A Systematic Review of Interventions for Developing Athletes as Leaders.

This systematic review synthesises evidence on athlete leadership development interventions. A search across eight online databases identified 36 studies spanning descriptive, qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods designs. Findings highlight a rapidly growing field in which interventions target not only formal athlete leaders (e.g., team captains) but also informal athlete leaders and athletes without designated leadership roles. Interventions focused on developing a broad range of leadership behaviours, with a strong emphasis on interpersonal skills. Most interventions prioritised leader development, with durations ranging from brief sessions lasting a few hours to multi-year programs. Study authors (including some trained sport psychologists) and coaches were the primary facilitators. Interventions were predominantly delivered in team sports, with most studies based in the United States. The methodological quality of studies examining intervention effectiveness was mixed. While qualitative studies scored well on critical appraisal and participants reported improvements in their leadership as well as in individual and team outcomes, quantitative studies—typically used to establish causality—performed relatively poorly. Consequently, quantitative evidence for intervention effectiveness should be interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, their findings suggest that the most effective interventions targeted the team’s best athlete leaders (whether formal or informal), focused on leadership rather than leader development, were grounded in the identity leadership framework, and lasted three to five months. Moreover, coach-delivered interventions outperformed those led by study authors, including those with sport psychology training. Overall, our findings provide a foundation for advancing research and practice in athlete leadership development.