0026nbsp; Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e at different ablation durations\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/1c24a1f4f4965ffa0462468e.png"},{"id":90839668,"identity":"ba3ead98-00e1-4f60-aca5-0b75698e54ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:55:45","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":741652,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Nanoparticles FESEM at different\u0026nbsp; ablation durations\u0026nbsp; a. 20 min. b. 15 min.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/0e4bb44a698c5456f7eff329.png"},{"id":90838716,"identity":"f3e2862e-ea4c-4553-b3a3-3338a5b5d356","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:31:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":175316,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Nanoparticles FESEM at different\u0026nbsp; ablation durations\u0026nbsp; a. 10 min. b. 5 min.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/24e462ae77d4b66fa3006779.jpg"},{"id":90839670,"identity":"b4cd830a-fbeb-4bd6-a21a-71f0cce9c2f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:55:45","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":150910,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Nanoparticles EDS analysis.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/e817ba30288c4863f497ae9d.png"},{"id":90839847,"identity":"ab6fe8a7-2085-49d8-9583-9dd18b2e2687","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 19:03:45","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":618957,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe inhibition zones diameters of Pd @TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2 \u003c/sub\u003ecore@shell NPs. on \u003cem\u003eE. Coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/1e92a4d7f5fdfd851785ef95.png"},{"id":90839063,"identity":"27ee8f8f-e2fa-46f7-9c29-a030685a698e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:39:45","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":373520,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea. the inhibition Zone Vs. concentrations \u0026nbsp;b. the activity of antibacterial Vs. concentrations of the core@shell NPs. of Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e@\u003c/strong\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/df25834518912ca774d5c0cb.png"},{"id":90838713,"identity":"d9fe3809-0847-4244-bbf7-b7b511c82d22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:31:45","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":144218,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAntioxidant activity of Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e@\u003c/strong\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Core@Shell NPs. at different duration of ablation and dilation\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/4a46b97b506a2df1fdb43b94.png"},{"id":99545260,"identity":"0eb9ffea-faf3-40ad-939b-cad28cd56601","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-05 16:04:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3693616,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/db561b5b-541b-4d8f-b45e-111ef5d91de9.pdf"},{"id":90839060,"identity":"cb49df41-1672-4a65-8ab0-3652a25f4f6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 18:39:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":400161,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7394303/v1/94f17c71dbbbf21b487063cb.jpeg"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A Green Synthesis by Pulse Laser Ablation in Liquid to Form Core@Shell Nanoparticles for High- Performance Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eNanoparticles are particles with a size ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers and have a large surface area to volume ratio. This area enhances their physical and chemical properties, making them antimicrobial agents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Either they are made of a noble metal or element, or metal oxides [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Due to the development of many side effects of diseases, this necessitates the selection of metal oxides with biocompatible noble metals. Multiple chemical and physical techniques have been used to synthesize nanoparticles, including electrospinning technology, sol-gel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], and a two-step hydrothermal method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Still, the PLAL method is a safe, effective, easy, and non-polluting method. The technological developments in various fields, semiconductors, including metal oxides, have gained popularity. Nanoscale titanium dioxide is characterized by its high ionization and wide energy range, which has led to its widespread use in photocatalysis, biomedical engineering, cosmetics, and sunscreens [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. One of the most important advantages of pulsed laser ablation is that it is a one-step, top-down process. It is therefore clean and non-polluting, producing no ions or impurities. It also lacks the need for high-vacuum pumping systems, making it an environmentally friendly method. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. So, to prepare core-shell nanoparticles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e this environmentally friendly technique, known as pulsed laser ablation, is used. Titanium dioxide is a white, inorganic solid that is insoluble in water and chemically inert. It is used in the manufacture of catalysts and cosmetics. It does not occur naturally and is the ninth most abundant element in compounds found in rocks and minerals[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have unique optical properties, making them suitable for various applications [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Adding titanium dioxide nanoparticles to palladium and silicon dioxide nanoparticles can significantly modify these properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Palladium enhances photocatalytic activity and modifies optical properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] by enhancing charge separation and reducing electron-hole recombination, thus improving photocatalytic efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. While silicon dioxide acts as a support or surface modifier, enhancing the dispersion of titanium dioxide nanoparticles, preventing agglomeration, and increasing the surface area available for reaction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles exhibit antibacterial activity, particularly against E. coli. Subhan et. al. found that the presence of palladium enhances the antibacterial activity of titanium dioxide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Dang et. al., however, had a different opinion regarding the effectiveness of titanium dioxide nanoparticles combined with silicon dioxide in coating formulations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Regarding the antioxidant activity, TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e demonstrated antioxidant properties through its photocatalytic properties[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], leading to the formation of reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide radicals and hydroxyl radicals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, Pd and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticles had antioxidant activity, which enhances the formation of oxygen vacancies and increases the dispersion of the solution[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The study aimed to determine if the core-shell nanostructure can effectively suppress the surface effect and reduce the rate of non-radiative transmission in nanoparticles. Research groups have studied the properties of TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, or TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Pd, but our research focuses on adding palladium to titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles form a core-shell [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS and METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003ePalladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles were prepared by pulsed laser ablation. High-purity palladium (99.9%), 1 cm in diameter and 1 mm in thickness, titanium dioxide (TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) and silicon dioxide (99.9%), both purchased from Hong Wu Nano, China, were used. 5 grams of these materials were compressed in a 5-ton hydraulic press to form a 1 cm diameter and 1 cm thick disc. A pulsed Nd:YAG laser with a wavelength of 532 nm, an energy of 1000 mJ, and a repetition rate of 4 Hz. Four samples were prepared using the three elements. Palladium was initially placed in a glass beaker containing deionized water and ablated by the laser. The color of the liquid turned light gray, indicating the formation of nanoparticles. After that, a TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e disk was placed, and pulsed laser beams were shone on it. The color of the colloidal solution changed to an emulsion. The final step was to put a SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e disk in a solution of Pd and TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e particles and subject the disk to ablation using the laser. The solution was placed on a magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes to maintain its dispersion and prevent clumping. After that, the solution was placed in an ultrasonic for 5 minutes as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. At the end of the experiment, a three-element solution was formed in the form of a core-shell. The above steps were repeated for different ablation periods (5, 10, 15, 20) minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo characterize the core-shell nanoparticles, multiple characterization techniques were used, including UV-Vis spectroscopy with wavelengths from 310 to 800 nm, while scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction were used to determine the properties, surface morphology, elemental content, and purity of the samples. To determine the crystal size using the Scherrer equation, X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS and DISCUSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Description of Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe absorption spectra, was measured using a SHIMADZU 1650, Japan UV-Vis spectrometer. The formation of nanoparticles was confirmed by UV-Vis spectroscopy over a wavelength range of 307 nm to 800 nm. The absorption curve shows a strong absorption peak at 316 nm for the core-shell nanoparticles, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. This is similar to the absorption peak [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] found for individual titanium dioxide nanoparticles by pulsed laser ablation. Plasmon resonance peaks appear in the plasmon resonance region of TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e due to its high concentration in the sample and its role as the shell for this nanoparticle structure. The presence of palladium nanoparticles may also affect the optical properties, enhancing visible light activity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. The analysis of XRD\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe phase and structure of the core-shell Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticles were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) by placing the samples in a device that uses copper radiation at a voltage of 40 kilovolts and a current of 30 milliamperes. The sharp core-shell peak is characterized by its highly crystalline nature. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of all Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e samples at different ablation times, recorded over a diffraction angle range of 19\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;80\u0026deg;. The most indicated peaks of 2θ are at 27.5\u0026deg;, 36.1\u0026deg;, 37.21, 39.2\u0026deg;, 40\u0026deg;,44.1\u0026deg;, 50.1\u0026deg;, 54.4\u0026deg;, and 68\u0026deg;. These peaks correspond to the following crystal planes: (110), (130), (101), (002), (111), (210), (211), and (220), respectively as represented in Table\u0026nbsp;(1). This is consistent with the JCPDS card of Pd(03-065-9523)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (00-75-1537)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (00-022-1536)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. X-ray diffraction confirms the formation of the triple core@shell. Using the cheerier equation,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Crysttiline\\:Size\\:=\\frac{\\:0.9\\lambda\\:}{\\beta\\:\\:cos\\theta\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\beta\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e: the Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\lambda\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e: the wavelength of x-ray 1.054\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eA ,and θ: is Bragg angle. The average crystalline size of the nanoparticles was determined, ranging from 10.7 to 26.6 nm. The presence of Pd and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e indicates the presence of a pure TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural properties of Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e at different ablation duration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration of Ablation (min.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2θ (deg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ehkl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFWHM (β) (deg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrystallite Size (nm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage C.Size (nm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.22667726\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.63505482\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.67522894\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.421\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.82729185\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.311\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.12721519\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.481\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.47229492\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3811\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.85118861\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4838\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.15222865\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3902\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.8535635\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3279\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.6428272\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5868\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.84088739\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3513\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.94577814\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.92942719\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3279\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.64049294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4968\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.52844103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4213\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.81025083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Morphological Properties\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eField emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) is essential for analyzing the morphology, size, and shape of palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles. It provides information about the surface nature and degree of agglomeration of the nanoparticles, as well as high-resolution imaging. Figures\u0026nbsp;(5and 6) shows FESEM images of samples prepared by pulsed laser ablation in deionized water, demonstrating the spherical shape of the nanoparticles for all samples. Four samples were prepared with different preparation times (ablation times). The first sample had an ablation time of 20 minutes Fig.\u0026nbsp;(5a), and scanning analysis revealed an average nanoparticle size of 37.9 nm. The second sample, shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;(5b) with an ablation time of 15 minutes, had spherical nanoparticles with an average size of 39.5 nm. The average nanoparticle size for the 10-minutes ablation time was 43.1 nm Fig.\u0026nbsp;(6a) and 46.2 nm for the 5-minutes ablation time Fig.\u0026nbsp;(6b). This is consistent with the fact that there is a decrease in the size of the nanoparticles with increasing ablation time[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing energy dispersive X-ray (EDS) technology, the chemical elements present in the samples were determined, as well as the composition of the elements, such as the relative error of weight and the weight percentage, Table\u0026nbsp;(2). It was noted that the presence of nanoparticles of palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide was observed in weight percentages ranging between (48%to 24%) with the percentage represented in the form of peaks in the graph as in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e where the x-axis represents the energy of the X-rays, while the vertical axis represents the number of X-ray electrons.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEDS analysis the percentage ratio of Pd@TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e@SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAtomic %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Nanoparticle-mediated bacterial inhibition","content":"\u003cp\u003eUsing the agar diffusion method, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was studied and determined. Mueller-Hinton agar plates with a diameter of 9 mm were prepared and incubated overnight at 37\u0026deg;C. They were created using a sterile gel punch before cultivation. Dilutions of 100 microliters of bacteria were spread on the plates and a volume of nanoparticles was taken at diluted concentrations of 100, 50, and 25, 12.5 micrograms/ml as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of nanoparticles to inhibit Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the inhibition zones diameters that were measured using the Image J program. It was observed at Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e(A and B) that the core-shell nanoparticles efficiently inhibited bacteria at concentrations of 100 and 50 \u0026micro;g/ml (1 and 2), with the maximum inhibition zone diameters ranging from 24.9 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to 16.6 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e against E. coli and 20 to 11 mm against Staphylococcus in the sample prepared during a 20-minute eradication period. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the inhibition zones diameters for all samples prepared during different eradication periods. The minimum inhibitory concentration was 50 \u0026micro;g/ml, while the diluted concentrations of 25 and 12.5 \u0026micro;g/ml (3 and 4) in the agar shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e represent bacterial resistance to the nanoparticles. The inhibition zones diameters were zero. It was found that the antibacterial effect increased with increasing nanoparticle concentration, i.e., with increasing ablation time. Due to the small size of the nanoparticles, the best effect was against E. coli, as the presence of palladium, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide in the form of a core-shell enhanced each other's effectiveness against bacterial cells. The mechanism of nanoparticle activity may occur in two stages: the first is by causing damage to the outer membrane of the bacterial cell wall through the electrostatic interaction between the cell wall and the nanoparticles. Secondly, by creating an active oxygen environment that represents oxidative stress due to the presence of metal oxides [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] such as TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, which damage enzymes and proteins present in the bacterial cell. The high effectiveness can be explained by the ability of nanoparticles to generate reactive oxygen species even in the absence of light, which leads to damage to the rigidity of the cell membrane, inhibition of metabolic processes, and ultimately cell death [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The efficiency was clearly better than the efficiency of the elements as antibacterial whether they were single [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], Bimetal and oxide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]or trimetallic with oxide in the form of a core shell [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esensitivity of nanoparticles from the positive and negative gram bacteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration of ablation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eName of Bacteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 \u0026micro;g/ml\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50 \u0026micro;g/ml\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Inhibition Zone/ mm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20 min.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE. coli\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. aureus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 min.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE. coli\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. aureus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 min.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE. coli\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. aureus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 min.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE. coli\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. aureus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. The activity of Pd@TiO@ SiO NPs. as an antioxidant agent","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the antioxidant activity of nanoparticles, the DPPH assay is used to assess free radical scavenging activity. This assay relies on donating a hydrogen atom or electron to a stable free radical. This occurs when nanoparticles, which act as free radical scavengers, are added. The following reaction occurs[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDPPH\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;N.Ps(A-H)\u0026loz; DPPH-H\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;A\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter this process, the purple radical turns yellow, i.e., the change in absorbance is directly proportional to the amount of free radicals removed. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, it was observed that the ability of nanoparticles to scavenge free radicals increases with longer ablation times and smaller particle sizes and is highest in the sample with a particle size of 37.9 nm, due to the increased surface area available for reaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, a new trimetallic core-shell nanoparticles of Pd@TiO₂@SiO₂ were prepared by using a laser of Nd: YAG second-harmonic 532 nm, a repetition rate of 4Hz, and an energy of 1000 mJ, and characterized using XRD, UV, EDS, and FESEM. The nanoparticles exhibited a well-defined crystalline structure and a uniform nanoscale morphological structure as spherical, demonstrating significantly improved biological performance compared to pure TiO₂, SiO₂, and Pd. Expressed a high efficiency against various bacteria (E. Coli, S. aureus) and a high inhibition zone. The antioxidant test results showed 90% radical scavenging activity in the sample after a 20-minute duration of ablation. These results indicate the favorable use of nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent and are useful in medical bioapplications, such as antibacterial coatings and sunscreen creams.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTitanium dioxide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilicon dioxide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePd\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePalladium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNPs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNanoparticles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompliance with Ethical Standards\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding: There\u0026apos;s no funding received to conduct this study.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declarations: not applicable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;**Note: Using the tools in the link https://app.biorender.com/, the authors draw and design\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eZahraa Sahib Shanon: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, writing the original manuscript draft, development of the Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.Mushtaq Talib Al-Helaly: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, writing the original manuscript draft, development of the Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors are appreciative of the department of physics, college of Education at Al-Qadisiayh University and to the Head of the department, Prof. Dr. Saleem Azara Hussain, and to Prof. Dr. Abd Alhussain Khadyair, and Prof. Dr. Sahib AlKinani for their support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeyene, G., Senbeta, T., Mesfin, B., et al. 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(2018). c. \u003cem\u003eInorganic Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e57\u003c/em\u003e(20), 12727\u0026ndash;12739.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bionanoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bnsc","sideBox":"Learn more about [BioNanoScience](http://link.springer.com/journal/12668)","snPcode":"12668","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12668/3","title":"BioNanoScience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Triple core shell, Titanium dioxide, anti-bacterial, antioxidant","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7394303/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7394303/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNanoparticles have emerged as promising platforms due to their unique properties. Increasing resistance to antibiotics and antioxidants represents a pressing global health challenge that requires new therapeutic and preventive solutions. This study aimed to prepare new nanoparticles with an inner core of palladium and titanium dioxide and a shell of silicon dioxide by pulse laser ablation in liquid technique, investigate their properties, and subsequently evaluate their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Their structures and morphological properties were examined, and the results demonstrated the successful preparation of homogeneous nanoparticles with an average size of (20\u0026ndash;50) nm. The purity of the material and homogeneous spherical shape were confirmed. It was also observed that the nanoparticles had a maximum absorption peak at 316 nm. Antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria was evaluated using the agar diffusion method, with the largest inhibition zone being 24.9 mm\u0026sup2; and 16.6 mm\u0026sup2; at low minimum inhibitory concentrations of less than 100 \u0026micro;g/ml. Antioxidant activity was evaluated, revealing high antioxidant activity at a concentration of 100 \u0026micro;g/mL, which demonstrated a 90% free radical scavenging capacity of the nanoparticles at this concentration. This study confirms the ability of core-shell nanoparticles to enhance the combined properties of these materials, making them effective antibacterial and antioxidant agents, and thus opening new avenues for the development of alternative antibiotic treatments and antioxidants in medical and pharmaceutical applications.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Green Synthesis by Pulse Laser Ablation in Liquid to Form Core@Shell Nanoparticles for High- Performance Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-08 18:31:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7394303/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-22T10:21:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-12T11:26:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-08T22:12:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"152975722033330224095537763423611508652","date":"2025-09-04T22:54:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"216259531541846415692487701354140845302","date":"2025-09-04T11:57:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"88820440476097367819523077956294462205","date":"2025-09-03T08:23:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"332448038545534542579560752384530019512","date":"2025-09-02T12:50:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"46312320219099561212324191971785768306","date":"2025-09-02T12:10:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-02T11:51:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-02T11:47:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-27T23:00:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BioNanoScience","date":"2025-08-17T20:23:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bionanoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bnsc","sideBox":"Learn more about [BioNanoScience](http://link.springer.com/journal/12668)","snPcode":"12668","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12668/3","title":"BioNanoScience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9834cdff-c140-4bb4-a892-666356e90273","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-05T15:59:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7394303","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-025-02313-7","journal":{"identity":"bionanoscience","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BioNanoScience"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-02 15:57:32","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 2nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-08 18:31:40","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12668-025-02313-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-025-02313-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7394303","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7394303","identity":"rs-7394303","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}