A Scoping Review of Parenting Interventions with a Dual Focus on Improving Child Emotional and Physical Health

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Cooper, Jayxa K. Alonzo, Francesca Lupini, Subina Saini, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7150758/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background . Children’s emotional and physical health are inextricably linked, as evidenced by the numerous shared health determinants known to impact each of these domains (e.g., adverse childhood experiences, supportive family relationships) as well as the bidirectional influence between them. As such, efforts have been made to intervene on these health determinants to jointly impact child emotional and physical health. However, this remains a nascent area of research, and little is known about the nature and impact of these interventions. Objective . The present study aimed to identify what parenting interventions were available with a dual focus on improving child emotional and physical health. We examined the content of these interventions, how components were integrated, the findings for each health domain, and the extent to which health equity was considered. Design . This scoping review was preregistered in PROSPERO (CRD42023369266) and followed PRISMA-ScR reporting guidelines for scoping reviews. We searched five online databases for articles published between 2012–2022 that (a) focused on children ages 2–12, (b) involved evaluating the effects of a parenting intervention, and (c) had a dual focus on promoting child emotional and physical health. Results : Out of the 2,065 records screened, thirty-one studies met inclusion criteria. Most interventions were intensive, delivered to parents only, and targeted high-risk families. While 59% demonstrated beneficial effects in both child health domains, findings were more consistent for emotional outcomes. Attention to health equity was limited, with few studies strategically recruiting minoritized populations, testing for subgroup differences in intervention effects, or applying culturally informed adaptations. Conclusions . This review highlights a growing body of dual-focused parenting interventions with the potential to improve child health outcomes. However, gaps remain in terms of reach, scalability, integration of content, and equity. These findings can guide the development of holistic, accessible, and equity-focused interventions aimed at improving the health and well-being of children. Figures Figure 1 Introduction Child emotional and physical health are deeply interconnected, with an estimated 15% of children experiencing mental-physical multimorbidity ( 1 ) and extensive evidence linking emotional and physical health problems ( 2 ). In this review, emotional health refers to social, emotional, and cognitive-behavioral functioning, while physical health encompasses healthy lifestyle behaviors (e.g., sleep, eating habits, physical activity) and physical health-related indicators (e.g., weight/BMI, disease symptoms, somatic issues). These outcomes also share common social determinants, including neighborhood conditions, access to quality education and healthcare, structural racism, and supportive family relationships, that shape lifelong health trajectories ( 3 , 4 ). Importantly, children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds are disproportionately affected by these adverse social determinants, placing them at elevated risk for both emotional and physical health disparities ( 3 , 5 ). Positive parenting practices represent one of the most powerful and modifiable levers for improving child well-being ( 6 ), making parenting interventions an important public health strategy. Programs that promote effective communication, positive reinforcement, limit setting, and consistent discipline have demonstrated success in reducing child behavioral problems while also fostering healthier lifestyle behaviors, such as improved sleep, eating habits, and physical activity ( 7 – 9 ). Systematic reviews have found that interventions incorporating parenting skills training can substantially impact both child social-behavioral-emotional outcomes ( 7 , 8 ) and physical health ( 10 , 11 ). Despite this evidence, most interventions have targeted either emotional or physical health in isolation, missing opportunities to address these interlinked domains simultaneously. Dual-focused parenting interventions that integrate both emotional and physical health promotion may be more effective, less burdensome for families, and especially valuable in addressing upstream drivers of health disparities. However, little is known about the scope, design, and impact of these programs. To address this gap, the present scoping review systematically examined dual-focused parenting interventions to assess the types of components used, outcomes targeted, and how equity considerations were incorporated, providing timely insights to guide more holistic and equitable approaches to child health promotion. Positive Parenting and Child Emotional and Physical Health There is robust evidence that positive parenting, both as a naturally occurring behavior and as an intervention target, is associated with improved child emotional and physical health outcomes. Observational studies consistently demonstrate that higher levels of positive parenting (e.g., parental warmth, responsiveness, appropriate discipline) and lower levels of harsh parenting (e.g., yelling, spanking) are linked to greater child prosocial behavior, fewer internalizing and externalizing problems, and healthier lifestyle behaviors, including sleep, eating habits, and physical activity ( 12 – 14 ). For example, an international study of over 200,000 parents across 60 countries found that aggressive discipline practices (e.g., shouting, hitting) were associated with higher levels of child aggression and inattention, whereas non-aggressive discipline (e.g., reasoning) was linked to greater prosocial behavior ( 15 ). Similarly, systematic reviews have demonstrated that positive parenting practices are consistently associated with healthier child eating, physical activity, and sleep behaviors ( 16 , 17 ). For example, studies have indicated that harsh or coercive parenting predicts poorer child eating habits and reduced sleep duration ( 18 ), while supportive parenting predicts greater physical activity and better dietary patterns ( 19 ). Experimental studies further support the causal role of parenting in shaping child health outcomes. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrate that parenting interventions can effectively reduce harsh discipline and increase positive parenting behaviors, which in turn mediate improvements in children’s emotional and behavioral functioning ( 20 , 21 ). For example, a meta-analysis of 14 RCTs found that reductions in harsh verbal and physical discipline following parenting interventions mediated decreases in child disruptive behavior ( 20 ). Though fewer studies have experimentally examined parenting behaviors and child physical health outcomes, available evidence suggests similar pathways. One study found that increases in lifestyle-related parenting practices following a parenting intervention mediated improvements in child physical activity among obese fathers and their children ( 22 ). Despite this growing body of evidence, most parenting intervention research has remained siloed, focusing either on emotional or physical health outcomes, but rarely both. This remains the case even as the broader evidence base underscores the importance of addressing both domains in a unified approach. Widely disseminated parenting programs, such as Triple P and The Incredible Years, while highly effective in improving child emotional and behavioral outcomes, have traditionally given little focus to child physical health ( 8 , 23 ). Similarly, many of the largest family-based physical health interventions, including landmark obesity prevention trials ( 24 , 25 ), have largely neglected children’s emotional health. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that interventions targeting one domain may yield benefits in a domain that was not targeted (i.e., cross-over or ripple effects ( 26 )). For example, a multisite evaluation of the Family Check-Up (FCU), an intervention originally designed to improve parenting and prevent conduct problems, demonstrated long-term positive effects on children’s diet and obesity outcomes from early childhood through middle childhood ( 27 ). Systematic reviews of lifestyle interventions in children and adults similarly report frequent cross-over effects on mental health and well-being ( 28 , 29 ). In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the potential to leverage positive parenting interventions to jointly promote children’s emotional and physical health. Emerging dual-focused models include adaptations of existing programs and novel interventions explicitly designed for this purpose ( 30 – 32 ). For example, Lifestyle Triple P, an adaptation that directs parenting skills typically applied to child behavioral and emotional difficulties to the promotion of child nutrition and physical activity, has shown promising effects on child BMI and related behaviors ( 32 ). Similarly, the FCU has been enhanced to incorporate obesity prevention content for young children from racially and economically diverse backgrounds, yielding positive effects on both emotional regulation ( 33 , 34 ) and physical health outcomes (e.g., child health behaviors, BMI). Despite these advances, no comprehensive review has synthesized the current landscape of dual-focus parenting interventions. A systematic understanding of this growing field is critical for informing future intervention development, implementation, and dissemination. Equity-Focused Approaches to Child Health Promotion Given the substantial health inequities and structural barriers faced by minoritized populations, there is increasing recognition that child health promotion efforts must incorporate a more deliberate and substantive focus on equity ( 35 – 37 ). The main driver of these health inequities is structural racism, a system of policies, practices, and cultural norms that collectively reinforce one another to sustain racial inequality ( 3 ). This has led to unequal distribution of resources and differences in exposure to social determinants of health, such as access to safe neighborhoods, affordable housing, quality education, healthcare, and healthy food. Such inequitable environmental conditions, created and maintained by structural racism, are shown to be detrimental to public health ( 4 ) and have been likened to swimming in toxic waters ( 37 ). As public health researchers and practitioners, our role is to help detoxify these waters by creating new streams, tides, and currents that dismantle structural racism and move towards health equity. While there is growing momentum toward equity in child health promotion, health equity frameworks have been underutilized in dual-focused parenting interventions that target both emotional and physical health. This is a critical gap, given that structural inequities often operate across and between these domains. For example, chronic stress related to racism and poverty can simultaneously disrupt emotional regulation and sleep, while neighborhood conditions may limit both opportunities for physical activity and access to culturally relevant mental health supports ( 3 , 4 ). Dual-focused interventions are uniquely positioned to address the intersections of these challenges, but only if equity is at the center of their design and evaluation. Yet, a systematic review of 240 programs listed in the Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development online clearinghouse found that most did not qualify as equity-promoting interventions ( 35 ). For example, only 31% of programs were culturally tailored and just 19% tested for subgroup differences in intervention effects. Insufficient attention to equity in program design, delivery, and evaluation represents an important limitation. To help address this issue, the present review expanded on the criteria outlined by Buckley et al. to assess how equity considerations have been incorporated into dual-focused parenting interventions aimed at improving child emotional and physical health. Present Study Given the increasingly recognized importance of integrated, family-based approaches to child health, there is a need for a comprehensive review that evaluates interventions targeting both emotional and physical health outcomes in children. The present scoping review addressed this need by systematically assessing the extent and nature of the available research on parenting interventions with a dual focus on child emotional and physical health. The objectives of this scoping review were to synthesize and describe: (a) the intervention characteristics and components; (b) the findings related to child emotional and physical health; and (c) the extent to which interventions incorporated a focus on health equity. Generating a clearer understanding of the current literature is critical to guiding the development of future intervention strategies that are both holistic and equity-focused in promoting child health. Methods Protocol and Registration To accomplish these aims, we conducted a scoping review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines ( 38 ) and the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) ( 39 ). It was also informed by Tawfik et al.’s ( 40 ) scoping review methodology. The protocol was preregistered in PROSPERO (CRD42023369266) on March 18, 2023. The methods used to identify, select, and analyze relevant studies are detailed below. Eligibility Criteria Eligibility criteria were developed using the PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome) framework ( 41 ). Studies were included if they met the following criteria: (a) included children ages 2–12; (b) the intervention was a parenting program delivered directly to parents, with explicit instruction in positive parenting skills (e.g., communication, problem-solving, positive reinforcement, limit setting, effective discipline, or strategies for effective play); (c) included at least one pre- and post-intervention measure of child emotional health (defined as social, emotional, or cognitive-behavioral functioning); (d) included at least one pre-post measure of child physical health (defined as healthy lifestyle behaviors or physical health-related indicators); and (e) included peer-reviewed articles, preprints, or dissertations published in English between 2013 and 2023. We focused on the 2 to 12 age range because this period represents a phase of parenting during which parents serve as the primary socialization agents, and positive parenting practices are central to shaping both emotional and physical health outcomes ( 13 , 42 ). Parenting skills and strategies during this phase differ considerably from those used with infants (which are more focused on attachment and basic care) ( 43 ) or with adolescents (which increasingly emphasize autonomy and peer relationships) ( 44 ), and many positive parenting intervention studies target families within this age range ( 8 ). To meet our definition of a parenting intervention, programs were required to provide more than simply parent involvement or parent education. Specifically, interventions needed to offer active training or skill development in core positive parenting practices (specified above) that promote child emotional and physical well-being. Studies that did not meet these criteria were excluded from the review. Search Strategy We conducted comprehensive searches across the following electronic databases: PubMed, PsychINFO, CINAHL, Embase, and Web of Science (grey literature), which included Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), Arts & Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI), Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI), Current Chemical Reactions (CCR-EXPANDED), and Index Chemicus (IC). The search strategy was designed to identify studies focused on the target population (children ages 2–12 years), interventions (parent training programs), and outcomes (child emotional and physical health-related indicators). An iterative search development process was used in collaboration with a University Librarian and members of the research team. Initial search terms were drafted by the first author and peer-reviewed by three study team members using the Evidence-Based Checklist for the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS EBC) ( 45 ). The search strategy was then tested and verified by two additional team members to confirm the accuracy and reproducibility of results (see Supplemental File 1 for the full search string for PubMed). These search terms were then adapted to fit the format of the other databases. Search results from each database were exported as RIS files and imported to Covidence, where duplicates were automatically identified and removed prior to screening. All database searches were completed in March and April 2023. The review was limited to peer-reviewed articles and grey literature (i.e., preprints and dissertations). Reference lists and clinical trials registry numbers of included articles were screened to identify additional relevant studies. Study Selection Process Articles were selected using a two-step screening process conducted by two independent, blinded reviewers. In the first phase, titles and abstracts were screened to assess potential eligibility for full-text review. Prior to initiating full screening, the team piloted the process on a random sample of 10 articles to ensure consistency in applying eligibility criteria. Any discrepancies were discussed, and screening procedures were refined accordingly. After piloting, the two reviewers independently screened all titles and abstracts, with conflicts resolved through discussion and consensus. In the second phase, the same two reviewers independently assessed the full texts of all articles identified as potentially eligible. As with title and abstract screening, discrepancies in full-text decisions were reconciled through discussion until consensus was reached. To enhance completeness, we conducted two additional steps: ( 1 ) searches of clinical trials registries to identify reports of relevant intervention outcomes not captured in the initial database search, and ( 2 ) hand-searching the reference lists of included articles to identify additional eligible studies (or to find articles that included a greater description of the intervention components). The full selection process is illustrated in the PRISMA flow diagram (Fig. 1 ). Data Extraction Articles were divided between four team members, with the first author reviewing all included articles, and the other three team members serving as the second reviewer (each reviewing one-third of the articles). Data were independently extracted using both the Covidence Extraction Tool and standardized Excel spreadsheets. The extraction process was guided by the PICO framework and included the following domains: participant and study characteristics (e.g., participant demographics, study country, study design, number of intervention arms), intervention characteristics (e.g., number and length of sessions, delivery setting and format, intervention components), and study outcomes (pre-post changes in child emotional and physical health). Additionally, the team extracted information related to the application of a health equity lens, based on an expanded version of the criteria outlined by Buckley et al. ( 35 ). Specifically, we coded whether each study: (a) reported the sociocultural characteristics of the sample (e.g., ethnicity/race, nativity, socioeconomic status, sexual or gender identity); (b) employed purposeful recruitment efforts to engage minoritized groups (e.g., explicitly reported a specific strategy for enhancing the sociocultural diversity of their sample); (c) tested for subgroup differences in intervention effects across minoritized groups (e.g., compared intervention effects across racial and ethnic groups); (d) stated explicit health equity objectives; and (e) culturally adapted or tailored the intervention. All extracted data were reviewed for accuracy and consistency, with extraction dyads reaching consensus on each article prior to finalizing the data. The resulting data charting form is available in Supplemental File 2. Data Synthesis After data extraction was complete, we conducted a descriptive synthesis of the included studies, focusing on key study and participant information, intervention characteristics and components, and study findings. As a first step, we generated a summary of basic study characteristics and participant demographics by calculating pooled means across studies (full details about these calculations are provided in Table 1 description). Studies were then categorized by core intervention features, including delivery length and format (e.g., group-based, individual, hybrid), setting (e.g., community, school, clinic, home, virtual or in-person), and intervention components (e.g., positive parenting skills, health education, and child components). Next, studies were classified based on the degree to which they applied a health equity lens using the aforementioned criteria. Intervention outcomes were synthesized and categorized by domain: (a) child emotional health (i.e., social, emotional, and cognitive-behavioral functioning) and (b) child physical health, including healthy lifestyle behaviors (i.e., sleep, eating habits, physical activity, and screen time) and broader physical health indicators (i.e., weight, BMI, disease symptom management, and somatic concerns). Intervention effects were classified as beneficial (i.e., significant improvements in the intended direction), adverse (i.e., significant iatrogenic effects), or null (i.e., no significant effects), based on a significance level of p < .05. When available, group × time interactions were prioritized for evaluating outcomes. In addition, studies were coded according to their breadth of impact: those demonstrating improvements in one domain were labeled as having a “single effect,” those showing improvements in both domains as having a “dual effect,” and those with no improvements as having “no effect.” As this is a scoping review, no formal meta-analysis was conducted. Instead, the data synthesis followed an iterative process in which the first author and study team developed and refined categories to best capture the patterns of intervention content and outcomes contained in the literature. Findings are summarized descriptively and presented in Tables 1 – 5 to support transparency and replicability. Results Selection of Results The initial search yielded 2,065 records: 1,869 from the database search and 196 from the reference lists of included articles. After duplicate removal, 971 unique records remained. Title and abstract screening ( N = 971) was conducted in Covidence by two independent reviewers. Full-text review was completed for 122 articles. Any discrepancies in coding (e.g., discordant inclusion/exclusion decisions) were resolved through consensus discussions. The most common reasons for exclusion at the full-text stage were: (1) not reporting pre-post measures of both child emotional and physical health outcomes; (2) not targeting the specified child age range (2-12 years); or (3) the intervention not meeting inclusion criteria for parent training (e.g., school-based program only, child-only intervention). Following this process, 31 articles representing 29 unique interventions met full eligibility criteria and were included in the final synthesis (see Figure 1 for PRISMA flow diagram). Study and Participant Characteristics Table 1 summarizes the key characteristics of the 31 included studies. Most interventions were conducted in the United States ( n = 20, 65%), with the remaining studies based in Europe (Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Germany, and Spain), Australia, Malaysia, and Brazil. Studies employed a range of research designs, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs; n = 19, 61%), prospective cohort studies ( n = 9, 29%), and case studies (studies with less than 5 participants; n = 3, 10%). Samples ranged from one to 697 participants, with a pooled average sample size of 109. Across the studies, mothers were overrepresented, with an average of 86% of participants being mothers. No included study reported a sample with greater than 50% father participation. Participant demographics varied considerably across studies. While a portion of studies recruited racially and ethnically diverse samples, the majority included predominantly White, non-Hispanic families. Only three studies included samples in which over 50% of participants identified as members of racially or ethnically minoritized groups. Across all studies, households tended to be middle or high-income, two-parent (77%), and highly educated (58%). Table 1 Study and Participant Characteristics Study Characteristics Study Totals Pooled Means Number of studies Study country a US 65% 20 Outside US 39% 12 Study design RCT (RCT or cluster RCT) 61% 19 Prospective cohort study 29% 9 Case study 10% 3 Mean sample size 109 participants 31 Range 1-697 participants Mean child age 6.6 years 27 Child gender (mean % girls) 39% 26 Child ethnic-racial background Black or African American 11% 10 Hispanic or Latiné 20% 11 Asian or Asian American 16% 8 Indigenous or Native American 2% 4 White 72% 15 Mean parent age 36.8 years 11 Parent gender (% mothers) 86% mothers 11 Parent education High school or less 31% 17 More than high school 58% 17 Family structure Two-parent home 77% 10 Single-parent home 18% 9 Note . Study totals were calculated based on data provided in the included studies. Due to inconsistent reporting, many categories had substantial missing data. Pooled means = child and parent characteristics were calculated as unweighted pooled means. Number of studies = the number of studies that reported data in this category (e.g., 10 studies reported the percentage of Black or African American children in their sample). Parent education = High school or less included parents with a high school degree or equivalent (e.g., GED, completed secondary education); more than high school included parents who completed some college, had college degrees or higher. Family structure = two-parent home included parents who were married or reported having two parents or caregivers living in the home; single-parent home included families with one parent living in the home. a Study country does not add up to 100% because one study was conducted in multiple countries and therefore counted in both category options. Intervention Characteristics The 29 unique parenting interventions included in this review were highly variable in their focus, format, and delivery. Most studies focused on the prevention or treatment of specific child behavioral or emotional difficulties (e.g., externalizing problems, anxiety, ASD-related behaviors) or child health problems (e.g., overweight/obesity). Only a minority ( n = 3, 10%) used a universal prevention approach aimed at promoting general child well-being. Intervention settings varied widely: over one third were delivered in medical settings (e.g., hospitals, pediatric clinics; n = 10, 34%), with others conducted in clinical mental health settings ( n = 7, 24%), or directly in the home ( n = 4, 14%). Increasingly, interventions incorporated online delivery or flexible delivery formats, either as stand-alone digital programs ( n = 4, 14%) or as blended models combining two or more formats, such as offering phone or online sessions paired with in-person sessions ( n = 11, 38%). Intervention formats ranged from brief, single-session workshops (46) to multi-session, manualized programs delivered over several months (47), with session frequency typically weekly or biweekly. Lumeng et al.’s intervention was the longest, with 14 parenting sessions and over 60 school-based child lessons (48). Theoretical foundations were diverse but often drew from well-established frameworks, including social learning theory, cognitive-behavioral principles, attachment theory, and family systems models. Only 41% ( n = 12) of the studies reported their guiding intervention theory. However, nearly all studies described using strategies that aligned with social learning theory (49) or operant learning theory (50), which aim to interrupt conflictual patterns of interaction using behavioral reinforcements and consequences. Interventionists most often included highly trained master’s or doctoral-level professionals (e.g., psychologists, nurses, social workers). Table 2 provides an overview of key intervention components. Additionally, we assessed programs for their incorporation of a health equity lens, building on Buckley et al. (35). Overall, few studies had a strong focus on health equity based on our evaluation criteria. Although many studies reported on one or more sociocultural characteristics of their sample (e.g., ethnicity-race, income/SES), few studies used purposeful recruiting methods ( n = 5, 19%), tested for subgroup differences in intervention effects ( n = 2, 8%), had explicit health equity objectives ( n = 5, 19%), or used a culturally tailored (or adapted) interventions ( n = 3, 12%). Table 2 Intervention Characteristics (N = 29) Intervention name (citation) Target intervention population Setting of intervention Who takes part in intervention Who delivers intervention Group or individual Length of Intervention Intervention Theory Attention to Equity I-InTERACT Express (51) TBI virtual through hospital settings parents clinical psychology grad students or licensed psychologists individual 7 40-60 min sessions (plus 1 booster) not reported 1, 3, and 4 RUPP (52) ASD in-home and telephone parents masters-level therapists individual 11-13 60-90 min sessions + 3 booster sessions behavioral analytic orientation 1 FCU4Health (33,34) overweight/ obesity in clinic (primary care), at home, or other private location parents trained FCU4Health coordinators individual dosage range: 1.40-719.2 hours, average dosage: 53.79 hours not reported 1, 2, 3, and 4 Grow (53) universal focus child development center or a local YMCA parents certified facilitators group 5 90-min sessions social cognitive theory, positive youth development 1 Parent training intervention (54) primary anxiety disorder and chronic insomnia university mental health center parents primary investigator individual 4 90 mins sessions + 4 30-min phone check-ins not reported 1 Family-based telemedicine intervention (55) overweight/ obesity virtual via telemedicine parents and child grad students or licensed psychologists groups 14 60-min sessions not reported 1 Enhanced ParentCorps (47) children at risk for obesity public elementary schools parents and child mental health professionals, teachers and ed assistants group 14 120-min sessions family-centered "whole child" approach 1, 2, 4, and 5 PCIT-Health (56) children at risk for obesity virtual - telehealth Parents and child clinical psychology PhD students individual 12 sessions (length of sessions not reported) not reported 1* (case study) More and Less parent group program (57) overweight/ obesity outpatient paediatric clinics parents trained dieticians group 10 90-min sessions not reported 1 LEAP (58) ADHD and physical activity issues hospital outpatient clinic or virtual parents licensed psychologists group 8-9 90-min sessions not reported 1 Behavioral sleep intervention (59) ADHD and a parent with sleep problems paediatrician’s office, the hospital clinic, or home parents licensed psychologists individual 2 30-60 min sessions + 1 follow-up phone call not reported 1 PT-F (60,61) ASD and feeding problems mental health clinic parents doctoral or masters level therapists individual Pilot: 9 60-90 min sessions RCT: 11 60-90 min sessions + 3 virtual parent coaching sessions not reported 1 Mindful M&M’s (62) disruptive behavior disorder university mental health clinic parents and child trained practitioner individual 4 60 min sessions of parent training + 4 60 min sessions of child mindfulness training not reported 0* (case study) parent training program (63) ASD not reported parents primary investigator group and individual 2 sessions (length of sessions not reported) not reported 1 and 5 Combined Sleep and Standard Behavioral Treatment (64) emotional and/or behavioral problems behavioral health clinic parents and child doctoral-level psychologists individual 3-17 sessions (session length not reported) sleep deficits degrade cognitive functioning and worsen emotion regulation due to sleep's effects on the prefrontal cortex 1 HS+POPS+IYS (48) universal (within Head Start) in-home and school setting Parent and child master’s-level mental health specialist group and individual POPS: 6 child lessons and 8 75 min parent lessons; IYS: 60 child sessions and 10-14 parent training sessions social cognitive theory 1, 2, and 4 Parent-based sleep education (65) ASD and sleep difficulties medical centers parents trained educators individual or group 1 60-min session or 2 120-min sessions + 2 brief phone calls not reported 1 Parent Management Training + Sleep Train Program (66) behavioral problems university mental health clinic parents doctoral student therapists individual 14 60-min sessions not reported 1 Hassle Free Mealtimes Triple P (67) feeding or mealtime difficulties not reported parents psychologists group 1 120-min session principles of behavioral family intervention and social learning 1 Girls Growing in Wellness and Balance (68) universal delivery middle school parents and child school psychologist group 4 90-min sessions Maudsley method; Minuchin Family Therapy 1 CBT-based Bibliotherapy Plus Doll (69) nighttime fears and co-sleeping problems clinical setting parents doctoral level therapist individual 1 60-min session + 4 10-20 min phone sessions CBT 1, 4 Behavioral parent training (70) ASD and challenging behavior university campus parents master's clinician group 6 120-min sessions not reported 1 DELFIN parenting program (71) type 1 diabetes children's hospital parents psychologist group 5 120-min sessions + 1 phone call CBT parent training 1 ENTREN-F program (72) overweight/ obesity primary care parents and child research team members groups 6 120-min parent sessions + 9 120-min child sessions + 3 120-min joint parent-child sessions cognitive behavioral perspective 0 Cognitive-behavioral, skill-building intervention (73) overweight/ obesity pediatric primary care parents trained interventionists individual 4 20-45 min sessions cognitive-behavioral; information, motivation, and behavior skills (IMB) framework 1 and 2 SFSW intervention (74) behavioral problems self-directed online sessions + telephone parents licensed health care professionals individual 11 self-directed sessions + 45-min phone coaching sessions + 1 booster session not reported 1 and 5 Parent-Assisted CBT (75) sleep problems and nighttime fears not reported parents and child not reported individual 5 75-min sessions CBT 1* (case study) CHIP-Family a (46) congenital heart disease not reported parents, child, and sibling or friend licensed clinical and health psychologists group and individual 1 6-hour workshop + 1 60-min individual session not reported 1 Triple P (76) type 1 diabetes children's hospital parents clinical psychologist individual 10 60-min sessions not reported 1 and 2 Note. Table includes information from all 31 included articles for a total of 29 unique interventions. Attention to Equity : 0 = none reported. 1 = reported sociocultural characteristics of sample (e.g., ethnicity-race, SES, SGM, immigration status, disabilities). 2 = purposeful recruiting: explicit effort to increase the sociocultural diversity of sample. 3 = testing subgroup differences, such as differential intervention effects for minoritized groups (ethnically-racially minoritized, immigrants, economically disadvantaged, or SGM). 4 = health equity focused study objectives, such as the goal of the study was to improve access or quality of care for minoritized groups. 5 = cultural adaptations: intervention materials were tailored to a particular cultural context or group. TBI = traumatic brain injury. ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ASD = autism spectrum disorder. CBT = cognitive behavioral therapy. *Case studies were included for descriptive purposes but certain equity conditions (e.g., reporting sociocultural characteristics of sample) may not apply as case studies often alter the characteristics of their participants to ensure confidentiality. Intervention Components To synthesize the components of the parenting programs, we classified each program according to its inclusion of core positive parenting strategies and parent-directed information related to promoting their children’s health (see Table 3). Nearly all interventions focused on enhancing positive parenting skills shown to improve parent-child relationships and support healthy child development. The most commonly included strategies were limit setting ( n = 26, 90%), positive reinforcement ( n = 25, 86%), and communication skills ( n = 24, 84%), reflecting a strong emphasis on helping parents establish clear expectations and boundaries, reinforce positive behaviors, and foster open communication with their children. These strategies were often applied to promoting both child emotional and physical health outcomes. In contrast, strategies for effective play (an important tool for promoting positive interactions and developmental gains) were included in only 32% of interventions. In terms of physical health-related content, a majority of interventions incorporated components targeting children’s nutrition and eating habits ( n = 18, 62%) and sleep behaviors ( n = 16, 55%). Fewer interventions addressed other important areas of child physical health, such as physical activity ( n = 11, 38%) or reducing screen time ( n = 11, 38%). That said, most studies ( n = 18, 62%) targeted multiple healthy lifestyle behaviors within the same intervention and two studies targeted all four lifestyle behaviors in their intervention (i.e., FCU4Health and Grow ). Furthermore, while all included interventions engaged parents directly, only 31% of programs also involved a child-focused component. The limited inclusion of direct child engagement suggests that most parenting interventions rely primarily on parent behavior change as the mechanism for influencing child outcomes, rather than combining parent and child involvement. Table 3 Intervention Components (N = 29) Intervention name Positive Parenting Promoting Their Children’s Healthy Lifestyles Managing chronic health condition Separate child module C PR LS P Child sleep habits Child eating habits Child phys. activity Child screen time I-InTERACT Express (51) x x x x RUPP (52) x x x x x (opt) x (opt) FCU4Health (33,34) x x x x x x x x (obesity) Grow (53) x x x x x x x x Parent training intervention (54) x x x x x x (anxiety) Family-based telemedicine intervention (55) x x x x x x (concurrent child sessions) Enhanced ParentCorps (47) x x x x x x x x (concurrent child sessions) PCIT-Health (56) x x x x x x x x (live coaching sessions) More and Less parent group program (57) x x x x x x x LEAP (58) x x x x x x x x (ADHD) Behavioral sleep intervention (59) x x x x PT-F (60,61) x x x x x (ASD) Mindful M&M’s (62) x x x x x x x x (Disruptive Behavior Disorder) x (child mindfulness program) parent training program (63) x x x x x x Combined Sleep and Standard Behavioral Treatment (64) x x x x x x x HS+POPS+IYS (48) x x x x x x x (obesity) x (child obesity prevention program) Parent-based sleep education (65) x x x x x x x (sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome) Parent Management Training + Sleep Train Program (66) x x x x Hassle Free Mealtimes Triple P (67) x x x x Girls Growing in Wellness and Balance (68) x x x x x (eating disorder prevention group) CBT-based Bibliotherapy Plus Doll (69) x x x x Behavioral parent training (70) x x x x x x (ASD) DELFIN parenting program (71) x x x (chronic illnesses) ENTREN-F program (72) x x x x (obesity) x (child emotion regulation) Cognitive-behavioral, skill-building intervention (73) x x x x SFSW intervention (74) x x x Parent-Assisted CBT (75) x x CHIP-Family a (46) x x (congenital heart disease) x (CBT exercises) Triple P (76) x x x x (diabetes) Totals (out of 29) 24 (83%) 25 (86%) 26 (90%) 10 (34%) 16 (55%) 18 (62%) 11 (38%) 11 (38%) 12 (41%) 9 (31%) Note . It is worth noting that positive parenting and parent-targeted information for promoting children’s healthy lifestyles were often intertwined rather than mutually exclusive categories. C = communication-related skills, such as giving clear directions, active listening, open-ended questions, problem solving, and warmth. PR = positive reinforcement, such as praise, reward/incentive systems, and behavioral reinforcement strategies. LS = limit setting, such as enforcing house rules, use of logical consequences, planned ignoring, or time out. P = play strategies, such as child-directed play. Chronic health condition = intervention contains information on a chronic physical or mental health condition, such as diabetes, obesity, asthma, ASD, ADHD, or anxiety. Opt = content was optional for participants. a Study focused on general parenting skills but did not describe any specific strategies. Intervention Outcomes To synthesize intervention outcomes, we organized effects based on key child outcome domains: emotional health, healthy lifestyle behaviors, and health-related indicators (see Table 4). Our aim was to explore whether certain outcomes were more readily impacted by parenting interventions, and to assess whether interventions consistently achieved improvements across both child health domains. Reassuringly, none of the included studies reported adverse effects on any child emotional or physical health outcomes. However, many studies reported a mix of beneficial and null findings across domains. For child emotional health, approximately half of reported effects were null, while the other half demonstrated statistically significant improvements in the intended direction. In contrast, fewer beneficial effects were observed for child physical health outcomes, especially physical health-related indicators, with most results (58%) in this domain being null. Weight or BMI had the fewest positive effects, with 92% of findings being null. When we examined the overall pattern of effects across studies, a majority ( n = 16, 59%) demonstrated dual effects, meaning they reported at least one significant improvement in each of the two child health domains. Another subset of studies ( n = 6, 22%) achieved significant improvements in only one domain, either emotional or physical health. The remaining 19% of studies did not report significant effects in either domain. As illustrated in Table 5, several studies achieved dual effects despite having a preponderance of null findings within one or both domains. Exploratory comparisons suggest that studies classified as having dual effects tended to report a greater number of outcomes overall, increasing the likelihood of identifying at least one positive effect per domain. For example, Malow et al. (65) reported on 21 child health outcomes and found dual effects, whereas Raby (68) reported on five child health outcomes and did not find effects on either domain. This pattern highlights the need for caution when interpreting these results and suggests that future meta-analyses should account for the number of outcomes reported to avoid bias in estimating intervention effectiveness. Table 4 Summary of Effects Separated by Child Health Outcome Outcome Beneficial Effects Null Effects Adverse Effects Total Effects Emotional health 72 (51%) 68 (49%) 0 (0%) 140 Social functioning 6 (46%) 7 (54%) 0 (0%) 13 Emotional functioning 19 (44%) 24 (56%) 0 (0%) 43 Cognitive-behavioral functioning 47 (56%) 37 (44%) 0 (0%) 84 Healthy lifestyle behaviors 49 (47%) 55 (53%) 0 (0%) 104 Sleep 29 (57%) 22 (43%) 0 (0%) 51 Eating habits 8 (36%) 14 (64%) 0 (0%) 22 Physical activity 7 (33%) 14 (67%) 0 (0%) 21 Screen time 2 (33%) 4 (67%) 0 (0%) 6 General healthy lifestyle behaviors 3 (50%) 3 (50%) 0 (0%) 6 Physical health-related indicators 3 (15%) 17 (85%) 0 (0%) 20 Weight or BMI 1 (8%) 11 (92%) 0 (0%) 12 Disease symptom management 1 (50%) 1 (50%) 0 (0%) 2 Somatic concerns 1 (25%) 3 (75%) 0 (0%) 4 Total Effects 124 140 0 (0%) 264 Note . Pre-post intervention outcomes were synthesized and categorized by outcome domain: child emotional health (i.e., social, emotional, and cognitive-behavioral functioning) and child physical health, including healthy lifestyle behaviors (i.e., sleep, eating habits, physical activity, and screen time) and other physical health-related indicators (i.e., weight, BMI, disease symptom management, and somatic concerns). The three case studies were excluded from these calculations due to a lack of reliable significance testing (56,62,75). Table 5 Summary of Type of Effects on Each Health Domain Type of Effects Study Totals (out of 27 studies) Dual effects on child social-emotional and physical health n = 16 (59%) Single effects - child emotional health only n = 2 (7%) Single effects - child physical health only n = 4 (15%) No Effects n = 5 (19%) Note . Studies were coded as showing no effect , a single effect , or a dual effect based on whether they reported at least one significant improvement ( p < .05) in each domain. For example, to be coded as showing a dual effect, the study needed to report at least one significant outcome in both emotional and physical health domains. The total sample size consisted of 27 studies, as case studies were excluded ( n = 3). The FCU4Health intervention reported emotional and physical outcomes in two separate articles, but is listed only once in this table. Discussion The purpose of this study was to conduct a scoping review of parenting interventions with a dual focus on promoting children’s emotional and physical health. Specifically, we aimed to (a) describe the intervention characteristics and components; (b) synthesize findings on child emotional and physical health outcomes; and (c) assess the extent to which interventions addressed health equity. This review fills an important gap in the literature, as no prior efforts have systematically mapped the landscape of dual-focused parenting interventions. A systematic understanding of this growing field is critical for informing future intervention development, implementation, and dissemination. Key findings highlight the predominance of intensive, clinically delivered programs targeting high-risk populations, the more consistent impacts of interventions on emotional versus physical health outcomes, the limited integration of both domains within many interventions, and the minimal attention to health equity, particularly with respect to cultural tailoring. These findings are presented in the order of our study objectives. Intervention Characteristics and Components (Objective 1) Most of the 29 included interventions were quite intensive, with many requiring over 10 sessions and combining in-person and phone-based delivery. Notably, the majority were designed to treat existing behavioral or health problems in children already experiencing significant issues rather than to serve as universal prevention programs. This represents a critical gap in the literature. Scalable, low-cost parenting support, particularly universal approaches, are urgently needed to achieve population-level improvements in child well-being and interrupt adverse health trajectories early in development ( 77 ). Encouragingly, interventions were delivered across a range of contexts and formats, demonstrating flexible dissemination potential. However, most programs were facilitated by highly trained clinicians (master’s or doctoral level), with few studies utilizing paraprofessionals or community health workers. This reliance on specialist providers may limit the reach and long-term sustainability of these programs, especially in under-resourced communities. In terms of content, the majority of interventions emphasized core positive parenting skills such as limit setting, positive reinforcement, and effective communication. These strategies were applied to promoting both child emotional and physical health outcomes. Fewer programs incorporated strategies for effective parent-child play or content aimed at improving parents’ own well-being, despite evidence that parent mental health (e.g., depression, anxiety) is directly related to child emotional and behavioral outcomes ( 78 ) and may bolster intervention effects ( 79 ). Additionally, only a minority of interventions (31%) directly engaged children alongside parents, suggesting that most programs relied on parent behavior change alone to influence child outcomes. While this reflects common practice, future research should explore the added value of child involvement for maximizing intervention effects. Another important finding was the consistent underrepresentation of fathers. Across studies, mothers were overwhelmingly the primary participants. This trend aligns with previous reviews of parenting interventions and reflects broader recruitment and engagement challenges in parenting research ( 80 , 81 ). Given robust evidence that fathers play a crucial role in shaping child development, including emotion regulation, behavior, and physical health outcomes ( 80 ), future programs should make intentional efforts to engage fathers and test whether outcomes differ based on caregiver involvement. Intervention Outcomes on Child Emotional and Physical Health (Objective 2) We synthesized intervention effects across 264 child outcomes. While fewer than half of reported effects were statistically significant, a majority of interventions demonstrated at least some positive impact. Overall, parenting programs demonstrated more consistent positive impacts on child emotional health than on physical health outcomes. Among emotional outcomes, the greatest effects were observed for the cognitive-behavioral functioning subdomain (i.e., 56% of observed effects were positive). For physical health, improvements were more modest, with the greatest positive effects seen in child sleep; fewer effects were found for eating habits, physical activity or BMI-related indicators. Nonetheless, 59% of interventions produced “dual effects,” or improvement on both health domains, underscoring the potential of positive parenting programs to promote integrated child well-being. These findings are particularly striking given that many parenting interventions have historically focused on a single domain, and few prior reviews have examined cross-over effects ( 26 , 29 ). It is worth noting, however, that our synthesis may overemphasize the presence of intervention effects, as studies reporting a large number of outcomes were more likely to report at least one significant finding in each domain. That said, null findings were common, particularly for physical health outcomes. Notably, a substantial proportion (92%) of the null findings for physical health outcomes pertained to BMI, a metric that is historically difficult to influence through intervention ( 24 , 25 ). Considering BMI's limited sensitivity to change, future research should exercise caution in using it as the main indicator of physical health and instead consider including alternative or additional health metrics. A second potential explanation is that many interventions lacked a strong and balanced dual focus. Rather than fully integrating components that target both emotional and physical health, many programs emphasized one domain over the other. For example, the Strongest Families Smart Website intervention ( 74 ) incorporated numerous positive parenting strategies aimed at improving children’s emotional and behavioral functioning but contained no explicit content addressing child physical health. Conversely, the ENTREN-F program ( 72 ) focused heavily on promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors, such as diet and physical activity, yet offered limited content on using positive parenting strategies to impact child social or emotional health. This imbalance in focus may reduce the likelihood of producing robust, cross-domain effects. In contrast, interventions with a more integrated approach, such as FCU4Health ( 33 , 34 ), appear better positioned to impact both domains. FCU4Health included a strong foundation in positive parenting skills, coupled with actionable strategies for improving child sleep hygiene, limiting unhealthy snacking, and managing screen use. Notably, it demonstrated positive effects across both emotional and physical health outcomes, illustrating the potential of fully dual-focused models. A third factor contributing to the inconsistent findings may be the substantial variability in intervention content across studies. The breadth of components included in the programs makes it challenging to tease apart which ingredients are most effective in improving specific emotional and physical health outcomes. Although bundling components into comprehensive intervention packages is supported by prior research ( 82 ), further studies are needed to determine the unique and additive effects of individual intervention components. Future research employing meta-analytic techniques or experimental designs (e.g., factorial or SMART designs) rooted in optimization frameworks may be especially valuable for identifying which intervention components or combinations produce the strongest effects in each health domain ( 83 ). Such work could advance the precision and efficiency of parenting interventions targeting both emotional and physical health. Incorporation of a Health Equity Lens (Objective 3) The present review revealed minimal attention to health equity across included studies. Most samples were predominantly White, middle-class, highly educated, and conducted in high-income countries, particularly the U.S. and Europe. Although nearly all studies reported basic sociodemographic characteristics, few went further to strategically recruit minoritized populations, test for subgroup differences, or apply culturally informed adaptations or frameworks. This lack of equity integration mirrors broader gaps highlighted in prior reviews of health promotion interventions ( 35 ). Overlooking equity principles may constrain both the generalizability and effectiveness of dual-focused parenting programs, especially for families disproportionately impacted by structural disadvantage ( 84 ). That said, a small number of studies offer promising models for equity-focused design. For example, the enhanced ParentCorps intervention was co-developed with community partners to ensure alignment with the cultural values, lived experiences, and contextual stressors facing low-income families of diverse racial backgrounds ( 47 ). This partnership-driven approach helped to foster trust, ensure relevance, and increase engagement in a historically underserved population. Similarly, the FCU4Health intervention ( 33 , 34 ) applied a cultural tailoring framework that emphasized flexible, values-based delivery rather than broad, uniform adaptations. Rather than presuming cultural homogeneity within racialized groups, the FCU4Health model emphasized shared, cross-cultural human values (e.g., the importance of family, storytelling, and collaboration) and allowed for cultural tailoring within sessions. Facilitators were encouraged to address the broader structural and environmental contexts contributing to child health challenges (e.g., poverty, discrimination), lending to a more holistic, equity-informed approach. These two exemplars underscore the feasibility and importance of embedding cultural responsiveness into dual-focused parenting programs. Future research should prioritize participatory design approaches, test equity-focused mechanisms of change, and examine how cultural tailoring strategies influence program engagement, fidelity, and outcomes across diverse family systems. Strengths and Limitations This review is strengthened by rigorous methods, including pre-registration, peer-reviewed search strategies, blinded screening and extraction by multiple coders, and supplementary searches of trial registries and reference lists to maximize completeness. The review also extends prior work by systematically evaluating health equity considerations. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, we did not conduct a formal risk of bias assessment. While this is a common omission in scoping reviews, it is important for interpreting the strength of available evidence once a body of literature becomes more substantial ( 39 ). Second, extraction of intervention components relied solely on published reports or linked citations. Some programs may include additional elements not fully described in our review of the literature. Third, variation in outcome reporting across studies, particularly outliers with very large numbers of reported outcomes, may have influenced our synthesis of effects. Future reviews could address this by the use of weighting or by conducting sensitivity analyses. Fourth, we were not able to extract consistent information about the designation of primary versus secondary outcomes, which limited our ability to interpret the strength of each study's dual focus. Fifth, we were also unable to systematically account for differences in how each outcome was measured (e.g., use of different measurement tools or reporters), which limited our ability to assess the robustness of the findings across emotional and physical health outcomes. Implications This scoping review provides new insights into the state of dual-focused parenting interventions designed to promote children’s emotional and physical health. Although these interventions are relatively scant, the growing body of literature suggests that parenting-focused approaches can influence both child domains, offering a promising public health strategy to address complex, co-occurring health needs in children. Given the rising rates of childhood mental health concerns, obesity, and other challenging conditions ( 85 ) (which are often exacerbated by structural inequities ( 3 )), investing in parenting interventions that build skills and protective family processes could help interrupt adverse health trajectories. Moreover, supporting parents through scalable interventions may complement broader public health and policy initiatives by addressing upstream drivers of health disparities (e.g., ( 86 )). Successful examples of this approach already exist. For instance, state-level partnerships to embed evidence-based parenting programs, like the Family Check-Up, into primary care settings show promise in expanding access to quality parenting supports for families facing economic disadvantages ( 87 , 88 ). Future research should aim to expand this field in several important ways. First, there is a need to develop more brief, universally delivered interventions that can reach families across the population, not just those with identified risks, given that many existing interventions are lengthy (10–20 sessions) and narrowly targeted (focused on a specific disorder). Second, advancing the science of intervention optimization will be valuable. Research that identifies which parenting components are most effective for improving different child health outcomes would help strengthen intervention design. Approaches such as the Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) ( 83 ) could provide a useful framework for refining dual-focused interventions and addressing the high proportion of null effects observed in the current literature. Building this knowledge base is critical for informing the next generation of parenting programs. Ultimately, integrating dual-focused parenting supports into public health infrastructure could help address pressing child health crises and advance health equity on a population scale. Declarations Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate This scoping review relied solely on previously published studies identified through scientific database searches, no primary data were collected, and thus ethical approval and informed consent were not required. Consent for publication Consent for publication is not applicable because no participants were recruited for this scoping review. Availability of Data and Materials The full search strategy for all databases and extraction and charting forms will be made available upon reasonable request. The full search strategy for PubMed and extraction template is included in the supplemental files. Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This project is supported by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (P20 GM130420; Ronald Prinz). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of these institutes or the National Institutes of Health. Author Contributions D.K.C. designed the study aims and methodology, completed article screens, data extractions, charting, and took the lead role in writing this manuscript. J.A. and F.L. engaged in replicating electronic database searches, article screening, data extraction, and charting. S.S. performed the manual article searching, data extraction and charting. N.M.G. provided input on review methodology and study conceptualization. J.M. conducted manual article searches and data extraction. All authors (D.K.C., J.A., F.L., S.S, N.M.G., G.W., J.M, S.R.E., R.P. and M.B.) contributed to writing sections of the manuscript and read and approved the final product. 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A Pilot Study of Parent Training in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Disruptive Behavior. J Autism Dev Disord. 2013;43(4):829–40. Chesnut R, DiNallo JM, Czymoniewicz-Klippel MT, Perkins DF. The Grow parenting program: demonstrating proof of concept. Health Educ. 2018;118(5):413–30. Chevalier LL. Evaluation of a treatment of sleep-related problems in children with anxiety using a multiple baseline design [Internet]. ProQuest Information & Learning; 2021. Available from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2021-27913-103&site=ehost-live&scope=site&custid=s3604775 Davis AM, Sampilo M, Gallagher KS, Landrum Y, Malone B. Treating Rural Pediatric Obesity Through Telemedicine: Outcomes From a Small Randomized Controlled Trial. J Pediatr Psychol. 2013;38(9):932–43. Domoff SE, Overton MM, Borgen AL, Niec LN. Adapting PCIT-Health for Telehealth Delivery: A Case Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(14):8352. Eiffener E, Eli K, Ek A, Sandvik P, Somaraki M, Kremers S, et al. The influence of preschoolers’ emotional and behavioural problems on obesity treatment outcomes: Secondary findings from a randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Obes. 2019;14(11):e12556. Gonzalez ES, Tran N, Wholly D, Kuhn M, Stein MA, Mendoza J, et al. Parent Behavior Management Training for Child ADHD Enhanced to Address Health Behaviors: Comparison of Telemedicine Telegroup Versus In-Person Delivery. J Atten Disord. 2023;27(9):979–88. Hiscock H, Sciberras E, Mensah F, Gerner B, Efron D, Khano S, et al. Impact of a behavioural sleep intervention on symptoms and sleep in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and parental mental health: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2015;350(jan20 1):h68–68. Johnson CR, Foldes E, DeMand A, Brooks MM. Behavioral Parent Training to Address Feeding Problems in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Pilot Trial. J Dev Phys Disabil. 2015;27(5):591–607. Johnson CR, Brown K, Hyman SL, Brooks MM, Aponte C, Levato L, et al. Parent Training for Feeding Problems in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Initial Randomized Trial. J Pediatr Psychol. 2019;44(2):164–75. Khaddouma A, Gordon KC, Bolden J. Mindful M&M’s: Mindfulness and Parent Training for a Preschool Child With Disruptive Behavior Disorder. Clin Case Stud. 2015;14(6):407–21. Khoo CS, Ramachandram S. The Effect of Parent Training Programmes on Screen Time and Social Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Malays J Med Sci. 2022;29(6):146–57. Kidwell KM, McGinnis JC, Nguyen AV, Arcidiacono SJ, Nelson TD. A pilot study examining the effectiveness of brief sleep treatment to improve children’s emotional and behavioral functioning. Child Health Care. 2019;48(3):314–31. Malow BA, Adkins KW, Reynolds A, Weiss SK, Loh A, Fawkes D, et al. Parent-Based Sleep Education for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(1):216–28. McQuillan ME. Parenting, stress, and sleep: Processes of stability and change in community and clinic samples [Internet]. ProQuest Information & Learning; 2020. Available from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2020-51430-006&site=ehost-live&scope=site&custid=s3604775 Morawska A, Adamson M, Hinchliffe K, Adams T. Hassle Free Mealtimes Triple P: A randomised controlled trial of a brief parenting group for childhood mealtime difficulties. Behav Res Ther. 2014;53:1–9. Raby T. Girls growing in Wellness and Balance: Examining the efficacy of a parent program in eating disorder prevention [Internet]. ProQuest Information & Learning; 2013. Available from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2013-99240-508&site=ehost-live&scope=site&custid=s3604775 Rafihi-Ferreira RE, Silvares EFM, Asbahr FR, Ollendick TH. Brief treatment for nighttime fears and co-sleeping problems: A randomized clinical trial. J Anxiety Disord. 2018;58:51–60. Rohacek A, Baxter EL, Sullivan WE, Roane HS, Antshel KM. A Preliminary Evaluation of a Brief Behavioral Parent Training for Challenging Behavior in Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2023;53(8):2964–74. Saßmann H, De Hair M, Danne T, Lange K. Reducing stress and supporting positive relations in families of young children with type 1 diabetes: A randomized controlled study for evaluating the effects of the DELFIN parenting program. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12(1):152. Sepúlveda AR, Solano S, Blanco M, Lacruz T, Veiga O. Feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of a multidisciplinary intervention in childhood obesity from primary care: Nutrition, physical activity, emotional regulation, and family. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2020;28(2):184–98. Small L, Thacker L, Aldrich H, Bonds-McClain D, Melnyk B. A Pilot Intervention Designed to Address Behavioral Factors That Place Overweight/Obese Young Children at Risk for Later-Life Obesity. West J Nurs Res. 2017;39(8):1192–212. Sourander A, McGrath PJ, Ristkari T, Cunningham C, Huttunen J, Lingley-Pottie P, et al. Internet-Assisted Parent Training Intervention for Disruptive Behavior in 4-Year-Old Children: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(4):378. Stewart SE, Gordon JE. Parent-Assisted Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Children’s Nighttime Fear. Behav Change. 2014;31(4):243–57. Westrupp E, Northam E, Lee K, Scratch S, Cameron F. Reducing and preventing internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in children with type 1 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: Triple P for children with type 1 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2015;16(7):554–63. Prinz RJ, Sanders MR, Shapiro CJ, Whitaker DJ, Lutzker JR. Population-Based Prevention of Child Maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P System Population Trial. Prev Sci. 2009;10(1):1–12. Goodman SH, Rouse MH, Connell AM, Broth MR, Hall CM, Heyward D. Maternal Depression and Child Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2011;14(1):1–27. Piehler TF, Lee SS, Bloomquist ML, August GJ. Moderating Effects of Parental Well-Being on Parenting Efficacy Outcomes by Intervention Delivery Model of the Early Risers Conduct Problems Prevention Program. J Prim Prev. 2014;35(5):321–37. Bosqui T, Mayya A, Farah S, Shaito Z, Jordans MJD, Pedersen G, et al. Parenting and family interventions in lower and middle-income countries for child and adolescent mental health: A systematic review. Compr Psychiatry. 2024;132:152483. Gonzalez JC, Klein CC, Barnett ML, Schatz NK, Garoosi T, Chacko A, et al. Intervention and Implementation Characteristics to Enhance Father Engagement: A Systematic Review of Parenting Interventions. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26(2):445–58. Leijten P, Gardner F, Melendez-Torres GJ, van Aar J, Hutchings J, Schulz S, et al. Meta-Analyses: Key Parenting Program Components for Disruptive Child Behavior. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;58(2):180–90. Collins LM. Optimization of Behavioral, Biobehavioral, and Biomedical Interventions: The Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018 [cited 2025 Jun 25]. (Statistics for Social and Behavioral Sciences). Available from: http://link.springer.com/ 10.1007/978-3-319-72206-1 Hall GCN, Ibaraki AY, Huang ER, Marti CN, Stice E. A Meta-Analysis of Cultural Adaptations of Psychological Interventions. Behav Ther. 2016;47(6):993–1014. Lebrun-Harris LA, Ghandour RM, Kogan MD, Warren MD. Five-Year Trends in US Children’s Health and Well-being, 2016–2020. JAMA Pediatr. 2022;176(7):e220056. Prinz RJ. A Population Approach to Parenting Support and Prevention: The Triple P System. Future Child. 2019;29(1):123–43. Dermody TS, Ettinger A, Savage Friedman F, Chavis V, Miller E. The Pittsburgh Study: Learning with Communities About Child Health and Thriving. Health Equity. 2022;6(1):338–44. Oregon Health Authority. Oregon launches Family Connects, a universally offered home visiting program to support health of newborns, families : External Relations Division : State of Oregon [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2025 Jun 24]. Available from: https://www.oregon.gov/oha/erd/pages/oregon-launches-family-connects-support-health-newborns-families.aspx Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7150758","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":504784060,"identity":"6739327f-7792-4793-b14c-581f1360d253","order_by":0,"name":"Daniel K. Cooper","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAwzpPz4wMPDwScCFEghqeSA5A6iFjQQtjA+keYA08Vr4jh9OMLbNsZNhk24+JsHwx46Bnz3HAK8WyTNpCcm525J52GSOJRswtiUzSPa8wa/F4AZPwuHcbcxAv+QYPmBsOAAUIWCLwQ3+j82W2+pBWgwOMPw5wGBPWAtDMjPjtsMQWxjYgLZIEPRLQhpj77bjEL8ktiXzSJx5VoBXC9/xA2kMP7dV2/ODQuzDHzs5/vbkDXi1oIIEYJySoHwUjIJRMApGAS4AABPEQU6LY10NAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Cooper","suffix":""},{"id":504784061,"identity":"2f1ab180-b4fc-4959-a8ab-42eeb3d021c9","order_by":1,"name":"Jayxa K. Alonzo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jayxa","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Alonzo","suffix":""},{"id":504784062,"identity":"7e0d451f-e36e-4588-988e-5073a58d0c6a","order_by":2,"name":"Francesca Lupini","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Francesca","middleName":"","lastName":"Lupini","suffix":""},{"id":504784063,"identity":"75f158c0-284d-4dce-998a-3b62272a5347","order_by":3,"name":"Subina Saini","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Subina","middleName":"","lastName":"Saini","suffix":""},{"id":504784064,"identity":"05bd3974-f864-4a2f-868b-673bc7b8a279","order_by":4,"name":"Nada M. Goodrum","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nada","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Goodrum","suffix":""},{"id":504784065,"identity":"4bbb628b-c79a-4fca-bd73-1d61a50d3ca9","order_by":5,"name":"Guillermo Wippold","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guillermo","middleName":"","lastName":"Wippold","suffix":""},{"id":504784066,"identity":"76e5cc97-4d99-458b-ae4b-c4575fa7a68b","order_by":6,"name":"Jada Mobley","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina Upstate","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jada","middleName":"","lastName":"Mobley","suffix":""},{"id":504784067,"identity":"7d77fae6-0733-46fb-8bf8-cba16fcf9b32","order_by":7,"name":"Sarah R. Edmunds","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarah","middleName":"R.","lastName":"Edmunds","suffix":""},{"id":504784068,"identity":"82c979aa-ee70-41bc-aead-541e3bce63cc","order_by":8,"name":"Ronald Prinz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ronald","middleName":"","lastName":"Prinz","suffix":""},{"id":504784069,"identity":"c92b9648-e4db-4bb7-9be5-dc8fd1a0f840","order_by":9,"name":"Michael Beets","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Carolina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"","lastName":"Beets","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-17 15:53:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7150758/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7150758/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89985326,"identity":"69d7c936-093c-4abb-8230-08a6cad605bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 06:43:23","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":260148,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePRISMA Flow Diagram\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. The term “studies” in this figure refers to the number of included articles, which may not correspond to the number of unique interventions. In some cases, multiple articles report on the same intervention or study. The final 31 studies included in our review described 29 unique interventions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7150758/v1/dd823d70974d9c6cb718456a.png"},{"id":89985752,"identity":"2b21dd67-f1bc-4cab-a4b5-3c7834ff8c3d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 06:51:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1794758,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7150758/v1/2a7cf1f5-eac4-43fe-afba-65231c2b614a.pdf"},{"id":89983994,"identity":"6721573e-4a16-4ef8-939c-6ed79cb80ed8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 06:35:23","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16085,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementalFile1PubMedSearchStrategy.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7150758/v1/86eb38aa8faede813810d254.docx"},{"id":89983998,"identity":"1a9aab33-645f-42d7-8195-8250cd949e01","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-27 06:35:23","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":14204,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementalFile2ExtractionFormTemplate.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7150758/v1/da19ea630b00d0151db9e2f0.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A Scoping Review of Parenting Interventions with a Dual Focus on Improving Child Emotional and Physical Health","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eChild emotional and physical health are deeply interconnected, with an estimated 15% of children experiencing mental-physical multimorbidity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) and extensive evidence linking emotional and physical health problems (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In this review, emotional health refers to social, emotional, and cognitive-behavioral functioning, while physical health encompasses healthy lifestyle behaviors (e.g., sleep, eating habits, physical activity) and physical health-related indicators (e.g., weight/BMI, disease symptoms, somatic issues). These outcomes also share common social determinants, including neighborhood conditions, access to quality education and healthcare, structural racism, and supportive family relationships, that shape lifelong health trajectories (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Importantly, children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds are disproportionately affected by these adverse social determinants, placing them at elevated risk for both emotional and physical health disparities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Positive parenting practices represent one of the most powerful and modifiable levers for improving child well-being (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), making parenting interventions an important public health strategy. Programs that promote effective communication, positive reinforcement, limit setting, and consistent discipline have demonstrated success in reducing child behavioral problems while also fostering healthier lifestyle behaviors, such as improved sleep, eating habits, and physical activity (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR8\" citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Systematic reviews have found that interventions incorporating parenting skills training can substantially impact both child social-behavioral-emotional outcomes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) and physical health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this evidence, most interventions have targeted either emotional or physical health in isolation, missing opportunities to address these interlinked domains simultaneously. \u003cem\u003eDual-focused parenting interventions\u003c/em\u003e that integrate both emotional and physical health promotion may be more effective, less burdensome for families, and especially valuable in addressing upstream drivers of health disparities. However, little is known about the scope, design, and impact of these programs. To address this gap, the present scoping review systematically examined dual-focused parenting interventions to assess the types of components used, outcomes targeted, and how equity considerations were incorporated, providing timely insights to guide more holistic and equitable approaches to child health promotion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePositive Parenting and Child Emotional and Physical Health\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is robust evidence that positive parenting, both as a naturally occurring behavior and as an intervention target, is associated with improved child emotional and physical health outcomes. Observational studies consistently demonstrate that higher levels of positive parenting (e.g., parental warmth, responsiveness, appropriate discipline) and lower levels of harsh parenting (e.g., yelling, spanking) are linked to greater child prosocial behavior, fewer internalizing and externalizing problems, and healthier lifestyle behaviors, including sleep, eating habits, and physical activity (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). For example, an international study of over 200,000 parents across 60 countries found that aggressive discipline practices (e.g., shouting, hitting) were associated with higher levels of child aggression and inattention, whereas non-aggressive discipline (e.g., reasoning) was linked to greater prosocial behavior (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, systematic reviews have demonstrated that positive parenting practices are consistently associated with healthier child eating, physical activity, and sleep behaviors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). For example, studies have indicated that harsh or coercive parenting predicts poorer child eating habits and reduced sleep duration (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e), while supportive parenting predicts greater physical activity and better dietary patterns (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental studies further support the causal role of parenting in shaping child health outcomes. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrate that parenting interventions can effectively reduce harsh discipline and increase positive parenting behaviors, which in turn mediate improvements in children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral functioning (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). For example, a meta-analysis of 14 RCTs found that reductions in harsh verbal and physical discipline following parenting interventions mediated decreases in child disruptive behavior (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Though fewer studies have experimentally examined parenting behaviors and child physical health outcomes, available evidence suggests similar pathways. One study found that increases in lifestyle-related parenting practices following a parenting intervention mediated improvements in child physical activity among obese fathers and their children (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite this growing body of evidence, most parenting intervention research has remained siloed, focusing either on emotional or physical health outcomes, but rarely both. This remains the case even as the broader evidence base underscores the importance of addressing both domains in a unified approach. Widely disseminated parenting programs, such as Triple P and The Incredible Years, while highly effective in improving child emotional and behavioral outcomes, have traditionally given little focus to child physical health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, many of the largest family-based physical health interventions, including landmark obesity prevention trials (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e), have largely neglected children\u0026rsquo;s emotional health. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that interventions targeting one domain may yield benefits in a domain that was not targeted (i.e., cross-over or ripple effects (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e)). For example, a multisite evaluation of the Family Check-Up (FCU), an intervention originally designed to improve parenting and prevent conduct problems, demonstrated long-term positive effects on children\u0026rsquo;s diet and obesity outcomes from early childhood through middle childhood (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Systematic reviews of lifestyle interventions in children and adults similarly report frequent cross-over effects on mental health and well-being (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, there has been growing recognition of the potential to leverage positive parenting interventions to jointly promote children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and physical health. Emerging dual-focused models include adaptations of existing programs and novel interventions explicitly designed for this purpose (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Lifestyle Triple P, an adaptation that directs parenting skills typically applied to child behavioral and emotional difficulties to the promotion of child nutrition and physical activity, has shown promising effects on child BMI and related behaviors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the FCU has been enhanced to incorporate obesity prevention content for young children from racially and economically diverse backgrounds, yielding positive effects on both emotional regulation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e) and physical health outcomes (e.g., child health behaviors, BMI). Despite these advances, no comprehensive review has synthesized the current landscape of dual-focus parenting interventions. A systematic understanding of this growing field is critical for informing future intervention development, implementation, and dissemination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEquity-Focused Approaches to Child Health Promotion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the substantial health inequities and structural barriers faced by minoritized populations, there is increasing recognition that child health promotion efforts must incorporate a more deliberate and substantive focus on equity (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR36\" citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). The main driver of these health inequities is structural racism, a system of policies, practices, and cultural norms that collectively reinforce one another to sustain racial inequality (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This has led to unequal distribution of resources and differences in exposure to social determinants of health, such as access to safe neighborhoods, affordable housing, quality education, healthcare, and healthy food. Such inequitable environmental conditions, created and maintained by structural racism, are shown to be detrimental to public health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) and have been likened to swimming in toxic waters (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). As public health researchers and practitioners, our role is to help detoxify these waters by creating new streams, tides, and currents that dismantle structural racism and move towards health equity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile there is growing momentum toward equity in child health promotion, health equity frameworks have been underutilized in dual-focused parenting interventions that target both emotional and physical health. This is a critical gap, given that structural inequities often operate across and between these domains. For example, chronic stress related to racism and poverty can simultaneously disrupt emotional regulation and sleep, while neighborhood conditions may limit both opportunities for physical activity and access to culturally relevant mental health supports (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Dual-focused interventions are uniquely positioned to address the intersections of these challenges, but only if equity is at the center of their design and evaluation. Yet, a systematic review of 240 programs listed in the Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development online clearinghouse found that most did not qualify as equity-promoting interventions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). For example, only 31% of programs were culturally tailored and just 19% tested for subgroup differences in intervention effects. Insufficient attention to equity in program design, delivery, and evaluation represents an important limitation. To help address this issue, the present review expanded on the criteria outlined by Buckley et al. to assess how equity considerations have been incorporated into dual-focused parenting interventions aimed at improving child emotional and physical health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePresent Study\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the increasingly recognized importance of integrated, family-based approaches to child health, there is a need for a comprehensive review that evaluates interventions targeting both emotional and physical health outcomes in children. The present scoping review addressed this need by systematically assessing the extent and nature of the available research on parenting interventions with a dual focus on child emotional and physical health. The objectives of this scoping review were to synthesize and describe: (a) the intervention characteristics and components; (b) the findings related to child emotional and physical health; and (c) the extent to which interventions incorporated a focus on health equity. Generating a clearer understanding of the current literature is critical to guiding the development of future intervention strategies that are both holistic and equity-focused in promoting child health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProtocol and Registration\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo accomplish these aims, we conducted a scoping review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e) and the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). It was also informed by Tawfik et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e) scoping review methodology. The protocol was preregistered in PROSPERO (CRD42023369266) on March 18, 2023. The methods used to identify, select, and analyze relevant studies are detailed below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEligibility Criteria\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEligibility criteria were developed using the PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome) framework (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). Studies were included if they met the following criteria: (a) included children ages 2\u0026ndash;12; (b) the intervention was a parenting program delivered directly to parents, with explicit instruction in positive parenting skills (e.g., communication, problem-solving, positive reinforcement, limit setting, effective discipline, or strategies for effective play); (c) included at least one pre- and post-intervention measure of child emotional health (defined as social, emotional, or cognitive-behavioral functioning); (d) included at least one pre-post measure of child physical health (defined as healthy lifestyle behaviors or physical health-related indicators); and (e) included peer-reviewed articles, preprints, or dissertations published in English between 2013 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe focused on the 2 to 12 age range because this period represents a phase of parenting during which parents serve as the primary socialization agents, and positive parenting practices are central to shaping both emotional and physical health outcomes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e). Parenting skills and strategies during this phase differ considerably from those used with infants (which are more focused on attachment and basic care) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e) or with adolescents (which increasingly emphasize autonomy and peer relationships) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e), and many positive parenting intervention studies target families within this age range (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). To meet our definition of a parenting intervention, programs were required to provide more than simply parent involvement or parent education. Specifically, interventions needed to offer active training or skill development in core positive parenting practices (specified above) that promote child emotional and physical well-being. Studies that did not meet these criteria were excluded from the review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSearch Strategy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe conducted comprehensive searches across the following electronic databases: PubMed, PsychINFO, CINAHL, Embase, and Web of Science (grey literature), which included Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), Arts \u0026amp; Humanities Citation Index (A\u0026amp;HCI), Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI), Current Chemical Reactions (CCR-EXPANDED), and Index Chemicus (IC). The search strategy was designed to identify studies focused on the target population (children ages 2\u0026ndash;12 years), interventions (parent training programs), and outcomes (child emotional and physical health-related indicators).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn iterative search development process was used in collaboration with a University Librarian and members of the research team. Initial search terms were drafted by the first author and peer-reviewed by three study team members using the \u003cem\u003eEvidence-Based Checklist for the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies\u003c/em\u003e (PRESS EBC) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). The search strategy was then tested and verified by two additional team members to confirm the accuracy and reproducibility of results (see Supplemental File 1 for the full search string for PubMed). These search terms were then adapted to fit the format of the other databases. Search results from each database were exported as RIS files and imported to Covidence, where duplicates were automatically identified and removed prior to screening. All database searches were completed in March and April 2023. The review was limited to peer-reviewed articles and grey literature (i.e., preprints and dissertations). Reference lists and clinical trials registry numbers of included articles were screened to identify additional relevant studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Selection Process\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticles were selected using a two-step screening process conducted by two independent, blinded reviewers. In the first phase, titles and abstracts were screened to assess potential eligibility for full-text review. Prior to initiating full screening, the team piloted the process on a random sample of 10 articles to ensure consistency in applying eligibility criteria. Any discrepancies were discussed, and screening procedures were refined accordingly. After piloting, the two reviewers independently screened all titles and abstracts, with conflicts resolved through discussion and consensus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the second phase, the same two reviewers independently assessed the full texts of all articles identified as potentially eligible. As with title and abstract screening, discrepancies in full-text decisions were reconciled through discussion until consensus was reached.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo enhance completeness, we conducted two additional steps: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) searches of clinical trials registries to identify reports of relevant intervention outcomes not captured in the initial database search, and (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) hand-searching the reference lists of included articles to identify additional eligible studies (or to find articles that included a greater description of the intervention components). The full selection process is illustrated in the PRISMA flow diagram (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eData Extraction\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticles were divided between four team members, with the first author reviewing all included articles, and the other three team members serving as the second reviewer (each reviewing one-third of the articles). Data were independently extracted using both the Covidence Extraction Tool and standardized Excel spreadsheets. The extraction process was guided by the PICO framework and included the following domains: participant and study characteristics (e.g., participant demographics, study country, study design, number of intervention arms), intervention characteristics (e.g., number and length of sessions, delivery setting and format, intervention components), and study outcomes (pre-post changes in child emotional and physical health).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the team extracted information related to the application of a health equity lens, based on an expanded version of the criteria outlined by Buckley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, we coded whether each study: (a) reported the sociocultural characteristics of the sample (e.g., ethnicity/race, nativity, socioeconomic status, sexual or gender identity); (b) employed purposeful recruitment efforts to engage minoritized groups (e.g., explicitly reported a specific strategy for enhancing the sociocultural diversity of their sample); (c) tested for subgroup differences in intervention effects across minoritized groups (e.g., compared intervention effects across racial and ethnic groups); (d) stated explicit health equity objectives; and (e) culturally adapted or tailored the intervention. All extracted data were reviewed for accuracy and consistency, with extraction dyads reaching consensus on each article prior to finalizing the data. The resulting data charting form is available in Supplemental File 2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eData Synthesis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter data extraction was complete, we conducted a descriptive synthesis of the included studies, focusing on key study and participant information, intervention characteristics and components, and study findings. As a first step, we generated a summary of basic study characteristics and participant demographics by calculating pooled means across studies (full details about these calculations are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e description). Studies were then categorized by core intervention features, including delivery length and format (e.g., group-based, individual, hybrid), setting (e.g., community, school, clinic, home, virtual or in-person), and intervention components (e.g., positive parenting skills, health education, and child components). Next, studies were classified based on the degree to which they applied a health equity lens using the aforementioned criteria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntervention outcomes were synthesized and categorized by domain: (a) child emotional health (i.e., social, emotional, and cognitive-behavioral functioning) and (b) child physical health, including healthy lifestyle behaviors (i.e., sleep, eating habits, physical activity, and screen time) and broader physical health indicators (i.e., weight, BMI, disease symptom management, and somatic concerns). Intervention effects were classified as beneficial (i.e., significant improvements in the intended direction), adverse (i.e., significant iatrogenic effects), or null (i.e., no significant effects), based on a significance level of \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05. When available, group \u0026times; time interactions were prioritized for evaluating outcomes. In addition, studies were coded according to their breadth of impact: those demonstrating improvements in one domain were labeled as having a \u0026ldquo;single effect,\u0026rdquo; those showing improvements in both domains as having a \u0026ldquo;dual effect,\u0026rdquo; and those with no improvements as having \u0026ldquo;no effect.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs this is a scoping review, no formal meta-analysis was conducted. Instead, the data synthesis followed an iterative process in which the first author and study team developed and refined categories to best capture the patterns of intervention content and outcomes contained in the literature. Findings are summarized descriptively and presented in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e to support transparency and replicability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelection of Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe initial search yielded 2,065 records: 1,869 from the database search and 196 from the reference lists of included articles. After duplicate removal, 971 unique records remained. Title and abstract screening (\u003cem\u003eN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 971) was conducted in Covidence by two independent reviewers. Full-text review was completed for 122 articles. Any discrepancies in coding (e.g., discordant inclusion/exclusion decisions) were resolved through consensus discussions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe most common reasons for exclusion at the full-text stage were: (1) not reporting pre-post measures of both child emotional and physical health outcomes; (2) not targeting the specified child age range (2-12 years); or (3) the intervention not meeting inclusion criteria for parent training (e.g., school-based program only, child-only intervention). Following this process, 31 articles representing 29 unique interventions met full eligibility criteria and were included in the final synthesis (see Figure 1 for PRISMA flow diagram).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy and Participant Characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 summarizes the key characteristics of the 31 included studies. Most interventions were conducted in the United States (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 20, 65%), with the remaining studies based in Europe (Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Germany, and Spain), Australia, Malaysia, and Brazil. Studies employed a range of research designs, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs; \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 19, 61%), prospective cohort studies (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 9, 29%), and case studies (studies with less than 5 participants; \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 3, 10%). Samples ranged from one to 697 participants, with a pooled average sample size of 109. Across the studies, mothers were overrepresented, with an average of 86% of participants being mothers. No included study reported a sample with greater than 50% father participation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipant demographics varied considerably across studies. While a portion of studies recruited racially and ethnically diverse samples, the majority included predominantly White, non-Hispanic families. Only three studies included samples in which over 50% of participants identified as members of racially or ethnically minoritized groups. Across all studies, households tended to be middle or high-income, two-parent (77%), and highly educated (58%).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy and Participant Characteristics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 400px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Totals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePooled Means\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of studies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudy country\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;US\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Outside US\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudy design\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;RCT (RCT or cluster RCT)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Prospective cohort study\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Case study\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean sample size\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e109 participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Range\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-697 participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean child age\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.6 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild gender (mean % girls)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild ethnic-racial background\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Black or African American\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Hispanic or Latin\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Asian or Asian American\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Indigenous or Native American\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;White\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean parent age\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.8 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent gender (% mothers)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86% mothers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent education\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;High school or less\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;More than high school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFamily structure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Two-parent home\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 224px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Single-parent home\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 209px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18%\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. Study totals were calculated based on data provided in the included studies. Due to inconsistent reporting, many categories had substantial missing data. Pooled means = child and parent characteristics were calculated as unweighted pooled means. Number of studies = the number of studies that reported data in this category (e.g., 10 studies reported the percentage of Black or African American children in their sample). Parent education = High school or less included parents with a high school degree or equivalent (e.g., GED, completed secondary education); more than high school included parents who completed some college, had college degrees or higher. Family structure = two-parent home included parents who were married or reported having two parents or caregivers living in the home; single-parent home included families with one parent living in the home. \u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eStudy country does not add up to 100% because one study was conducted in multiple countries and therefore counted in both category options.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention Characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 29 unique parenting interventions included in this review were highly variable in their focus, format, and delivery. Most studies focused on the prevention or treatment of specific child behavioral or emotional difficulties (e.g., externalizing problems, anxiety, ASD-related behaviors) or child health problems (e.g., overweight/obesity). Only a minority (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 3, 10%) used a universal prevention approach aimed at promoting general child well-being. Intervention settings varied widely: over one third were delivered in medical settings (e.g., hospitals, pediatric clinics; \u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 10, 34%), with others conducted in clinical mental health settings (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 7, 24%), or directly in the home (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4, 14%). Increasingly, interventions incorporated online delivery or flexible delivery formats, either as stand-alone digital programs (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4, 14%) or as blended models combining two or more formats, such as offering phone or online sessions paired with in-person sessions (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 11, 38%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntervention formats ranged from brief, single-session workshops (46) to multi-session, manualized programs delivered over several months (47), with session frequency typically weekly or biweekly. Lumeng et al.\u0026rsquo;s intervention was the longest, with 14 parenting sessions and over 60 school-based child lessons (48). Theoretical foundations were diverse but often drew from well-established frameworks, including social learning theory, cognitive-behavioral principles, attachment theory, and family systems models. Only 41% (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 12) of the studies reported their guiding intervention theory. However, nearly all studies described using strategies that aligned with social learning theory (49) or operant learning theory (50), which aim to interrupt conflictual patterns of interaction using behavioral reinforcements and consequences. Interventionists most often included highly trained master\u0026rsquo;s or doctoral-level professionals (e.g., psychologists, nurses, social workers). Table 2 provides an overview of key intervention components.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, we assessed programs for their incorporation of a health equity lens, building on Buckley et al. (35). Overall, few studies had a strong focus on health equity based on our evaluation criteria. Although many studies reported on one or more sociocultural characteristics of their sample (e.g., ethnicity-race, income/SES), few studies used purposeful recruiting methods (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 5, 19%), tested for subgroup differences in intervention effects (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 2, 8%), had explicit health equity objectives (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 5, 19%), or used a culturally tailored (or adapted) interventions (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 3, 12%).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntervention Characteristics (N = 29)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention name (citation)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTarget intervention population\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSetting of intervention\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWho takes part in intervention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWho delivers intervention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup or individual\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLength of Intervention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAttention to Equity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI-InTERACT Express (51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evirtual through hospital settings\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eclinical psychology grad students or licensed psychologists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 40-60 min sessions (plus 1 booster)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1, 3, and 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRUPP (52)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eASD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ein-home and telephone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emasters-level therapists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11-13 60-90 min sessions + 3 booster sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebehavioral analytic orientation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFCU4Health (33,34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoverweight/ obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ein clinic (primary care), at home, or other private\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; location\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etrained FCU4Health coordinators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edosage range: 1.40-719.2 hours, average dosage: 53.79 hours\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1, 2, 3, and 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrow (53)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversal focus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003echild development center or a local YMCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecertified facilitators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 90-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esocial cognitive theory, positive youth development\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent training intervention (54)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprimary anxiety disorder and chronic insomnia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversity mental health center\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprimary investigator\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 90 mins sessions + 4 30-min phone check-ins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFamily-based telemedicine intervention (55)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoverweight/ obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evirtual via telemedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egrad students or licensed psychologists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroups\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 60-min sessions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnhanced ParentCorps (47)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003echildren at risk for obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epublic elementary schools\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emental health professionals, teachers and ed assistants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 120-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003efamily-centered \u0026quot;whole child\u0026quot; approach\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1, 2, 4, and 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePCIT-Health (56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003echildren at risk for obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evirtual - telehealth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParents and child\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eclinical psychology PhD students\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 sessions (length of sessions not reported)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1* (case study)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMore and Less parent group program (57)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoverweight/ obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoutpatient paediatric clinics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etrained dieticians\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 90-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;LEAP (58)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eADHD and physical activity issues\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehospital outpatient clinic or virtual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elicensed psychologists\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8-9 90-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral sleep intervention (59)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eADHD and a parent with sleep problems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epaediatrician\u0026rsquo;s office, the hospital clinic, or home\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elicensed psychologists\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 30-60 min sessions + 1 follow-up phone call\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePT-F (60,61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eASD and feeding problems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emental health clinic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edoctoral or masters level therapists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePilot: 9 60-90 min sessions\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; RCT: 11 60-90 min sessions + 3 virtual parent coaching sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMindful M\u0026amp;M\u0026rsquo;s (62)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edisruptive behavior disorder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversity mental health clinic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etrained practitioner\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 60 min sessions of parent training + 4 60 min sessions of child mindfulness training\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0* (case study)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparent training program (63)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eASD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprimary investigator\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup and individual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 sessions (length of sessions not reported)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 and 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCombined Sleep\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; and Standard Behavioral\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; Treatment (64)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemotional and/or behavioral problems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebehavioral health clinic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edoctoral-level psychologists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-17 sessions (session length not reported)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esleep deficits degrade cognitive functioning and worsen emotion regulation due to sleep\u0026apos;s effects on the prefrontal cortex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHS+POPS+IYS (48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversal (within Head Start)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ein-home and school setting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emaster\u0026rsquo;s-level mental health specialist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup and individual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePOPS: 6 child lessons and 8 75 min parent lessons; IYS: 60 child sessions and 10-14 parent training sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esocial cognitive theory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1, 2, and 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent-based sleep education (65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eASD and sleep difficulties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emedical centers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etrained educators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual or group\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 60-min session or 2 120-min sessions + 2 brief phone calls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Management Training + Sleep Train Program (66)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebehavioral problems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversity mental health clinic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edoctoral student therapists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 60-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHassle Free Mealtimes Triple P (67)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003efeeding or mealtime difficulties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epsychologists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 120-min session\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprinciples of behavioral family intervention and social learning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGirls Growing in Wellness and Balance (68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversal delivery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emiddle school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eschool psychologist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 90-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaudsley method; Minuchin Family Therapy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCBT-based Bibliotherapy Plus Doll (69)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enighttime fears and co-sleeping problems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eclinical setting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edoctoral level therapist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 60-min session + 4 10-20 min phone sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCBT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1, 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral parent training (70)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eASD and challenging behavior\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003euniversity campus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emaster\u0026apos;s clinician\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 120-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDELFIN parenting program\u0026nbsp;(71)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etype 1 diabetes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003echildren\u0026apos;s hospital\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epsychologist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 120-min sessions + 1 phone call\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCBT parent training\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eENTREN-F program\u0026nbsp;(72)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoverweight/ obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprimary care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eresearch team members\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroups\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 120-min parent sessions + 9 120-min child sessions + 3 120-min joint parent-child sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecognitive behavioral perspective\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitive-behavioral, skill-building intervention (73)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoverweight/ obesity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epediatric primary care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etrained interventionists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 20-45 min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecognitive-behavioral; information, motivation, and behavior skills (IMB) framework\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 and 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFSW intervention (74)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebehavioral problems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eself-directed online sessions + telephone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elicensed health care professionals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 self-directed sessions + 45-min phone coaching sessions + 1 booster session\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 and 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent-Assisted CBT (75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esleep problems and nighttime fears\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents and child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 75-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCBT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1* (case study)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCHIP-Family\u003csup\u003ea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(46)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econgenital heart disease\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents, child, and sibling or friend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elicensed clinical and health psychologists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egroup and individual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 6-hour workshop + 1 60-min individual session\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTriple P (76)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etype 1 diabetes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003echildren\u0026apos;s hospital\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eclinical psychologist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eindividual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 60-min sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enot reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 and 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTable includes information from all 31 included articles for a total of 29 unique interventions. \u003cem\u003eAttention to Equity\u003c/em\u003e: 0 = none reported. 1 = reported sociocultural characteristics of sample (e.g., ethnicity-race, SES, SGM, immigration status, disabilities). 2 = purposeful recruiting: explicit effort to increase the sociocultural diversity of sample. 3 = testing subgroup differences, such as differential intervention effects for minoritized groups (ethnically-racially minoritized, immigrants, economically disadvantaged, or SGM). 4 = health equity focused study objectives, such as the goal of the study was to improve access or quality of care for minoritized groups. 5 = cultural adaptations: intervention materials were tailored to a particular cultural context or group. TBI = traumatic brain injury. ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ASD = autism spectrum disorder. CBT = cognitive behavioral therapy. *Case studies were included for descriptive purposes but certain equity conditions (e.g., reporting sociocultural characteristics of sample) may not apply as case studies often alter the characteristics of their participants to ensure confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention Components\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo synthesize the components of the parenting programs, we classified each program according to its inclusion of core positive parenting strategies and parent-directed information related to promoting their children\u0026rsquo;s health (see Table 3). Nearly all interventions focused on enhancing positive parenting skills shown to improve parent-child relationships and support healthy child development. The most commonly included strategies were limit setting (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 26, 90%), positive reinforcement (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 25, 86%), and communication skills (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 24, 84%), reflecting a strong emphasis on helping parents establish clear expectations and boundaries, reinforce positive behaviors, and foster open communication with their children. These strategies were often applied to promoting both child emotional and physical health outcomes. In contrast, strategies for effective play (an important tool for promoting positive interactions and developmental gains) were included in only 32% of interventions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of physical health-related content, a majority of interventions incorporated components targeting children\u0026rsquo;s nutrition and eating habits (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 18, 62%) and sleep behaviors (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 16, 55%). Fewer interventions addressed other important areas of child physical health, such as physical activity (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 11, 38%) or reducing screen time (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 11, 38%). That said, most studies (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 18, 62%) targeted multiple healthy lifestyle behaviors within the same intervention and two studies targeted all four lifestyle behaviors in their intervention (i.e., \u003cem\u003eFCU4Health\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eGrow\u003c/em\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, while all included interventions engaged parents directly, only 31% of programs also involved a child-focused component. The limited inclusion of direct child engagement suggests that most parenting interventions rely primarily on parent behavior change as the mechanism for influencing child outcomes, rather than combining parent and child involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntervention Components (N = 29)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 41px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePromoting Their Children\u0026rsquo;s Healthy Lifestyles\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eManaging chronic health condition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeparate child module\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild sleep habits\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild eating habits\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild phys. activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild screen time\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI-InTERACT Express (51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRUPP (52)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (opt)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (opt)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFCU4Health (33,34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (obesity)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrow (53)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent training intervention (54)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (anxiety)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFamily-based telemedicine intervention (55)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (concurrent child sessions)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnhanced ParentCorps (47)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (concurrent child sessions)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePCIT-Health (56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (live coaching sessions)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMore and Less parent group program (57)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;LEAP (58)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (ADHD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral sleep intervention (59)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePT-F (60,61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (ASD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMindful M\u0026amp;M\u0026rsquo;s (62)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (Disruptive Behavior Disorder)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (child mindfulness program)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eparent training program (63)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCombined Sleep\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; and Standard Behavioral\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; Treatment (64)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHS+POPS+IYS (48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (obesity)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (child obesity prevention program)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent-based sleep education (65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Management Training + Sleep Train Program (66)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHassle Free Mealtimes Triple P (67)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGirls Growing in Wellness and Balance (68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (eating disorder prevention group)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCBT-based Bibliotherapy Plus Doll (69)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral parent training (70)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (ASD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDELFIN parenting program\u0026nbsp;(71)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (chronic illnesses)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eENTREN-F program\u0026nbsp;(72)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (obesity)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (child emotion regulation)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitive-behavioral, skill-building intervention (73)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFSW intervention (74)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent-Assisted CBT (75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCHIP-Family\u003csup\u003ea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(46)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (congenital heart disease)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (CBT exercises)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTriple P (76)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex (diabetes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotals (out of 29)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e24 (83%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25 (86%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26 (90%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10 (34%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e16 (55%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e18 (62%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11 (38%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11 (38%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12 (41%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9 (31%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. It is worth noting that positive parenting and parent-targeted information for promoting children\u0026rsquo;s healthy lifestyles were often intertwined rather than mutually exclusive categories. C = communication-related skills, such as giving clear directions, active listening, open-ended questions, problem solving, and warmth. PR = positive reinforcement, such as praise, reward/incentive systems, and behavioral reinforcement strategies. LS = limit setting, such as enforcing house rules, use of logical consequences, planned ignoring, or time out. P = play strategies, such as child-directed play. Chronic health condition = intervention contains information on a chronic physical or mental health condition, such as diabetes, obesity, asthma, ASD, ADHD, or anxiety. Opt = content was optional for participants. \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eStudy focused on general parenting skills but did not describe any specific strategies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention Outcomes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo synthesize intervention outcomes, we organized effects based on key child outcome domains: emotional health, healthy lifestyle behaviors, and health-related indicators (see Table 4). Our aim was to explore whether certain outcomes were more readily impacted by parenting interventions, and to assess whether interventions consistently achieved improvements across both child health domains.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReassuringly, none of the included studies reported adverse effects on any child emotional or physical health outcomes. However, many studies reported a mix of beneficial and null findings across domains. For child emotional health, approximately half of reported effects were null, while the other half demonstrated statistically significant improvements in the intended direction. In contrast, fewer beneficial effects were observed for child physical health outcomes, especially physical health-related indicators, with most results (58%) in this domain being null. Weight or BMI had the fewest positive effects, with 92% of findings being null.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen we examined the overall pattern of effects across studies, a majority (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 16, 59%) demonstrated dual effects, meaning they reported at least one significant improvement in each of the two child health domains. Another subset of studies (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 6, 22%) achieved significant improvements in only one domain, either emotional or physical health. The remaining 19% of studies did not report significant effects in either domain. As illustrated in Table 5, several studies achieved dual effects despite having a preponderance of null findings within one or both domains. Exploratory comparisons suggest that studies classified as having dual effects tended to report a greater number of outcomes overall, increasing the likelihood of identifying at least one positive effect per domain. For example, Malow et al. (65) reported on 21 child health outcomes and found dual effects, whereas Raby (68) reported on five child health outcomes and did not find effects on either domain. This pattern highlights the need for caution when interpreting these results and suggests that future meta-analyses should account for the number of outcomes reported to avoid bias in estimating intervention effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Effects Separated by Child Health Outcome\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"629\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOutcome\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBeneficial Effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNull Effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdverse Effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmotional health\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;72 (51%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;68 (49%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Social functioning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;6 (46%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;7 (54%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Emotional functioning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;19 (44%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;24 (56%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Cognitive-behavioral\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;functioning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;47 (56%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;37 (44%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHealthy lifestyle behaviors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;49 (47%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55 (53%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Sleep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;29 (57%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;22 (43%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Eating habits\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;8 (36%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;14 (64%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Physical activity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;7 (33%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;14 (67%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Screen time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;2 (33%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;4 (67%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;General healthy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;lifestyle behaviors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;3 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;3 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhysical health-related indicators\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;3 (15%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;17 (85%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWeight or BMI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1 (8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;11 (92%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDisease symptom \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSomatic concerns\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;3 (75%)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e264\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. Pre-post intervention outcomes were synthesized and categorized by outcome domain: child emotional health (i.e., social, emotional, and cognitive-behavioral functioning) and child physical health, including healthy lifestyle behaviors (i.e., sleep, eating habits, physical activity, and screen time) and other physical health-related indicators (i.e., weight, BMI, disease symptom management, and somatic concerns). The three case studies were excluded from these calculations due to a lack of reliable significance testing (56,62,75).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Type of Effects on Each Health Domain\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eType of Effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Totals (out of 27 studies)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eDual effects\u003c/em\u003e on child social-emotional and physical\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;health\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 16 (59%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Single effects - child emotional health \u003cem\u003eonly\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 2 (7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Single effects - child physical health \u003cem\u003eonly\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 4 (15%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo Effects\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 5 (19%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. Studies were coded as showing \u003cem\u003eno effect\u003c/em\u003e, a \u003cem\u003esingle effect\u003c/em\u003e, or a \u003cem\u003edual effect\u003c/em\u003e based on whether they reported at least one significant improvement (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05) in each domain. For example, to be coded as showing a dual effect, the study needed to report at least one significant outcome in both emotional and physical health domains. The total sample size consisted of 27 studies, as case studies were excluded (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 3). The FCU4Health intervention reported emotional and physical outcomes in two separate articles, but is listed only once in this table.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study was to conduct a scoping review of parenting interventions with a dual focus on promoting children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and physical health. Specifically, we aimed to (a) describe the intervention characteristics and components; (b) synthesize findings on child emotional and physical health outcomes; and (c) assess the extent to which interventions addressed health equity. This review fills an important gap in the literature, as no prior efforts have systematically mapped the landscape of dual-focused parenting interventions. A systematic understanding of this growing field is critical for informing future intervention development, implementation, and dissemination. Key findings highlight the predominance of intensive, clinically delivered programs targeting high-risk populations, the more consistent impacts of interventions on emotional versus physical health outcomes, the limited integration of both domains within many interventions, and the minimal attention to health equity, particularly with respect to cultural tailoring. These findings are presented in the order of our study objectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntervention Characteristics and Components (Objective 1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost of the 29 included interventions were quite intensive, with many requiring over 10 sessions and combining in-person and phone-based delivery. Notably, the majority were designed to treat existing behavioral or health problems in children already experiencing significant issues rather than to serve as universal prevention programs. This represents a critical gap in the literature. Scalable, low-cost parenting support, particularly universal approaches, are urgently needed to achieve population-level improvements in child well-being and interrupt adverse health trajectories early in development (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncouragingly, interventions were delivered across a range of contexts and formats, demonstrating flexible dissemination potential. However, most programs were facilitated by highly trained clinicians (master\u0026rsquo;s or doctoral level), with few studies utilizing paraprofessionals or community health workers. This reliance on specialist providers may limit the reach and long-term sustainability of these programs, especially in under-resourced communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of content, the majority of interventions emphasized core positive parenting skills such as limit setting, positive reinforcement, and effective communication. These strategies were applied to promoting both child emotional and physical health outcomes. Fewer programs incorporated strategies for effective parent-child play or content aimed at improving parents\u0026rsquo; own well-being, despite evidence that parent mental health (e.g., depression, anxiety) is directly related to child emotional and behavioral outcomes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e) and may bolster intervention effects (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, only a minority of interventions (31%) directly engaged children alongside parents, suggesting that most programs relied on parent behavior change alone to influence child outcomes. While this reflects common practice, future research should explore the added value of child involvement for maximizing intervention effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother important finding was the consistent underrepresentation of fathers. Across studies, mothers were overwhelmingly the primary participants. This trend aligns with previous reviews of parenting interventions and reflects broader recruitment and engagement challenges in parenting research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e). Given robust evidence that fathers play a crucial role in shaping child development, including emotion regulation, behavior, and physical health outcomes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e), future programs should make intentional efforts to engage fathers and test whether outcomes differ based on caregiver involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntervention Outcomes on Child Emotional and Physical Health (Objective 2)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe synthesized intervention effects across 264 child outcomes. While fewer than half of reported effects were statistically significant, a majority of interventions demonstrated at least some positive impact. Overall, parenting programs demonstrated more consistent positive impacts on child emotional health than on physical health outcomes. Among emotional outcomes, the greatest effects were observed for the cognitive-behavioral functioning subdomain (i.e., 56% of observed effects were positive). For physical health, improvements were more modest, with the greatest positive effects seen in child sleep; fewer effects were found for eating habits, physical activity or BMI-related indicators. Nonetheless, 59% of interventions produced \u0026ldquo;dual effects,\u0026rdquo; or improvement on both health domains, underscoring the potential of positive parenting programs to promote integrated child well-being. These findings are particularly striking given that many parenting interventions have historically focused on a single domain, and few prior reviews have examined cross-over effects (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). It is worth noting, however, that our synthesis may overemphasize the presence of intervention effects, as studies reporting a large number of outcomes were more likely to report at least one significant finding in each domain.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThat said, null findings were common, particularly for physical health outcomes. Notably, a substantial proportion (92%) of the null findings for physical health outcomes pertained to BMI, a metric that is historically difficult to influence through intervention (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Considering BMI's limited sensitivity to change, future research should exercise caution in using it as the main indicator of physical health and instead consider including alternative or additional health metrics. A second potential explanation is that many interventions lacked a strong and balanced dual focus. Rather than fully integrating components that target both emotional and physical health, many programs emphasized one domain over the other. For example, the Strongest Families Smart Website intervention (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e) incorporated numerous positive parenting strategies aimed at improving children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral functioning but contained no explicit content addressing child physical health. Conversely, the ENTREN-F program (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e) focused heavily on promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors, such as diet and physical activity, yet offered limited content on using positive parenting strategies to impact child social or emotional health. This imbalance in focus may reduce the likelihood of producing robust, cross-domain effects. In contrast, interventions with a more integrated approach, such as FCU4Health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e), appear better positioned to impact both domains. FCU4Health included a strong foundation in positive parenting skills, coupled with actionable strategies for improving child sleep hygiene, limiting unhealthy snacking, and managing screen use. Notably, it demonstrated positive effects across both emotional and physical health outcomes, illustrating the potential of fully dual-focused models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA third factor contributing to the inconsistent findings may be the substantial variability in intervention content across studies. The breadth of components included in the programs makes it challenging to tease apart which ingredients are most effective in improving specific emotional and physical health outcomes. Although bundling components into comprehensive intervention packages is supported by prior research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e), further studies are needed to determine the unique and additive effects of individual intervention components. Future research employing meta-analytic techniques or experimental designs (e.g., factorial or SMART designs) rooted in optimization frameworks may be especially valuable for identifying which intervention components or combinations produce the strongest effects in each health domain (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e). Such work could advance the precision and efficiency of parenting interventions targeting both emotional and physical health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIncorporation of a Health Equity Lens (Objective 3)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present review revealed minimal attention to health equity across included studies. Most samples were predominantly White, middle-class, highly educated, and conducted in high-income countries, particularly the U.S. and Europe. Although nearly all studies reported basic sociodemographic characteristics, few went further to strategically recruit minoritized populations, test for subgroup differences, or apply culturally informed adaptations or frameworks. This lack of equity integration mirrors broader gaps highlighted in prior reviews of health promotion interventions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). Overlooking equity principles may constrain both the generalizability and effectiveness of dual-focused parenting programs, especially for families disproportionately impacted by structural disadvantage (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThat said, a small number of studies offer promising models for equity-focused design. For example, the enhanced ParentCorps intervention was co-developed with community partners to ensure alignment with the cultural values, lived experiences, and contextual stressors facing low-income families of diverse racial backgrounds (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e). This partnership-driven approach helped to foster trust, ensure relevance, and increase engagement in a historically underserved population. Similarly, the FCU4Health intervention (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e) applied a cultural tailoring framework that emphasized flexible, values-based delivery rather than broad, uniform adaptations. Rather than presuming cultural homogeneity within racialized groups, the FCU4Health model emphasized shared, cross-cultural human values (e.g., the importance of family, storytelling, and collaboration) and allowed for cultural tailoring within sessions. Facilitators were encouraged to address the broader structural and environmental contexts contributing to child health challenges (e.g., poverty, discrimination), lending to a more holistic, equity-informed approach. These two exemplars underscore the feasibility and importance of embedding cultural responsiveness into dual-focused parenting programs. Future research should prioritize participatory design approaches, test equity-focused mechanisms of change, and examine how cultural tailoring strategies influence program engagement, fidelity, and outcomes across diverse family systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStrengths and Limitations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis review is strengthened by rigorous methods, including pre-registration, peer-reviewed search strategies, blinded screening and extraction by multiple coders, and supplementary searches of trial registries and reference lists to maximize completeness. The review also extends prior work by systematically evaluating health equity considerations. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, we did not conduct a formal risk of bias assessment. While this is a common omission in scoping reviews, it is important for interpreting the strength of available evidence once a body of literature becomes more substantial (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). Second, extraction of intervention components relied solely on published reports or linked citations. Some programs may include additional elements not fully described in our review of the literature. Third, variation in outcome reporting across studies, particularly outliers with very large numbers of reported outcomes, may have influenced our synthesis of effects. Future reviews could address this by the use of weighting or by conducting sensitivity analyses. Fourth, we were not able to extract consistent information about the designation of primary versus secondary outcomes, which limited our ability to interpret the strength of each study's dual focus. Fifth, we were also unable to systematically account for differences in how each outcome was measured (e.g., use of different measurement tools or reporters), which limited our ability to assess the robustness of the findings across emotional and physical health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eImplications\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis scoping review provides new insights into the state of dual-focused parenting interventions designed to promote children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and physical health. Although these interventions are relatively scant, the growing body of literature suggests that parenting-focused approaches can influence both child domains, offering a promising public health strategy to address complex, co-occurring health needs in children. Given the rising rates of childhood mental health concerns, obesity, and other challenging conditions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e) (which are often exacerbated by structural inequities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e)), investing in parenting interventions that build skills and protective family processes could help interrupt adverse health trajectories. Moreover, supporting parents through scalable interventions may complement broader public health and policy initiatives by addressing upstream drivers of health disparities (e.g., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e)). Successful examples of this approach already exist. For instance, state-level partnerships to embed evidence-based parenting programs, like the Family Check-Up, into primary care settings show promise in expanding access to quality parenting supports for families facing economic disadvantages (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuture research should aim to expand this field in several important ways. First, there is a need to develop more brief, universally delivered interventions that can reach families across the population, not just those with identified risks, given that many existing interventions are lengthy (10\u0026ndash;20 sessions) and narrowly targeted (focused on a specific disorder). Second, advancing the science of intervention optimization will be valuable. Research that identifies which parenting components are most effective for improving different child health outcomes would help strengthen intervention design. Approaches such as the Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e) could provide a useful framework for refining dual-focused interventions and addressing the high proportion of null effects observed in the current literature. Building this knowledge base is critical for informing the next generation of parenting programs. Ultimately, integrating dual-focused parenting supports into public health infrastructure could help address pressing child health crises and advance health equity on a population scale.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis scoping review relied solely on previously published studies identified through scientific database searches, no primary data were collected, and thus ethical approval and informed consent were not required.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Consent for publication is not applicable because no participants were recruited for this scoping review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe full search strategy for all databases and extraction and charting forms will be made available upon reasonable request. The full search strategy for PubMed and extraction template is included in the supplemental files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis project is supported by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (P20 GM130420; Ronald Prinz). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of these institutes or the National Institutes of Health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;D.K.C. designed the study aims and methodology, completed article screens, data extractions, charting, and took the lead role in writing this manuscript. J.A. and F.L. engaged in replicating electronic database searches, article screening, data extraction, and charting. S.S. performed the manual article searching, data extraction and charting. N.M.G. provided input on review methodology and study conceptualization. J.M. conducted manual article searches and data extraction. All authors (D.K.C., J.A., F.L., S.S, N.M.G., G.W., J.M, S.R.E., R.P. and M.B.) contributed to writing sections of the manuscript and read and approved the final product.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to recognize the dedication and effort of the research team and the university librarians for their support in this study. The first author used a large language model (ChatGPT, OpenAI) to support with phrasing and structural editing within the manuscript. This use was conducted under stringent human oversight to ensure quality and accuracy. The intellectual content and interpretations were developed by the authors and adhere to Springer Nature policies regarding the use of generative AI (i.e., did not involve autonomous content creation).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRomano I, Buchan C, Baiocco-Romano L, Ferro MA. Physical-mental multimorbidity in children and youth: a scoping review. BMJ Open. 2021;11(5):e043124.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eO\u0026rsquo;Loughlin R, Hiscock H, Pan T, Devlin N, Dalziel K. The relationship between physical and mental health multimorbidity and children\u0026rsquo;s health-related quality of life. Qual Life Res. 2022;31(7):2119\u0026ndash;31.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBerry OO, Londo\u0026ntilde;o Tob\u0026oacute;n A, Njoroge WFM. Social Determinants of Health: the Impact of Racism on Early Childhood Mental Health. 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Moderating Effects of Parental Well-Being on Parenting Efficacy Outcomes by Intervention Delivery Model of the Early Risers Conduct Problems Prevention Program. J Prim Prev. 2014;35(5):321\u0026ndash;37.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBosqui T, Mayya A, Farah S, Shaito Z, Jordans MJD, Pedersen G, et al. Parenting and family interventions in lower and middle-income countries for child and adolescent mental health: A systematic review. Compr Psychiatry. 2024;132:152483.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGonzalez JC, Klein CC, Barnett ML, Schatz NK, Garoosi T, Chacko A, et al. Intervention and Implementation Characteristics to Enhance Father Engagement: A Systematic Review of Parenting Interventions. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26(2):445\u0026ndash;58.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeijten P, Gardner F, Melendez-Torres GJ, van Aar J, Hutchings J, Schulz S, et al. Meta-Analyses: Key Parenting Program Components for Disruptive Child Behavior. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;58(2):180\u0026ndash;90.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCollins LM. Optimization of Behavioral, Biobehavioral, and Biomedical Interventions: The Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018 [cited 2025 Jun 25]. (Statistics for Social and Behavioral Sciences). 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JAMA Pediatr. 2022;176(7):e220056.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrinz RJ. A Population Approach to Parenting Support and Prevention: The Triple P System. Future Child. 2019;29(1):123\u0026ndash;43.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDermody TS, Ettinger A, Savage Friedman F, Chavis V, Miller E. The Pittsburgh Study: Learning with Communities About Child Health and Thriving. Health Equity. 2022;6(1):338\u0026ndash;44.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOregon Health Authority. Oregon launches Family Connects, a universally offered home visiting program to support health of newborns, families : External Relations Division : State of Oregon [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2025 Jun 24]. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.oregon.gov/oha/erd/pages/oregon-launches-family-connects-support-health-newborns-families.aspx\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.oregon.gov/oha/erd/pages/oregon-launches-family-connects-support-health-newborns-families.aspx\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7150758/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7150758/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e. Children’s emotional and physical health are inextricably linked, as evidenced by the numerous shared health determinants known to impact each of these domains (e.g., adverse childhood experiences, supportive family relationships) as well as the bidirectional influence between them. As such, efforts have been made to intervene on these health determinants to jointly impact child emotional and physical health. However, this remains a nascent area of research, and little is known about the nature and impact of these interventions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e. The present study aimed to identify what parenting interventions were available with a \u003cem\u003edual focus\u003c/em\u003e on improving child emotional and physical health. We examined the content of these interventions, how components were integrated, the findings for each health domain, and the extent to which health equity was considered.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDesign\u003c/strong\u003e. This scoping review was preregistered in PROSPERO (CRD42023369266) and followed PRISMA-ScR reporting guidelines for scoping reviews. We searched five online databases for articles published between 2012–2022 that (a) focused on children ages 2–12, (b) involved evaluating the effects of a parenting intervention, and (c) had a dual focus on promoting child emotional and physical health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: Out of the 2,065 records screened, thirty-one studies met inclusion criteria. Most interventions were intensive, delivered to parents only, and targeted high-risk families. While 59% demonstrated beneficial effects in both child health domains, findings were more consistent for emotional outcomes. Attention to health equity was limited, with few studies strategically recruiting minoritized populations, testing for subgroup differences in intervention effects, or applying culturally informed adaptations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e. This review highlights a growing body of dual-focused parenting interventions with the potential to improve child health outcomes. However, gaps remain in terms of reach, scalability, integration of content, and equity. These findings can guide the development of holistic, accessible, and equity-focused interventions aimed at improving the health and well-being of children.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Scoping Review of Parenting Interventions with a Dual Focus on Improving Child Emotional and Physical Health","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-27 06:35:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7150758/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-04T05:10:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-09T09:50:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-01T21:34:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"66687264081117352854916617495105381075","date":"2025-09-01T07:18:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-28T18:30:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9899221997256305788994772149018818532","date":"2025-08-19T18:53:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"102128674246301798999982958419842132790","date":"2025-08-18T18:22:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-18T10:15:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-18T10:07:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-18T07:46:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-18T07:45:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2025-07-17T15:38:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ccde1f36-dca2-45e1-b03a-b76d93f76618","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-27T19:53:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-27 06:35:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7150758","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7150758","identity":"rs-7150758","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}