Robust ciliary flows protect early Xenopus embryos from pathogens independent of multiciliated cell patterning

Abstract During the early stages of development, the skin of the Xenopus embryo is covered by around two thousand evenly distributed multiciliated cells (MCCs). This striking spatial distribution is believed to maximise the generation of superficial flows at the scale of the embryo. However, the specific role of regular MCC distribution and the physiological function of vigorous ciliary activity remain elusive. We investigate the extent to which superficial flows provide protection against external pathogens before the immune system matures, by combining experimental and computational approaches. First, we cultivated epithelial explants in order to quantify the distribution of MCCs, beating frequencies, and three-dimensional fluid flows. We then use these data to validate a computational fluid dynamics model. Using this model, seeded with structural data from whole embryos, our simulations reveal that the collective ciliary beatings create a robust liquid shield along the embryonic flank, which is highly effective at clearing pathogens from the vicinity of the epithelial surface. Through parametric analyses, we further demonstrate that this protective function is remarkably resilient. Indeed, the effectiveness of pathogen clearance is primarily governed by the overall characteristic velocity of the cilia and is less affected by moderate variations in MCC density and spatial organisation. Our findings suggest that, rather than optimising energy consumption, the biological system prioritises functional robustness to ensure reliable protection. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Footnotes Manuscript updated for clarification Author informations updated