Gender differences in household labor, time use and perceived co-responsibility among university students: a cross-sectional study

Gender differences in household labor, time use and perceived co-responsibility among university students: a cross-sectional study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Gender differences in household labor, time use and perceived co-responsibility among university students: a cross-sectional study Maria José Ferreira This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8404749/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Gender inequalities in unpaid household labor and time use persist across the life course and represent a key social determinant of health and well-being. While these disparities are well documented in adult populations, less is known about how they manifest among university students, a group often assumed to experience more egalitarian domestic arrangements. Objectives: To examine gender differences in household labor, time use, and perceived co-responsibility among university students, and to explore how living arrangements and family background shape these patterns. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted using an online questionnaire administered to students from two campuses of a public Spanish university. The survey collected sociodemographic data, living arrangements during the academic year, involvement in household tasks, time dedicated to study, paid work, personal and family life, perceptions of co-responsibility, and attitudes toward gender equality in domestic labor. Descriptive and comparative analyses were performed by gender. Results: A total of 463 students participated (59.2% women, 36.3% men). Women reported greater involvement in household cleaning tasks and devoted more time to academic activities than men, while also reporting less available personal time. Although perceived levels of co-responsibility were relatively high and similar across genders, task-specific analyses revealed persistent gendered patterns. Women were more likely to report time constraints as a barrier to greater involvement, whereas men more frequently cited lack of demand or motivation. Nearly all participants agreed on the need for greater male involvement in household responsibilities, with stronger agreement among women. Conclusions: Despite high awareness and positive attitudes toward co-responsibility, gender inequalities in household labor and time use persist among university students. These findings highlight the early reproduction of gendered divisions of labor and underscore the need for institutional strategies promoting equality within academic communities. Gender inequality Household labor Time use Co-responsibility University students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Gender inequalities in unpaid household labor remain a persistent feature of social organization across countries and socioeconomic contexts. International evidence consistently shows that women perform a disproportionate share of domestic and care-related tasks, even in societies with high levels of female educational attainment and labor market participation [1,2]. These inequalities contribute to structural gender gaps in time availability, limiting opportunities for rest, leisure, and personal development. Research based on time-use surveys has demonstrated that when paid and unpaid work are considered jointly, women accumulate a greater total workload than men [3,4]. Recent international reports also emphasize the persistence of gender gaps in both paid and unpaid work across settings [5]. This unequal distribution of time has been associated with adverse consequences for health and well-being, including increased stress and psychological distress [6]. The concept of time poverty has been proposed to capture this constrained availability of discretionary time, which disproportionately affects women and is closely linked to unpaid domestic responsibilities [7]. Although gendered divisions of household labor have been extensively documented in adult and family populations [8], less attention has been paid to how these patterns manifest among university students. This group is often perceived as more egalitarian due to higher educational levels, shared living arrangements, and greater exposure to discourses on gender equality. However, emerging studies suggest that traditional gender norms may persist within student households, shaping the allocation of domestic tasks and time use even in early adulthood [9]. University students represent a critical population for examining the reproduction of gender inequalities. For many, this period involves their first experiences of independent living, negotiation of household responsibilities with peers or partners, and the combination of academic demands with paid employment. These dynamics offer a unique opportunity to explore how gendered patterns of unpaid labor are established and normalized at an early stage of the life course, with potential implications for academic engagement and future professional trajectories [10]. From a public health and social equity perspective, understanding gender differences in household labor, time use, and perceived co-responsibility among university students is essential. Unpaid domestic labor and time constraints are increasingly recognized as upstream determinants of mental health, well-being, and future occupational sustainability [7]. Universities are not neutral spaces but social institutions that can either reproduce or challenge structural inequalities through their policies, support systems, and organizational cultures. Examining both practices and perceptions of co-responsibility provides insight into the gap between egalitarian attitudes and everyday experiences, a discrepancy frequently highlighted in gender equality research. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine gender differences in household labor, time use, and perceived co-responsibility among university students at a public Spanish university. Specifically, we sought to analyze the distribution of domestic tasks and time allocation by gender, explore differences according to living arrangements and family background, and assess students’ attitudes toward co-responsibility in unpaid work. Methods Study design A cross-sectional observational study was conducted using data derived from an institutional survey on co-responsibility carried out at a public Spanish university. The study followed a quantitative descriptive and comparative design with a gender-based analytical approach. Data were obtained from a survey conducted at the University of Santiago de Compostela in 2025, developed and implemented by the University’s Office for Gender Equality as part of national and regional equality initiatives [11]. Setting and participants The study population comprised undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled at the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC), across its Santiago de Compostela and Lugo campuses. At the time of data collection, the total student population consisted of 25,258 individuals. Participation was voluntary and open to all enrolled students. A total of 463 valid responses were collected during the study period. The sample included students from undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral programs, representing a range of ages, living arrangements, and academic situations. Data collection Data were collected through an anonymous online questionnaire administered between 6 and 31 May 2025. The survey was developed and implemented within the framework of institutional actions promoted by the University’s Office for Gender Equality, in collaboration with regional and national equality initiatives. The questionnaire was distributed electronically using institutional communication channels. No personal identifiers were collected, and all responses were recorded anonymously. No additional data processing or recalculation was performed beyond the original descriptive analysis. Survey instrument The questionnaire was structured into several sections designed to capture multiple dimensions of co-responsibility and time use: Sociodemographic characteristics , including gender identity, age, and level of studies. Living arrangements during the academic year , such as type of residence and cohabitation (e.g., shared housing, living with a partner, university residence). Household labor and domestic responsibilities , focusing on participation in routine household tasks, including cleaning and daily maintenance activities. Family background , including characteristics of the household of origin and perceived levels of co-responsibility during upbringing. Time use , assessing self-reported time dedicated to academic activities, paid work, personal life, family life, and everyday management tasks. Perceived co-responsibility and attitudes , including perceptions of fairness in task distribution, perceived barriers to greater involvement in household labor, and attitudes toward gender equality and male involvement in domestic responsibilities. Awareness and evaluation of institutional co-responsibility measures , referring to university-level initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality. Most items were measured using categorical response options or Likert-type scales assessing frequency, intensity, or level of agreement. Variables The primary independent variable was gender. The main outcome variables included involvement in household labor, time allocation across different life domains, and perceived levels of co-responsibility. Additional variables included age group, academic level, living arrangements during the academic year, and employment status. Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics were used to summarize sociodemographic characteristics and key study variables. Categorical variables were presented as frequencies and percentages, while continuous or ordinal variables were summarized using appropriate measures of central tendency and dispersion. Comparative analyses by gender were conducted to examine differences in household labor participation, time use, and perceptions of co-responsibility. Depending on variable distribution and measurement level, chi-square tests were used for categorical variables, and independent-sample t-tests or non-parametric equivalents were applied for continuous or ordinal variables. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. All analyses were exploratory in nature and aimed at identifying patterns and gender-based differences rather than establishing causal relationships. Results Sample characteristics A total of 463 students participated in the study. Women represented 59.2% of the sample, men 36.3%, and 3.2% identified with another gender identity. Most participants were under 24 years of age (69.5%), while 30.5% were aged 24 years or older. The majority were undergraduate students (78.6%), with smaller proportions enrolled in master’s (9.5%) and doctoral programs (9.7%). Approximately one quarter of participants (25.3%) combined their studies with paid employment. This proportion was slightly higher among men than women. Among working students, men were more likely to report full-time employment and longer working hours, whereas women more frequently reported part-time work and shorter weekly schedules. Living arrangements during the academic year Most students lived in a residence different from their family home during the academic year (68.8%), with no substantial differences by gender. Shared housing with peers or fellow students was the most common living arrangement (60.2%). Gender differences emerged in specific contexts: men were more likely to live with a partner, whereas women were more frequently residents in public university housing. Living in shared accommodation was associated with greater involvement in household responsibilities overall. However, gender differences persisted within these shared arrangements. Time use and gender differences Time dedicated to academic activities was high across the sample, with more than one quarter of students reporting over 35 hours per week devoted to study. This proportion was notably higher among women, who reported substantially greater academic time investment than men. At the same time, women reported less available personal time. Men reported spending more time on paid work and daily management tasks, particularly among older students and those enrolled in doctoral programs. Time devoted to family life was reported more frequently by women than men. Gender differences in time allocation across academic, paid work, personal, and family domains are illustrated in Fig. 1 . Note Percentage of students reporting high levels of time investment (“much” or “quite a lot”) in academic activities, paid work, personal life, and family life, by gender. Women reported greater time investment in academic and family activities, while men reported higher engagement in paid work. Gender differences in household labor Women reported higher participation in routine household tasks, particularly cleaning activities, compared with men. This gender gap was observed even among students living in shared housing with peers of the same age. Despite these differences in task allocation, overall perceived levels of co-responsibility were relatively high and similar between women and men. Task-specific analyses revealed that women assumed a greater share of domestic labor, suggesting a discrepancy between perceived fairness and actual distribution of responsibilities. Figure 2 shows the proportion of students reporting regular participation in household cleaning tasks by gender. Note Percentage of students reporting regular participation in household cleaning tasks during the academic year, by gender. Women showed higher involvement in routine domestic cleaning activities compared with men. Perceived co-responsibility and attitudes toward change Most students expressed strong support for co-responsibility in household labor. Approximately six out of ten participants indicated that they could contribute more to domestic tasks. Lack of time was identified as the main barrier, particularly among women. Men more frequently cited lack of demand or motivation as reasons for lower involvement. Agreement with the statement that men should be more involved in household responsibilities was very high overall, although women expressed stronger agreement than men. Older students and doctoral candidates were more likely to perceive their generation as more co-responsible than previous ones. Gender differences in perceived barriers to greater involvement in household labor are presented in Fig. 3 . Note Percentage of students identifying specific barriers to greater participation in household labor, by gender. Lack of time was the most frequently reported barrier among women, whereas lack of demand or motivation was more commonly reported among men. Discussion Principal findings and interpretation This study demonstrates that gender inequalities in household labor and time use persist among university students, despite widespread support for co-responsibility. While perceived levels of fairness in task distribution were relatively high, task-specific analyses revealed a continued gendered allocation of domestic work, particularly in routine cleaning activities. This discrepancy between egalitarian attitudes and everyday practices has been widely described in gender equality research and reflects the enduring influence of gender norms beyond declared values. Structural gender inequalities in unpaid care work have been consistently documented across societies [1], and women’s employment has long been associated with persistent gendered divisions of household labor [8]. Evidence from time-use studies further confirms that gender inequalities in time allocation persist across the life course, even among highly educated populations [3]. The emergence of these patterns at an early stage of adulthood is particularly relevant. Previous studies have shown that gendered divisions of unpaid work are often established before family formation and tend to persist across the life course [3,4]. Our findings support the notion that inequalities in unpaid labor are not solely a consequence of parenthood or caregiving demands, but are already present during the university years. Comparison with international evidence The results of this study are consistent with international evidence derived from time-use surveys and comparative analyses, which show that women devote more time to unpaid domestic work and experience greater constraints on discretionary time than men. Time-use research has been central to documenting unpaid care work and gendered time allocation [2], and international policy reports continue to highlight persistent gender gaps in both paid and unpaid work across countries [5]. Similar patterns have been reported in European and Latin American university contexts, where young women combine higher academic engagement with greater involvement in household tasks, while men allocate more time to paid work or leisure activities [10]. Shared living arrangements, common among university students, appear to promote more flexible domestic dynamics compared with traditional family households; however, household technologies and shared housing do not eliminate gendered divisions of labor [7]. The coexistence of high perceived co-responsibility with persistent task-level inequalities suggests a symbolic endorsement of equality that is not fully translated into daily practices. This phenomenon has been described in previous international research on unpaid care work and its social consequences [1], as well as in studies linking unpaid labor with mental health outcomes [6]. Recent literature has also highlighted the gendered nature of cognitive and mental household labor, which remains unevenly distributed and largely invisible in everyday practices [9]. Implications for well-being and caring professions Gender differences in time use have important implications for student well-being. The greater academic workload and domestic involvement reported by women, coupled with reduced personal time, may contribute to early experiences of time pressure and cumulative burden. Gender differences in unpaid care work have been linked to higher levels of psychological distress among women [12], and associations between unpaid labor and adverse mental health outcomes have been consistently reported [6]. Cognitive household labor remains unevenly distributed by gender, even in younger generations, adding an additional and often unrecognized burden [13]. Gender inequalities in unpaid care work also have direct implications for the health workforce and are increasingly recognized as a structural issue affecting workforce sustainability and equity [14]. These dynamics are particularly relevant in nursing education. Nursing is not only a caring profession but also a discipline that explicitly addresses the social determinants of health, gender inequalities, and the ethics of care within its educational framework. Unequal workloads and sustained exposure to cumulative demands contribute to burnout and reduced professional sustainability in nursing [15]. Within undergraduate nursing curricula, specific courses addressing health, gender, and social challenges provide structured opportunities for students to critically examine how gender norms, unpaid care work, and time allocation influence both health outcomes and professional roles. From this perspective, nursing education represents a privileged setting to integrate reflection on co-responsibility and time use as core components of professional formation. Transforming health professional education has been identified as a global priority to strengthen health systems and promote sustainability [16]. Evidence-based practice is a core component of contemporary nursing education and supports the development of critical, reflective, and gender-sensitive professional identities [17]. Transferability and policy relevance Although this study was conducted at a single public university, the findings are likely transferable to other higher education contexts with similar demographic and organizational characteristics. Evidence from time-use research and international comparative analyses indicates that gender inequalities in unpaid work persist across countries and social contexts, suggesting that the observed patterns reflect broader structural dynamics rather than local particularities [5]. Research on household time allocation further shows that technological change and domestic arrangements have not eliminated gender disparities in unpaid labor [7]. Recent literature has also highlighted the persistence of gendered mental and cognitive labor across contexts, reinforcing the structural nature of these inequalities [9]. From a policy perspective, the results underscore the role of universities as active agents in promoting gender equality. Gender inequalities in unpaid care work are increasingly recognized as a workforce and health policy issue with implications for sustainability, equity, and workforce planning [14]. Student well-being and mental health have been identified as key priorities within higher education and health-related training programs, particularly in nursing, where stress and anxiety are prevalent during undergraduate education [18]. Addressing unpaid domestic labor and time use among students aligns with international recommendations on gender equity, well-being, and sustainable professional development [19]. Educational policies addressing gender equality within higher education systems further reinforce the importance of integrating these issues into curricula and institutional strategies. Policy frameworks promoting gender equality in education emphasize the need to address structural and cultural determinants of inequality throughout the educational life course [20]. Within this framework, universities can play a pivotal role by embedding reflection on co-responsibility, unpaid work, and gendered time use into study plans and institutional policies, contributing to more equitable and sustainable higher education environments. Conclusions This study demonstrates that gender inequalities in household labor and time use persist among university students, despite high levels of awareness and support for co-responsibility. Women reported greater involvement in unpaid domestic tasks and higher academic workload, alongside reduced personal time, while men allocated more time to paid work. These findings confirm that gendered divisions of labor are already present during early adulthood. Living arrangements and family background influenced students’ experiences of co-responsibility, but shared housing and peer cohabitation did not eliminate gender-based differences in task allocation. Although perceived levels of co-responsibility were relatively high, a persistent gap remained between egalitarian attitudes and everyday practices. The results highlight the strategic role of universities in addressing unpaid domestic labor and time use through education. Beyond awareness initiatives, integrating gender, co-responsibility, and time-use reflection into undergraduate curricula represents a concrete opportunity to challenge the early normalization of gender inequalities. This approach is particularly relevant in disciplines oriented toward care and service, such as nursing, where professional values related to responsibility and availability may intersect with pre-existing gender norms. Overall, these findings support the need for universities to adopt an active and sustained role in fostering co-responsibility and gender equality through curricular, educational, and institutional interventions. Embedding these issues within study plans offers a pathway to interrupt the reproduction of gendered divisions of labor and to promote student well-being and more equitable academic and professional trajectories, with clear potential for transferability across higher education contexts. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was based on an anonymous, voluntary, non-interventional online survey conducted among university students. No personal identifiable or sensitive data were collected, and participation did not involve any clinical procedures or interventions. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution Author ContributionsM.J.F.D. conceived the study design and research objectives, performed the secondary analysis of the institutional survey data, and interpreted the results. M.J.F.D. drafted the manuscript, including the theoretical framework, analysis, and discussion, and revised the final version of the manuscript. The institutional data used in this study were collected by the Office for Gender Equality of the University of Santiago de Compostela as part of its equality monitoring activities; however, the analysis, interpretation, and manuscript preparation were conducted exclusively by M.J.F.D. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the Office for Gender Equality of the University of Santiago de Compostela for granting access to the institutional survey data and for their work in promoting gender equality within the university community. Data Availability The data used in this study derive from an institutional survey conducted by the Office for Gender Equality of the University of Santiago de Compostela. The datasets are not publicly available due to institutional data protection policies but may be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request and subject to authorization by the data-owning institution. References Charmes J. The unpaid care work and the labour market: An analysis of time use data . Geneva: International Labour Organization; 2019. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_732791/lang--en/index.htm Budlender D. Time use studies and unpaid care work . London: Routledge; 2010. Available from: https://www.unrisd.org/unpaid-care-work-time-use McGinnity F, Russell H, Fahey É. Gender inequalities in time use . Dublin: Economic and Social Research Institute; 2020. Available from: https://www.esri.ie/publications/gender-inequalities-in-time-use Samtleben C. Care and careers: Gender (in)equality in unpaid care and housework. Soc Sci Med . 2022;296:114848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114848 OECD. Gender equality in a changing world: Persistent gender gaps in paid and unpaid work . Paris: OECD Publishing; 2025. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/gender/gender-equality/ Ervin J, Taouk Y, Pham T. Gender differences in the association between unpaid labour and mental health. SSM Popul Health . 2022;18:101105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101105 Bittman M, Rice JM, Wajcman J. Appliances and their impact: The ownership of domestic technology and time spent on household work. Br J Sociol . 2004;55(3):401–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2004.00020.x Cunningham M. Influences of women’s employment on the gendered division of household labor. Popul Res Policy Rev . 2007;26:71–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-006-9010-7 Reich-Stiebert N. Gendered mental labor: A systematic literature review. Front Psychol . 2023;14:1134567. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134567 Lara J. Gender inequality in domestic work among university students. Rev Educ Soc . 2024;38:45–60. University of Santiago de Compostela, Office for Gender Equality. Study on co-responsibility among the student community of the University of Santiago de Compostela . Santiago de Compostela; 2025. Xue B, McMunn A. Gender differences in unpaid care work and psychological distress. PLoS One . 2021;16:e0247959. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247959 Haupt A, Gelbgiser D. The gendered division of cognitive household labor. Eur Sociol Rev . 2024;40:828–842. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcae006 World Health Organization. Gender and health workforce . Geneva: WHO; 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-HIS-HWF-Gender-2019 Dall’Ora C, Ball J, Reinius M, Griffiths P. Burnout in nursing: A theoretical review. Int J Nurs Stud . 2020;109:103626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103626 Frenk J, Chen L, Bhutta ZA, et al. Health professionals for a new century: Transforming education to strengthen health systems in an interdependent world. Lancet . 2010;376:1923–1958. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61854-5 Fernández-Sola C, Granero-Molina J, Hernández-Padilla JM, et al. Evidence-based practice in nursing education. Nurse Educ Today . 2020;84:104212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2019.104212 Turner K, McCarthy VL. Stress and anxiety among nursing students: A review of intervention strategies in literature between 2009 and 2015. Nurse Education in Practice . 2017;22:21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2016.11.002 United Nations. Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The gender snapshot 2023 . New York: United Nations; 2023. Available from: https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2023/09/gender-snapshot-2023 OECD. Education and gender equality . Paris: OECD Publishing; 2022. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/education/gender-equality-in-education/ Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 07 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 31 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Jan, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 19 Jan, 2026 Editor invited by journal 29 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8404749","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":580290595,"identity":"b6846792-eca3-44ba-946c-b064016ce6f7","order_by":0,"name":"Maria José Ferreira","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Santiago de Compostela","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maria","middleName":"José","lastName":"Ferreira","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-19 12:23:53","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8404749/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8404749/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101269112,"identity":"2b3f5af1-f53d-4c01-b601-62b415fd9e3c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 01:28:15","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30195,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender differences in time use among university students\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8404749/v1/95157efdca5f6d24a37578bb.png"},{"id":101269111,"identity":"3814d572-fad4-4d16-a145-b7374eee0423","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 01:28:15","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18912,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipation in household cleaning tasks by gender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8404749/v1/a0f427b8ca33da06dcdc2c2f.png"},{"id":101269113,"identity":"7025dd0d-2bc5-4c4b-a110-3b01ddc36b17","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 01:28:15","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31237,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerceived barriers to greater involvement in household labor by gender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8404749/v1/df4bd066d6b81c4bd5d4abf4.png"},{"id":101296902,"identity":"bd0f2214-0974-4422-b9bc-f2dd81e281b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 09:22:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1086766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8404749/v1/ce2f8ad7-33e9-4dab-83b7-264619777367.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Gender differences in household labor, time use and perceived co-responsibility among university students: a cross-sectional study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGender inequalities in unpaid household labor remain a persistent feature of social organization across countries and socioeconomic contexts. International evidence consistently shows that women perform a disproportionate share of domestic and care-related tasks, even in societies with high levels of female educational attainment and labor market participation [1,2]. These inequalities contribute to structural gender gaps in time availability, limiting opportunities for rest, leisure, and personal development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch based on time-use surveys has demonstrated that when paid and unpaid work are considered jointly, women accumulate a greater total workload than men [3,4]. Recent international reports also emphasize the persistence of gender gaps in both paid and unpaid work across settings [5]. This unequal distribution of time has been associated with adverse consequences for health and well-being, including increased stress and psychological distress [6]. The concept of time poverty has been proposed to capture this constrained availability of discretionary time, which disproportionately affects women and is closely linked to unpaid domestic responsibilities [7].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough gendered divisions of household labor have been extensively documented in adult and family populations [8], less attention has been paid to how these patterns manifest among university students. This group is often perceived as more egalitarian due to higher educational levels, shared living arrangements, and greater exposure to discourses on gender equality. However, emerging studies suggest that traditional gender norms may persist within student households, shaping the allocation of domestic tasks and time use even in early adulthood [9].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity students represent a critical population for examining the reproduction of gender inequalities. For many, this period involves their first experiences of independent living, negotiation of household responsibilities with peers or partners, and the combination of academic demands with paid employment. These dynamics offer a unique opportunity to explore how gendered patterns of unpaid labor are established and normalized at an early stage of the life course, with potential implications for academic engagement and future professional trajectories [10].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a public health and social equity perspective, understanding gender differences in household labor, time use, and perceived co-responsibility among university students is essential. Unpaid domestic labor and time constraints are increasingly recognized as upstream determinants of mental health, well-being, and future occupational sustainability [7]. Universities are not neutral spaces but social institutions that can either reproduce or challenge structural inequalities through their policies, support systems, and organizational cultures. Examining both practices and perceptions of co-responsibility provides insight into the gap between egalitarian attitudes and everyday experiences, a discrepancy frequently highlighted in gender equality research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the aim of this study was to examine gender differences in household labor, time use, and perceived co-responsibility among university students at a public Spanish university. Specifically, we sought to analyze the distribution of domestic tasks and time allocation by gender, explore differences according to living arrangements and family background, and assess students\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward co-responsibility in unpaid work.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional observational study was conducted using data derived from an institutional survey on co-responsibility carried out at a public Spanish university. The study followed a quantitative descriptive and comparative design with a gender-based analytical approach. Data were obtained from a survey conducted at the University of Santiago de Compostela in 2025, developed and implemented by the University\u0026rsquo;s Office for Gender Equality as part of national and regional equality initiatives [11].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSetting and participants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population comprised undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled at the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC), across its Santiago de Compostela and Lugo campuses. At the time of data collection, the total student population consisted of 25,258 individuals. Participation was voluntary and open to all enrolled students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 463 valid responses were collected during the study period. The sample included students from undergraduate, master\u0026rsquo;s, and doctoral programs, representing a range of ages, living arrangements, and academic situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected through an anonymous online questionnaire administered between 6 and 31 May 2025. The survey was developed and implemented within the framework of institutional actions promoted by the University\u0026rsquo;s Office for Gender Equality, in collaboration with regional and national equality initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was distributed electronically using institutional communication channels. No personal identifiers were collected, and all responses were recorded anonymously. No additional data processing or recalculation was performed beyond the original descriptive analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSurvey instrument\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was structured into several sections designed to capture multiple dimensions of co-responsibility and time use:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSociodemographic characteristics\u003c/b\u003e, including gender identity, age, and level of studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLiving arrangements during the academic year\u003c/b\u003e, such as type of residence and cohabitation (e.g., shared housing, living with a partner, university residence).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHousehold labor and domestic responsibilities\u003c/b\u003e, focusing on participation in routine household tasks, including cleaning and daily maintenance activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFamily background\u003c/b\u003e, including characteristics of the household of origin and perceived levels of co-responsibility during upbringing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTime use\u003c/b\u003e, assessing self-reported time dedicated to academic activities, paid work, personal life, family life, and everyday management tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePerceived co-responsibility and attitudes\u003c/b\u003e, including perceptions of fairness in task distribution, perceived barriers to greater involvement in household labor, and attitudes toward gender equality and male involvement in domestic responsibilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAwareness and evaluation of institutional co-responsibility measures\u003c/b\u003e, referring to university-level initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost items were measured using categorical response options or Likert-type scales assessing frequency, intensity, or level of agreement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eVariables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary independent variable was gender. The main outcome variables included involvement in household labor, time allocation across different life domains, and perceived levels of co-responsibility. Additional variables included age group, academic level, living arrangements during the academic year, and employment status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were used to summarize sociodemographic characteristics and key study variables. Categorical variables were presented as frequencies and percentages, while continuous or ordinal variables were summarized using appropriate measures of central tendency and dispersion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative analyses by gender were conducted to examine differences in household labor participation, time use, and perceptions of co-responsibility. Depending on variable distribution and measurement level, chi-square tests were used for categorical variables, and independent-sample t-tests or non-parametric equivalents were applied for continuous or ordinal variables. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll analyses were exploratory in nature and aimed at identifying patterns and gender-based differences rather than establishing causal relationships.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 463 students participated in the study. Women represented 59.2% of the sample, men 36.3%, and 3.2% identified with another gender identity. Most participants were under 24 years of age (69.5%), while 30.5% were aged 24 years or older. The majority were undergraduate students (78.6%), with smaller proportions enrolled in master\u0026rsquo;s (9.5%) and doctoral programs (9.7%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApproximately one quarter of participants (25.3%) combined their studies with paid employment. This proportion was slightly higher among men than women. Among working students, men were more likely to report full-time employment and longer working hours, whereas women more frequently reported part-time work and shorter weekly schedules.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLiving arrangements during the academic year\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost students lived in a residence different from their family home during the academic year (68.8%), with no substantial differences by gender. Shared housing with peers or fellow students was the most common living arrangement (60.2%). Gender differences emerged in specific contexts: men were more likely to live with a partner, whereas women were more frequently residents in public university housing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiving in shared accommodation was associated with greater involvement in household responsibilities overall. However, gender differences persisted within these shared arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTime use and gender differences\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime dedicated to academic activities was high across the sample, with more than one quarter of students reporting over 35 hours per week devoted to study. This proportion was notably higher among women, who reported substantially greater academic time investment than men. At the same time, women reported less available personal time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen reported spending more time on paid work and daily management tasks, particularly among older students and those enrolled in doctoral programs. Time devoted to family life was reported more frequently by women than men.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender differences in time allocation across academic, paid work, personal, and family domains are illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePercentage of students reporting high levels of time investment (\u0026ldquo;much\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;quite a lot\u0026rdquo;) in academic activities, paid work, personal life, and family life, by gender. Women reported greater time investment in academic and family activities, while men reported higher engagement in paid work.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGender differences in household labor\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen reported higher participation in routine household tasks, particularly cleaning activities, compared with men. This gender gap was observed even among students living in shared housing with peers of the same age. Despite these differences in task allocation, overall perceived levels of co-responsibility were relatively high and similar between women and men.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTask-specific analyses revealed that women assumed a greater share of domestic labor, suggesting a discrepancy between perceived fairness and actual distribution of responsibilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the proportion of students reporting regular participation in household cleaning tasks by gender.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePercentage of students reporting regular participation in household cleaning tasks during the academic year, by gender. Women showed higher involvement in routine domestic cleaning activities compared with men.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePerceived co-responsibility and attitudes toward change\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost students expressed strong support for co-responsibility in household labor. Approximately six out of ten participants indicated that they could contribute more to domestic tasks. Lack of time was identified as the main barrier, particularly among women. Men more frequently cited lack of demand or motivation as reasons for lower involvement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgreement with the statement that men should be more involved in household responsibilities was very high overall, although women expressed stronger agreement than men. Older students and doctoral candidates were more likely to perceive their generation as more co-responsible than previous ones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender differences in perceived barriers to greater involvement in household labor are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePercentage of students identifying specific barriers to greater participation in household labor, by gender. Lack of time was the most frequently reported barrier among women, whereas lack of demand or motivation was more commonly reported among men.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePrincipal findings and interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that gender inequalities in household labor and time use persist among university students, despite widespread support for co-responsibility. While perceived levels of fairness in task distribution were relatively high, task-specific analyses revealed a continued gendered allocation of domestic work, particularly in routine cleaning activities. This discrepancy between egalitarian attitudes and everyday practices has been widely described in gender equality research and reflects the enduring influence of gender norms beyond declared values. Structural gender inequalities in unpaid care work have been consistently documented across societies [1], and women\u0026rsquo;s employment has long been associated with persistent gendered divisions of household labor [8]. Evidence from time-use studies further confirms that gender inequalities in time allocation persist across the life course, even among highly educated populations [3].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe emergence of these patterns at an early stage of adulthood is particularly relevant. Previous studies have shown that gendered divisions of unpaid work are often established before family formation and tend to persist across the life course [3,4]. Our findings support the notion that inequalities in unpaid labor are not solely a consequence of parenthood or caregiving demands, but are already present during the university years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison with international evidence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study are consistent with international evidence derived from time-use surveys and comparative analyses, which show that women devote more time to unpaid domestic work and experience greater constraints on discretionary time than men. Time-use research has been central to documenting unpaid care work and gendered time allocation [2], and international policy reports continue to highlight persistent gender gaps in both paid and unpaid work across countries [5].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilar patterns have been reported in European and Latin American university contexts, where young women combine higher academic engagement with greater involvement in household tasks, while men allocate more time to paid work or leisure activities [10]. Shared living arrangements, common among university students, appear to promote more flexible domestic dynamics compared with traditional family households; however, household technologies and shared housing do not eliminate gendered divisions of labor [7]. The coexistence of high perceived co-responsibility with persistent task-level inequalities suggests a symbolic endorsement of equality that is not fully translated into daily practices. This phenomenon has been described in previous international research on unpaid care work and its social consequences [1], as well as in studies linking unpaid labor with mental health outcomes [6].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent literature has also highlighted the gendered nature of cognitive and mental household labor, which remains unevenly distributed and largely invisible in everyday practices [9].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for well-being and caring professions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender differences in time use have important implications for student well-being. The greater academic workload and domestic involvement reported by women, coupled with reduced personal time, may contribute to early experiences of time pressure and cumulative burden. Gender differences in unpaid care work have been linked to higher levels of psychological distress among women [12], and associations between unpaid labor and adverse mental health outcomes have been consistently reported [6]. Cognitive household labor remains unevenly distributed by gender, even in younger generations, adding an additional and often unrecognized burden [13].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender inequalities in unpaid care work also have direct implications for the health workforce and are increasingly recognized as a structural issue affecting workforce sustainability and equity [14]. These dynamics are particularly relevant in nursing education. Nursing is not only a caring profession but also a discipline that explicitly addresses the social determinants of health, gender inequalities, and the ethics of care within its educational framework. Unequal workloads and sustained exposure to cumulative demands contribute to burnout and reduced professional sustainability in nursing [15]. Within undergraduate nursing curricula, specific courses addressing health, gender, and social challenges provide structured opportunities for students to critically examine how gender norms, unpaid care work, and time allocation influence both health outcomes and professional roles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom this perspective, nursing education represents a privileged setting to integrate reflection on co-responsibility and time use as core components of professional formation. Transforming health professional education has been identified as a global priority to strengthen health systems and promote sustainability [16]. Evidence-based practice is a core component of contemporary nursing education and supports the development of critical, reflective, and gender-sensitive professional identities [17].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTransferability and policy relevance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this study was conducted at a single public university, the findings are likely transferable to other higher education contexts with similar demographic and organizational characteristics. Evidence from time-use research and international comparative analyses indicates that gender inequalities in unpaid work persist across countries and social contexts, suggesting that the observed patterns reflect broader structural dynamics rather than local particularities [5]. Research on household time allocation further shows that technological change and domestic arrangements have not eliminated gender disparities in unpaid labor [7]. Recent literature has also highlighted the persistence of gendered mental and cognitive labor across contexts, reinforcing the structural nature of these inequalities [9].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a policy perspective, the results underscore the role of universities as active agents in promoting gender equality. Gender inequalities in unpaid care work are increasingly recognized as a workforce and health policy issue with implications for sustainability, equity, and workforce planning [14]. Student well-being and mental health have been identified as key priorities within higher education and health-related training programs, particularly in nursing, where stress and anxiety are prevalent during undergraduate education [18]. Addressing unpaid domestic labor and time use among students aligns with international recommendations on gender equity, well-being, and sustainable professional development [19].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational policies addressing gender equality within higher education systems further reinforce the importance of integrating these issues into curricula and institutional strategies. Policy frameworks promoting gender equality in education emphasize the need to address structural and cultural determinants of inequality throughout the educational life course [20]. Within this framework, universities can play a pivotal role by embedding reflection on co-responsibility, unpaid work, and gendered time use into study plans and institutional policies, contributing to more equitable and sustainable higher education environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that gender inequalities in household labor and time use persist among university students, despite high levels of awareness and support for co-responsibility. Women reported greater involvement in unpaid domestic tasks and higher academic workload, alongside reduced personal time, while men allocated more time to paid work. These findings confirm that gendered divisions of labor are already present during early adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiving arrangements and family background influenced students\u0026rsquo; experiences of co-responsibility, but shared housing and peer cohabitation did not eliminate gender-based differences in task allocation. Although perceived levels of co-responsibility were relatively high, a persistent gap remained between egalitarian attitudes and everyday practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results highlight the strategic role of universities in addressing unpaid domestic labor and time use through education. Beyond awareness initiatives, integrating gender, co-responsibility, and time-use reflection into undergraduate curricula represents a concrete opportunity to challenge the early normalization of gender inequalities. This approach is particularly relevant in disciplines oriented toward care and service, such as nursing, where professional values related to responsibility and availability may intersect with pre-existing gender norms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, these findings support the need for universities to adopt an active and sustained role in fostering co-responsibility and gender equality through curricular, educational, and institutional interventions. Embedding these issues within study plans offers a pathway to interrupt the reproduction of gendered divisions of labor and to promote student well-being and more equitable academic and professional trajectories, with clear potential for transferability across higher education contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was based on an anonymous, voluntary, non-interventional online survey conducted among university students. No personal identifiable or sensitive data were collected, and participation did not involve any clinical procedures or interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor ContributionsM.J.F.D. conceived the study design and research objectives, performed the secondary analysis of the institutional survey data, and interpreted the results. M.J.F.D. drafted the manuscript, including the theoretical framework, analysis, and discussion, and revised the final version of the manuscript. The institutional data used in this study were collected by the Office for Gender Equality of the University of Santiago de Compostela as part of its equality monitoring activities; however, the analysis, interpretation, and manuscript preparation were conducted exclusively by M.J.F.D.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the Office for Gender Equality of the University of Santiago de Compostela for granting access to the institutional survey data and for their work in promoting gender equality within the university community.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data used in this study derive from an institutional survey conducted by the Office for Gender Equality of the University of Santiago de Compostela. The datasets are not publicly available due to institutional data protection policies but may be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request and subject to authorization by the data-owning institution.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharmes J.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe unpaid care work and the labour market: An analysis of time use data\u003c/em\u003e. Geneva: International Labour Organization; 2019.\u003cbr\u003e Available from: https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_732791/lang--en/index.htm\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBudlender D.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eTime use studies and unpaid care work\u003c/em\u003e. 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Available from: https://www.oecd.org/education/gender-equality-in-education/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gender inequality, Household labor, Time use, Co-responsibility, University students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8404749/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8404749/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender inequalities in unpaid household labor and time use persist across the life course and represent a key social determinant of health and well-being. While these disparities are well documented in adult populations, less is known about how they manifest among university students, a group often assumed to experience more egalitarian domestic arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjectives:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine gender differences in household labor, time use, and perceived co-responsibility among university students, and to explore how living arrangements and family background shape these patterns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted using an online questionnaire administered to students from two campuses of a public Spanish university. The survey collected sociodemographic data, living arrangements during the academic year, involvement in household tasks, time dedicated to study, paid work, personal and family life, perceptions of co-responsibility, and attitudes toward gender equality in domestic labor. Descriptive and comparative analyses were performed by gender.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 463 students participated (59.2% women, 36.3% men). Women reported greater involvement in household cleaning tasks and devoted more time to academic activities than men, while also reporting less available personal time. Although perceived levels of co-responsibility were relatively high and similar across genders, task-specific analyses revealed persistent gendered patterns. Women were more likely to report time constraints as a barrier to greater involvement, whereas men more frequently cited lack of demand or motivation. Nearly all participants agreed on the need for greater male involvement in household responsibilities, with stronger agreement among women.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite high awareness and positive attitudes toward co-responsibility, gender inequalities in household labor and time use persist among university students. These findings highlight the early reproduction of gendered divisions of labor and underscore the need for institutional strategies promoting equality within academic communities.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Gender differences in household labor, time use and perceived co-responsibility among university students: a cross-sectional study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-28 01:28:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8404749/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-07T10:46:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-31T18:17:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"245966134158503502872446175596671913684","date":"2026-01-25T17:05:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"41523345202827986961343530442134962667","date":"2026-01-25T09:28:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-22T08:36:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-19T10:33:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-29T18:11:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-25T19:21:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2025-12-25T19:16:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ee421b9a-ac05-4753-a4c3-287023872271","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 28th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-28T01:28:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-28 01:28:07","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8404749","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8404749","identity":"rs-8404749","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}