Challenges, Benefits and Policy Implications of Multilingualism in Educational Contexts

Challenges, Benefits and Policy Implications of Multilingualism in Educational Contexts | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Challenges, Benefits and Policy Implications of Multilingualism in Educational Contexts Kirstin Anthony, Margaret Funke Omidire, Shuaib Abolakale Muhammed This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7572833/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This paper presents a systematic review of literature on multilingualism in educational contexts, covering the period from 2010 to 2022. The review aims to explore the challenges and benefits of multilingualism in educational space, identify current research trends, and highlight gaps that could inform future studies. Using a structured methodology and targeted keyword searches across multiple academic databases and online sources, 34 relevant studies were selected for analysis. The review reveals that multilingualism research in challenging educational environments primarily concentrates on pedagogical practices, the use of first languages as mediums of instruction, academic performance, and the value of multilingualism as a resource. The findings indicate that multilingual practices, including translanguaging and language-openness strategies, can be effectively implemented in resource-constrained and culturally diverse settings. Nonetheless, a significant gap exists in research focusing on regions like South Africa with high linguistic diversity, indicating the need for further studies. This review provides a theoretical foundation for integrating multilingualism in challenging educational environments and guides future research and policy development. Multilingualism education challenging contexts systematic review Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Multilingualism has become a prominent and dynamic social phenomenon of the 21st century, attracting growing global interest across multiple academic fields, especially in education (Ruiz de Zarobe & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2015 ). In numerous areas, multilingualism serves as both an indicator of linguistic diversity and a significant benefit that enhances social cohesion, cognitive growth, and cultural interchange. Cenoz ( 2013 ) attributes the rising interest in multilingualism to various interrelated global factors, including colonial legacies, heightened globalisation, greater migration, and the swift progression of digital technology (Coulmas, 2018 ). These factors have shaped intricate linguistic environments, especially in postcolonial and underfunded educational settings, where numerous languages coexist and interact on a regular basis. Despite the increasing interest in multilingualism, a substantial vacuum persists in the research regarding the influence of multilingual practices on teaching and learning in demanding educational contexts. These environments are frequently marked by resource scarcity, linguistic disparity, historical marginalisation, and inadequate teacher training, which exacerbate the challenges of executing effective multilingual education initiatives. Therefore, additional focused study is required to investigate the effects of multilingualism on classroom pedagogy, educational fairness, and language policy. This research aims to address the knowledge gap by performing a systematic review of papers published from 2010 to 2022 that examine multilingualism in difficult educational settings. This review provides a systematic analysis of the existing literature, delineates main themes, and underscores deficiencies and discrepancies in present research that necessitate additional exploration. It also analyses the impact of multilingualism on educational practices and policy formulation, particularly in contexts characterised by historical and socio-political intricacies. In numerous formerly colonial nations, including South Africa, linguistic and cultural diversity is both lauded and challenged (Webb, 2002 ). Diversity, albeit lauded for its beneficial societal impact, prompts essential enquiries regarding the practical implementation and incorporation of other languages within educational environments (Alexander, 2013 ). South Africa exemplifies a very complex situation. The nation has eleven official languages, and numerous educational institutions illustrate this extensive linguistic diversity. Nonetheless, despite these multilingual circumstances, the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) in numerous schools does not correspond with learners' first (L1) or even second languages (L2) (Makoe & McKinney, 2014 ). The discrepancy between home and school languages has been demonstrated to impede academic success, restrict student involvement, and intensify inequities (Alexander, 2013 ). The issues are exacerbated in under-resourced and rural schools, where students are frequently instructed in a foreign language, and teachers may be insufficiently trained in multilingual pedagogy. This review emphasises context-sensitive educational research, concentrating on multilingualism in challenging educational environments, notably in postcolonial, multilingual nations like South Africa. The justification for concentrating on these situations arises from the pressing need to comprehend how multilingual practices might be utilised to enhance educational outcomes in regions where language diversity frequently poses challenges rather than advantages due to existing inequities. This work systematically reviews and synthesises current empirical evidence from publicly accessible sources. The review procedure was executed with strict scientific rigour, utilising established search algorithms and keyword filters to identify pertinent literature. Thirty-four papers fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were subjected to theme analysis. The review did not modify the outcomes or interpretations of the original studies but guaranteed proper attribution of all contributions. The ethical considerations outlined in the examined studies were duly acknowledged. However, not all articles included thorough ethical guidelines, complicating the assessment of the ethical rigour of individual research in certain instances. Nevertheless, the review upheld rigorous ethical norms during the selection, analysis, and reporting phases. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the scope and intricacy of research on multilingualism in difficult educational contexts. The review also examines secondary objectives, such as the documented advantages of multilingual education in these contexts, learners' experiences in multilingual environments, and the degree to which existing literature enhances both theoretical and practical insights into multilingualism. This review seeks to elucidate patterns, deficiencies, and nascent areas of interest to guide future research, policy, and practice in multilingual education, particularly in South Africa and comparable global contexts. Literature Review Concept of Multilingualism Language is a central human faculty and a fundamental means through which individuals express values, culture, and cognition (Martí et al., 2005). It serves as the bedrock of human civilisation and societal development (Okal, 2014). An individual's language acquisition is deeply rooted in their environment, suggesting a dynamic interplay between language, identity, and cultural context (Martí et al., 2005). Despite its long history, multilingualism remains a complex and evolving area of study, largely because it intersects with multiple disciplines including linguistics, cognitive science, education, and sociology. It can be studied from both individual and societal perspectives. Individual multilingualism refers to the ability of a single person to use and acquire multiple languages, whereas societal multilingualism pertains to the linguistic diversity within a community or nation (Cenoz, 2013). A persistent challenge in this field is the interchangeable use of the term’s “bilingualism” and “multilingualism”. While these concepts share similarities, they are not identical and should not be conflated (Aronin & Hufeisen, 2009). Scholars also differ in defining multilingualism some focus on native-like proficiency, while others prioritise functional usage and the ability to alternate between languages effectively (Cenoz, 2013). Language acquisition is widely recognised as a cognitive process, and numerous scholars have examined its implications for learning and brain function. Theories from Skinner (1957), Chomsky (1968), Piaget (1936), and Vygotsky (1962) have profoundly influenced how language development is understood, especially in educational settings. Empirical studies have demonstrated that multilingual individuals exhibit enhanced cognitive capabilities, including memory, attention, and metacognition (Bialystok, 2001; Hernandez, Martinez, & Kohnert, 2000). Multilingual learners also show superior cognitive control, executive functioning, and linguistic awareness (Bialystok, Martin, & Viswanathan, 2005; Craik & Bialystok, 2005; Cummins, 1984; Zelazo et al., 2003; Hakuta, 1986). Beyond cognition, multilingualism has been associated with greater verbal development, conceptual flexibility, and creativity (Ratte, 1968; Paradowski, 2010). However, there is still a need for deeper investigation into how these benefits translate into tangible outcomes in educational contexts, especially in under-resourced environments. Multilingualism and Educational Practice The educational value of multilingualism is reinforced by Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory, which emphasises that learning occurs through interaction with others in a given sociocultural context (Cockcroft, 2009). Language development is not isolated; it is influenced by the home and school environments, sociocultural status, and societal perceptions of different languages (Cenoz & Genesee, 1998). Educational outcomes in multilingual settings are affected by factors such as language proficiency, learner age, and the interaction between languages (Ruiz de Zarobe & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2015). The educational system must therefore support all the languages in learners’ repertoires to foster communicative competence and academic achievement (Cenoz & Jessner, 2009). This means creating inclusive learning spaces where multilingual practices are not just permitted but encouraged. Multilingualism in South African Education South Africa provides a pertinent example of the complexities surrounding multilingual education. According to Section 29 (2) of the South African Constitution (Education Act 108 of 1996), every learner has the right to receive education in their language of choice, within the bounds of reasonable practicability. While this policy is commendable in theory, implementation has proven to be difficult. Meaningful multilingual education requires collaboration among researchers, educators, school leaders, and policymakers (Chisholm, 2011). However, linguistic hierarchies continue to persist, often marginalising African languages while promoting English as the dominant LoLT. This is compounded by societal attitudes and governmental regulation, which often favour global languages at the expense of local ones (Okal, 2014; Aronin, 2019; Calvo, 2017). Multilingualism in the Classroom In practice, English remains the dominant language of instruction in most South African classrooms, despite the country’s official multilingual policy. Many parents, especially those from African language-speaking backgrounds, support English-medium education due to its perceived socio-economic advantages (Fleisch & Woolman, 2007; Casale & Posel, 2010). English proficiency is closely linked to success in education and employment, both in South Africa and in other parts of the world such as Latin America and the Middle East (Manzo & Zehr, 2006). This trend leads to what Cenoz (2013) terms "subjective multilingualism", where one language is acquired at the expense of another usually the learner’s mother tongue. Although some parents prefer their children to learn in their L1, African language teaching is hampered by a lack of quality learning materials, teacher training, and outdated resources (Ortega, 2019). Chisholm (2011) argues for a more balanced approach, advocating for parallel development of L1 and English. This aligns with the concept of additive multilingualism, where acquiring additional languages does not hinder the development of existing ones (Aronin & Hufeisen, 2009). Such an approach promotes linguistic equity, cognitive development, and academic success. Multilingualism in Challenging Educational Contexts Defining “challenging contexts” requires a nuanced understanding of the social, economic, and structural barriers that shape education. For this review, challenging contexts include environments marked by overcrowded classrooms, limited resources, teacher shortages, violence, poor infrastructure, and social issues such as poverty, HIV/AIDS, and child-headed households. The sociocultural theoretical framework suggests that language development is shaped not only by individual cognitive processes but also by social interactions and the educational setting. The teacher's acceptance or rejection of learners’ home languages significantly impacts their sense of belonging and identity (Comber & Kamler, 2004; Salazar, 2013). Learners whose linguistic identities are affirmed perform better academically and socially than those who are forced to suppress their home languages. Although teaching all eleven official languages in South African schools may be impractical (Calvo, 2017), classrooms are inherently multilingual spaces. It is essential to adapt teaching methods to reflect this reality, making space for learners’ diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Innovative pedagogical strategies such as “language awakening” (Candelier, 2008) and “language openness” (Perregaux, 1998, cited in Calvo, 2017) offer promising avenues. One particularly effective method is translanguaging the strategic use of all linguistic resources by learners to enhance understanding and participation (Jørgensen, 2008; Canagarajah, 2011). Translanguaging not only bridges linguistic gaps but also fosters inclusivity and learner engagement (Nambisan, 2014). Languages, when harnessed as tools rather than barriers, can enrich education and affirm learners’ cultural identities. Research Questions The following research questions were raised to guide the study: Can multilingual practices be used effectively in difficult educational environments? What are some benefits of using multiple languages in education? Are there gaps in research about multilingual education in challenging environments? Has most research been focused on a few locations or groups? Can multilingual education help students in difficult or resource-poor schools? Methodology The review uses a systematic review approach. The objective of a systematic review is to gather, select and analyse empirical data according to specific criteria. The data that meets the defined criteria is then evaluated to answer the research question/s (Liberati, et al., 2009; Dickson, Cherry, & Boland, 2013). The secondary data was obtained through manual search, hand search, electronic databases, internet searches, academic journals online, and reference lists by using keywords and following a rigorous criterion. A reference management software was used to ensure that duplicate studies were minimised and to document all searches, as well as to check procedures against the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Considering the limitations associated with systematic reviews, the authors have adhered to rigorous criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of studies to provide a review with high quality data. They have acknowledged and addressed the limitations of the review. The figure shows how the studies were refined, through keyword filtering and duplicate removal, and then subjected to non-probability purposive sampling for the answers to the research Inclusion Criteria The authors developed the inclusion criteria based on the types of studies, the research field, and the outcome measurements (Crocetti, 2015). Every study included in the evaluation met the criteria, ensuring homogeneity, minimising the inclusion of unrelated studies, and reducing errors. Studies that matched the following criteria were included in this review: The design of the study must be cross-sectional. The research must focus on an aspect of multilingualism with a range of participants. The context of the studies had to be considered challenging as previously defined. The studies must have used relevant instruments and have accurately carried out the testing of these instruments. The outcomes of the study must be objective and not self-reported. Search Strategies A key component in carrying out a systematic review is methodically carrying out search strategies for secondary data. The research question and secondary questions were used to determine the keywords used in the reviewing process. The following keywords were used: “multilingualism, multilingualism and cognition, multilingualism and education, multilingualism and literacy, multilingualism and mathematics, multilingualism and educationally disadvantaged environment (challenging contexts), multilingualism and low SES, multilingualism benefits, and multilingualism and South Africa”. Literacy and Mathematics were included in the search because, according to the literature, these are the fundamentals of classroom learning. The review also focused on research performed in a South African setting. The literature search was conducted according to the different exploration types below (Table 1). Table 1. Research search options based on specific terms related to study Types of Search Options Used Terms searched Specific Search Areas Electronic Database Multilingualism + - Cognition - Education - Literacy - Mathematics - Education disadvantaged environment - Social - Low SES - Benefits - South Africa Academic Search Ultimate, EBSCO host: Eric JSTOR Linguistics Collection MLA International Bibliography PsycARTICLES APA PsychINFO PubMed Internet Search Multilingualism + - Cognition - Education - Literacy - Mathematics - Education disadvantaged environment - Social - Low SES - Benefits - South Africa google.com googlescholar.com yahoo.com Reference List Multilingualism + - Cognition - Education - Literacy - Mathematics - Education disadvantaged environment - Social - Low SES - Benefits - South Africa Reference lists from literature review and other studies that met the included criteria requirements Hand Search Multilingualism + - Cognition - Education - Literacy - Mathematics - Education disadvantaged environment - Social - Low SES - Benefits - South Africa University of Pretoria Library services Documenting The studies obtained from the keyword search were further refined based on whether they could answer the research questions. The study was separated into two sections: multilingualism in educationally challenging circumstances, and multilingual benefits, which explored the research questions in greater depth. Figure 2, below, depicts the process of locating, reviewing, and recording information from studies through a visual representation. Recorded the number of articles that came up after applying specified keywords and filters for each search method Each study from each search strategy was exported to Endnote X8, a reference management tool. The studies were then checked for any duplications that may have been exported. To verify proficiency and save time when reviewing the studies, duplicates were deleted. The articles were then assessed using Bettany-Saltikov’s (2010) three-step process, in which the titles of each study were evaluated and the abstracts of each study were checked to confirm that they fit the inclusion criteria. The number of articles was cut from 230218 to 34 throughout this screening process. The remaining studies were examined further, and those that did not fit the inclusion criteria were eliminated. Many studies were discarded because the ages of the participants were incompatible, the research was deemed to focus on bilingualism rather than multilingualism, or the research focused on language from a political rather than an educational standpoint. Other reasons for exclusion included the quality of the study, or if the results indicated that the methodology and procedure did not correlate with the aims. The study's consistency was determined by the terms “explore”, “describe”, “examine”, and “understand”, which were used to identify the study's aims/focus. Once it was determined that studies met the inclusion criteria and were of high quality, a working table was created to record the information from each relevant study. Because the full articles were examined, the data collection process also served as a screening process. As the summaries were tabulated in the DEF (Appendix X), the study verified that the data was presented accurately and effectively (Wong, 2007). The captured data was used to complete a descriptive analysis to identify trends. Data Extraction The relevant data from the included research was extracted and then categorised according to 1) title of the study, 2) author/s, 3) source, 4) date of publication, 5) location of study (if available), 6) aim of the study, 7) methods, 8) results of the study, and 9) trends. This organisation of information allowed the authors to track the data obtained and was a form of screening to ensure the studies met the inclusion requirements and related to the aims of the review. Trends and gaps, as well as the validity of the included studies, were also established. Quality Appraisal Process A total of 37 studies were included in the review. To ensure the quality and reliability of the selection process, two authors independently reviewed the studies. They followed established procedures carefully and applied the specified inclusion criteria. Additionally, only peer-reviewed research was included to further enhance the validity of the finding The findings from the categorisation of results were summarised in a narrative synthesis. To determine trends, the data were then grouped to perform a descriptive analysis. This analysis determines the research available and the areas of focus over a 10-year period (2010–2020). It also demonstrates where the research gaps are, and where future studies should concentrate their efforts. Results 1. Pedagogical Practices and Strategies The evaluated papers mostly concentrate on pedagogical methods that employ or endorse multilingualism, especially in difficult educational contexts. Translanguaging emerges as a significant method, entailing the deliberate utilisation of all language resources by learners to enhance comprehension and engagement (Jørgensen, 2008 ; Canagarajah, 2011 ). This method effectively reduces linguistic disparities, particularly when learners' native languages diverge from the official language of instruction. The study indicates that integrating learners' L1 into teaching improves understanding, self-assurance, and academic achievement. Research indicates that when educators use inclusive practices and acknowledge language variety, students exhibit increased engagement and participation in learning activities Casale & Posel, 2010 ; Chisholm, 2011 ). These actions affirm learners' cultural identities and cultivate a sense of belonging within the classroom (Nambisan, 2014 ). In environments such as South Africa, where numerous languages coexist, it is essential to adapt pedagogical methods—such as language awakening and language openness—to ensure classrooms are attuned to linguistic reality (Calvo, 2017 ). Translanguaging tactics facilitate comprehension while fostering inclusion and learner engagement, transforming language into a resource instead of an obstacle 2. The Benefits of Multiple Languages in Challenging Contexts Studies repeatedly indicate cognitive benefits linked to multilingualism, encompassing enhanced executive skills such as problem-solving, mental flexibility, and critical thinking (Bialystok, 1991; Bialystok et al., 2005 ; Craik & Bialystok, 2005). The cognitive advantages are especially significant in difficult situations where learners encounter challenges like scarce resources and socio-economic disadvantages. Multilingual practices promote enhanced acceptance and understanding of variety in social contexts. Research indicates that multilingual settings enhance social cohesion, foster intercultural comprehension, and diminish marginalisation (Makoe & McKinney, 2014 ). Embracing multilingualism as a pedagogical resource promotes respect for language and cultural diversity, hence cultivating inclusive and harmonious classrooms. Individuals benefiting from multilingualism also exhibit enhanced social skills and a greater acceptance of variety, which are crucial in socio-economically deprived environments (Webb, 2002 ). The social and cognitive benefits collectively underscore the capacity for multilingualism to foster comprehensive development, particularly for students in challenging educational settings. The direct exploration of areas that benefit from multilingualism is illustrated as follows: 3. Challenges and Barriers to Implementing Multilingual Strategies Notwithstanding the encouraging evidence, numerous studies indicate substantial obstacles in implementing multilingual pedagogies. A persistent issue is the inadequacy of teacher training and policy assistance. Many instructors in challenging environments lack the requisite skills, confidence, or resources to effectively implement multilingual solutions such as translanguaging, or to integrate L1-based instruction (Calvo, 2017 ). Moreover, the literature suggests that multilingual activities are frequently executed inconsistently or superficially owing to infrastructural limits, curricular constraints, and insufficient institutional support. This leads to the neglect of multilingualism as a valuable resource, consequently hindering the complete attainment of its advantages. The research highlights that, in the absence of focused professional development and systemic support, the promise of multilingual pedagogies is mostly unutilised, particularly in under-resourced rural schools or areas impacted by socio-political instability. 4. Regional Focus and Research Gaps The majority of the existing research has been conducted in European contexts, with few studies from sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, areas characterised by prevalent and intricate multilingual environments (Makoe & McKinney, 2014 ). This geographical mismatch reveals a substantial research deficiency, highlighting the necessity for context-specific studies that accurately represent local conditions. Furthermore, a sizeable portion of the existing studies highlights social and cognitive advantages, whereas very little focus has been placed on longitudinal effects or policy evaluation. There is a lack of research that assesses long-term impacts of multilingual techniques or investigates scalable models for resource-limited settings. The prevalence of small-scale qualitative studies underscores the need for larger, more robust research approaches that can successfully inform policy and practice over time. 5. Attitudes, Perceptions, and Cultural Dimensions The analysis indicates that educators' perspectives on multilingualism substantially affect the efficacy of teaching practices. Educators' perspectives of languages, viewing multilingualism as either an asset or a hindrance, impact their readiness to adopt inclusive practices (Makoe & McKinney, 2014 ). Negative perceptions and misunderstandings regarding the value of indigenous languages frequently obstruct their incorporation into the educational environment. Cultural and political influences can determine linguistic regulations and educational methods. Some studies illustrate the conflicts between language revival initiatives and curricular limitations, with cultural perceptions that diminish the importance of specific languages relative to others (Jørgensen, 2008 ). Mitigating these perceptual and cultural obstacles through professional development and community involvement is essential for cultivating favourable attitudes towards multilingualism at all educational tiers. 6. Multilingual Literatures’ Contribution to Existing and Future Knowledge in Learning The inclusion criteria stipulated that the setting be educational. All of the 34 included studies are relevant in determining how trends and gaps in educational multilingualism can be utilised to assess the current state of learning knowledge and contribute to its future. The included studies focused on pedagogical approaches that involved the use and interaction of multiple languages during the learning process. According to the findings, pedagogical approaches that embrace inclusive practices allow for linguistic variance and for learners to use their entire language repertoire to make sense of information and aids in their knowledge development. Inclusive language practices also allow for linguistic disparities to be accommodated, as well as engagement and participation in the learning processes. Teachers' approval of language acquisition is also a key finding in the studies. The findings also hint at how pedagogical approaches might be used in the future. However, when comparing the final number of included studies (34) to the extensive search and the large number of studies found during the initial search, the research and resulting findings are minimal. This, in and of itself, suggests a gap in the literature. Further research in this field is thus apparent. However, despite the limited analysis of the studies, a link was evident between the theoretical framework and the outcomes of the included studies, as well as the discovered trends. The included research focused on pedagogical practices and learning environments (even when they are challenging) and the effect on learning and development. Language learning in a collaborative, interactive setting has a positive impact on language and cognitive development, as well as encouraging social contact, expanding and constructing knowledge outside one culture or language, and the ability to share. The foundation for many of the included studies, as well as how language contributes to educational related issues, is social constructivist theory, which speaks to all of the educational facets, whether explicitly expressed or not. 7. The Nature of Future Research Required in Multilingual Contexts The exploration of future avenues in research was determined from the data collected to answer the primary and secondary questions. The lack of research and information available related to “multilingualism in challenging educational contexts” and “the benefits of multilingualism in challenging educational contexts” exposes the considerable gap in these areas. This can be seen as a benchmark for guiding other researchers and interested parties. However, the limited research available also indicates trends and where research can be expanded. The trends detected indicate that the focus of research has mainly been on pedagogical practices. The findings show that pedagogical practices and knowledge acquisition have a positive correlation. The findings also demonstrates that multilingualism increases involvement and interaction in the classroom, especially for learners whose L1 is not the LoLT it also provides a sense of belonging and a valuing of diversity. Pedagogical practices related to educators’ attitudes demonstrate how perceptions towards language and diversity can affect contexts. The literature has already established this aspect in multilingual education contexts, but the reiteration of it by this review is important. Although there has been research in this area outside of the challenging context, more research is needed within the field of challenging educational contexts. Another trend noted in the review was the benefits of multilingualism in challenging educational contexts related to cognition, language abilities, social aspects, and overall classroom engagement and learning. Further research is needed to determine reliability as some of these benefits were only demonstrated in one included study. Reviewing the 10-year period of relevant studies indicated that research focusing on benefits declined from 2018 to 2022 This should be evaluated in light of future opportunities to study multilingualism in challenging educational contexts. The descriptive analysis also provided insight into authorship, location, and identification of gaps and patterns. The majority of the included studies were carried out in Europe, highlighting the need for more research in other regions as well as additional research in general. The inadequate amount of research available is also indicated by the authorship of studies. Except for one author, none of the authors was involved in more than one study. This suggests that there is a lack of research and expertise in this field of multilingualism. Future research involving multilingual in challenging contexts and multilingualism, in general, should be differentiated from bilingualism. Despite being titled “multilingualism”, many studies examined bilingualism. Bilingualism is still seen as a subject of interest, as evidenced by the number of studies that were excluded due to their bilingual focus. With the capacity to communicate and travel/relocate increasing worldwide, the number of multilinguals around the world is expected to increase; classrooms will continue to be spaces filled with learners who speak multiple languages and identify with various cultures. This continual increase in cultural and linguistic diversity provides a need to investigate these features, particularly in terms of their relationship to educational issues. This review has demonstrated that more research is needed in all areas of multilingualism, particularly in challenging educational and learning contexts. The findings indicate that, despite considerable evidence endorsing the cognitive, social, and pedagogical advantages of multilingualism in difficult educational settings, implementation is hindered by systemic, infrastructural, and attitudinal obstacles. Future research must rectify these deficiencies, particularly in under-represented areas, by employing larger-scale studies, longitudinal methodologies, and policy-oriented enquiries. Utilising multilingualism as a resource enables educators to establish more inclusive, effective, and culturally relevant educational settings, hence fostering equal learning opportunities for all students. Limitations The overall goal of the review was to explore the existing studies on multilingualism in challenging educational settings. However, the methods employed to investigate the goals have certain limitations. The authors acknowledge that despite the strategies and inclusion criteria applied, there was still a margin of error. Errors may have occurred as a result of a) the large number of research studies found during the initial search, b) studies being overlooked, and c) judgements made about whether or not a study satisfies the inclusion criteria. The review applied qualitative methods and purposive sampling, so there is the possibility of selection bias. Another consideration is the quality of the included studies, as the settings were not identical and the ethical considerations of the included studies were not always known, making determining a study's reliability and validity problematic. However, internal validity was attempted by applying transparency throughout the entire review process—research questions were clearly stated, goals were defined, inclusion criteria were applied, and quality control was attempted. The rigorous process used, together with only specific databases being searched, the limited access to research sources, the limit to English-only studies, and the research initially being done for degree purposes, contributed to the limited final number of included studies. Conclusion This review confirms that multilingualism offers substantial educational, social, and cognitive benefits even within challenging contexts characterised by resource scarcity, linguistic disparities, and societal marginalisation. Effective pedagogical strategies, such as translanguaging and the use of learners’ L1 as a medium of instruction, facilitate better engagement and learning outcomes. However, the existing research remains limited in scope, particularly in underrepresented regions like South Africa, necessitating further investigation. Addressing these gaps can inform more inclusive language policies and teaching practices, fostering equity and diversity in challenging education systems. Recommendations Future studies should prioritise under-researched settings such as South Africa and similar contexts to better understand the specific challenges and opportunities of multilingual education in these environments. Policymakers should support inclusive language policies that recognise and leverage students' linguistic resources, promoting multilingual pedagogies like translanguaging. Teacher training programmes need to incorporate strategies for implementing multilingual practices effectively, including resource-appropriate methods suitable for resource-constrained classrooms. Educational institutions should allocate resources towards developing multilingual teaching materials and supporting environments that reflect linguistic diversity. Engaging multiple stakeholders’ educators, policymakers, and communities in research can foster contextually relevant solutions and sustainable multilingual practices in education. Declarations Acknowledgements Not Applicable Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest Funding There are no funding sources for this study Availability of data and materials Not applicable Consent to Publish Declaration Not applicable. Consent to Participate Declaration Not applicable. Clinical Trial Number Not applicable Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Not applicable Competing Interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest References Alexander, N. (2013). Language in the New South African University. In Thoughts on the New South Africa (pp. 74–112). Johannesburg: Jacana. Aronin, L. (2019). What is Multilingualism? In D. Singleton & L. Aronin (Eds.), Twelve Lectures in Multilingualism (pp. 3–34). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Aronin, L., & Hufeisen, B. (Eds). (2009). 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31924,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe process of obtaining relevant studies related to multilingualism in educationally challenging contexts\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7572833/v1/0d30a51898d1814a3760556a.png"},{"id":94825968,"identity":"c252cec2-aa3b-44a5-b7fa-51884c5982dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:50:51","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44680,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe process of selecting relevant studies based on inclusion criteria\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7572833/v1/3e145606cafa532e016d90d6.png"},{"id":94788077,"identity":"299fe92b-005e-4cff-a1b9-8c6f9fa6d8da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 17:09:17","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21804,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAreas of cognitive development positively influenced by multilingualism\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7572833/v1/08b087fb4aec9ac5a9312f26.png"},{"id":94985121,"identity":"8df48bfd-1c14-466c-b294-8c6997c0c5df","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 06:57:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":706823,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7572833/v1/cff1bb67-c1ea-412e-b061-1f351079b429.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Challenges, Benefits and Policy Implications of Multilingualism in Educational Contexts","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMultilingualism has become a prominent and dynamic social phenomenon of the 21st century, attracting growing global interest across multiple academic fields, especially in education (Ruiz de Zarobe \u0026amp; Ruiz de Zarobe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In numerous areas, multilingualism serves as both an indicator of linguistic diversity and a significant benefit that enhances social cohesion, cognitive growth, and cultural interchange. Cenoz (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) attributes the rising interest in multilingualism to various interrelated global factors, including colonial legacies, heightened globalisation, greater migration, and the swift progression of digital technology (Coulmas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These factors have shaped intricate linguistic environments, especially in postcolonial and underfunded educational settings, where numerous languages coexist and interact on a regular basis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the increasing interest in multilingualism, a substantial vacuum persists in the research regarding the influence of multilingual practices on teaching and learning in demanding educational contexts. These environments are frequently marked by resource scarcity, linguistic disparity, historical marginalisation, and inadequate teacher training, which exacerbate the challenges of executing effective multilingual education initiatives. Therefore, additional focused study is required to investigate the effects of multilingualism on classroom pedagogy, educational fairness, and language policy. This research aims to address the knowledge gap by performing a systematic review of papers published from 2010 to 2022 that examine multilingualism in difficult educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis review provides a systematic analysis of the existing literature, delineates main themes, and underscores deficiencies and discrepancies in present research that necessitate additional exploration. It also analyses the impact of multilingualism on educational practices and policy formulation, particularly in contexts characterised by historical and socio-political intricacies. In numerous formerly colonial nations, including South Africa, linguistic and cultural diversity is both lauded and challenged (Webb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Diversity, albeit lauded for its beneficial societal impact, prompts essential enquiries regarding the practical implementation and incorporation of other languages within educational environments (Alexander, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSouth Africa exemplifies a very complex situation. The nation has eleven official languages, and numerous educational institutions illustrate this extensive linguistic diversity. Nonetheless, despite these multilingual circumstances, the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) in numerous schools does not correspond with learners' first (L1) or even second languages (L2) (Makoe \u0026amp; McKinney, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The discrepancy between home and school languages has been demonstrated to impede academic success, restrict student involvement, and intensify inequities (Alexander, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The issues are exacerbated in under-resourced and rural schools, where students are frequently instructed in a foreign language, and teachers may be insufficiently trained in multilingual pedagogy. This review emphasises context-sensitive educational research, concentrating on multilingualism in challenging educational environments, notably in postcolonial, multilingual nations like South Africa. The justification for concentrating on these situations arises from the pressing need to comprehend how multilingual practices might be utilised to enhance educational outcomes in regions where language diversity frequently poses challenges rather than advantages due to existing inequities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work systematically reviews and synthesises current empirical evidence from publicly accessible sources. The review procedure was executed with strict scientific rigour, utilising established search algorithms and keyword filters to identify pertinent literature. Thirty-four papers fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were subjected to theme analysis. The review did not modify the outcomes or interpretations of the original studies but guaranteed proper attribution of all contributions. The ethical considerations outlined in the examined studies were duly acknowledged. However, not all articles included thorough ethical guidelines, complicating the assessment of the ethical rigour of individual research in certain instances. Nevertheless, the review upheld rigorous ethical norms during the selection, analysis, and reporting phases. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the scope and intricacy of research on multilingualism in difficult educational contexts. The review also examines secondary objectives, such as the documented advantages of multilingual education in these contexts, learners' experiences in multilingual environments, and the degree to which existing literature enhances both theoretical and practical insights into multilingualism. This review seeks to elucidate patterns, deficiencies, and nascent areas of interest to guide future research, policy, and practice in multilingual education, particularly in South Africa and comparable global contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConcept of Multilingualism\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLanguage is a central human faculty and a fundamental means through which individuals express values, culture, and cognition (Mart\u0026iacute; et al., 2005). It serves as the bedrock of human civilisation and societal development (Okal, 2014). An individual\u0026apos;s language acquisition is deeply rooted in their environment, suggesting a dynamic interplay between language, identity, and cultural context (Mart\u0026iacute; et al., 2005). Despite its long history, multilingualism remains a complex and evolving area of study, largely because it intersects with multiple disciplines including linguistics, cognitive science, education, and sociology. It can be studied from both individual and societal perspectives. Individual multilingualism refers to the ability of a single person to use and acquire multiple languages, whereas societal multilingualism pertains to the linguistic diversity within a community or nation (Cenoz, 2013). A persistent challenge in this field is the interchangeable use of the term\u0026rsquo;s \u0026ldquo;bilingualism\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;multilingualism\u0026rdquo;. While these concepts share similarities, they are not identical and should not be conflated (Aronin \u0026amp; Hufeisen, 2009). Scholars also differ in defining multilingualism some focus on native-like proficiency, while others prioritise functional usage and the ability to alternate between languages effectively (Cenoz, 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLanguage acquisition is widely recognised as a cognitive process, and numerous scholars have examined its implications for learning and brain function. Theories from Skinner (1957), Chomsky (1968), Piaget (1936), and Vygotsky (1962) have profoundly influenced how language development is understood, especially in educational settings. Empirical studies have demonstrated that multilingual individuals exhibit enhanced cognitive capabilities, including memory, attention, and metacognition (Bialystok, 2001; Hernandez, Martinez, \u0026amp; Kohnert, 2000). Multilingual learners also show superior cognitive control, executive functioning, and linguistic awareness (Bialystok, Martin, \u0026amp; Viswanathan, 2005; Craik \u0026amp; Bialystok, 2005; Cummins, 1984; Zelazo et al., 2003; Hakuta, 1986). Beyond cognition, multilingualism has been associated with greater verbal development, conceptual flexibility, and creativity (Ratte, 1968; Paradowski, 2010). However, there is still a need for deeper investigation into how these benefits translate into tangible outcomes in educational contexts, especially in under-resourced environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultilingualism and Educational Practice\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe educational value of multilingualism is reinforced by Vygotsky\u0026rsquo;s social constructivist theory, which emphasises that learning occurs through interaction with others in a given sociocultural context (Cockcroft, 2009). Language development is not isolated; it is influenced by the home and school environments, sociocultural status, and societal perceptions of different languages (Cenoz \u0026amp; Genesee, 1998). Educational outcomes in multilingual settings are affected by factors such as language proficiency, learner age, and the interaction between languages (Ruiz de Zarobe \u0026amp; Ruiz de Zarobe, 2015). The educational system must therefore support all the languages in learners\u0026rsquo; repertoires to foster communicative competence and academic achievement (Cenoz \u0026amp; Jessner, 2009). This means creating inclusive learning spaces where multilingual practices are not just permitted but encouraged.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Multilingualism in South African Education\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSouth Africa provides a pertinent example of the complexities surrounding multilingual education. According to Section 29 (2) of the South African Constitution (Education Act 108 of 1996), every learner has the right to receive education in their language of choice, within the bounds of reasonable practicability. While this policy is commendable in theory, implementation has proven to be difficult. Meaningful multilingual education requires collaboration among researchers, educators, school leaders, and policymakers (Chisholm, 2011). However, linguistic hierarchies continue to persist, often marginalising African languages while promoting English as the dominant LoLT. This is compounded by societal attitudes and governmental regulation, which often favour global languages at the expense of local ones (Okal, 2014; Aronin, 2019; Calvo, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultilingualism in the Classroom\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn practice, English remains the dominant language of instruction in most South African classrooms, despite the country\u0026rsquo;s official multilingual policy. Many parents, especially those from African language-speaking backgrounds, support English-medium education due to its perceived socio-economic advantages (Fleisch \u0026amp; Woolman, 2007; Casale \u0026amp; Posel, 2010). English proficiency is closely linked to success in education and employment, both in South Africa and in other parts of the world such as Latin America and the Middle East (Manzo \u0026amp; Zehr, 2006). This trend leads to what Cenoz (2013) terms \u0026quot;subjective multilingualism\u0026quot;, where one language is acquired at the expense of another usually the learner\u0026rsquo;s mother tongue. Although some parents prefer their children to learn in their L1, African language teaching is hampered by a lack of quality learning materials, teacher training, and outdated resources (Ortega, 2019). Chisholm (2011) argues for a more balanced approach, advocating for parallel development of L1 and English. This aligns with the concept of additive multilingualism, where acquiring additional languages does not hinder the development of existing ones (Aronin \u0026amp; Hufeisen, 2009). Such an approach promotes linguistic equity, cognitive development, and academic success.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultilingualism in Challenging Educational Contexts\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDefining \u0026ldquo;challenging contexts\u0026rdquo; requires a nuanced understanding of the social, economic, and structural barriers that shape education. For this review, challenging contexts include environments marked by overcrowded classrooms, limited resources, teacher shortages, violence, poor infrastructure, and social issues such as poverty, HIV/AIDS, and child-headed households. The sociocultural theoretical framework suggests that language development is shaped not only by individual cognitive processes but also by social interactions and the educational setting. The teacher\u0026apos;s acceptance or rejection of learners\u0026rsquo; home languages significantly impacts their sense of belonging and identity (Comber \u0026amp; Kamler, 2004; Salazar, 2013). Learners whose linguistic identities are affirmed perform better academically and socially than those who are forced to suppress their home languages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough teaching all eleven official languages in South African schools may be impractical (Calvo, 2017), classrooms are inherently multilingual spaces. It is essential to adapt teaching methods to reflect this reality, making space for learners\u0026rsquo; diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Innovative pedagogical strategies such as \u0026ldquo;language awakening\u0026rdquo; (Candelier, 2008) and \u0026ldquo;language openness\u0026rdquo; (Perregaux, 1998, cited in Calvo, 2017) offer promising avenues. One particularly effective method is translanguaging the strategic use of all linguistic resources by learners to enhance understanding and participation (J\u0026oslash;rgensen, 2008; Canagarajah, 2011). Translanguaging not only bridges linguistic gaps but also fosters inclusivity and learner engagement (Nambisan, 2014). Languages, when harnessed as tools rather than barriers, can enrich education and affirm learners\u0026rsquo; cultural identities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following research questions were raised to guide the study:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCan multilingual practices be used effectively in difficult educational environments?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhat are some benefits of using multiple languages in education?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAre there gaps in research about multilingual education in challenging environments?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHas most research been focused on a few locations or groups?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCan multilingual education help students in difficult or resource-poor schools?\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe review uses a systematic review approach. The objective of a systematic review is to gather, select and analyse empirical\u0026nbsp;data\u0026nbsp;according to\u0026nbsp;specific\u0026nbsp;criteria. The data that meets the defined criteria is then evaluated to answer the research question/s (Liberati, et al., 2009; Dickson, Cherry, \u0026amp; Boland, 2013). The secondary data was obtained through manual search, hand search, electronic databases, internet searches, academic journals online, and reference lists by using keywords and\u0026nbsp;following\u0026nbsp;a\u0026nbsp;rigorous\u0026nbsp;criterion. A reference management software\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewas used to ensure that duplicate studies were minimised and to document all searches, as well as to check procedures against the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the limitations associated with systematic reviews, the authors have adhered to rigorous criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of studies to provide a review with high quality data. They have acknowledged and addressed the limitations of the review. The figure shows how the studies were refined, through keyword filtering and duplicate removal, and then subjected to non-probability purposive sampling for the answers to the research\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInclusion Criteria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors developed the inclusion criteria based on the types of studies, the research field, and the outcome measurements (Crocetti, 2015). Every study included in the evaluation met the criteria, ensuring homogeneity, minimising the inclusion of unrelated studies, and reducing errors. Studies that matched the following criteria were included in this review:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe design of the study must be cross-sectional. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe research must focus on an aspect of multilingualism with a range of participants. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe context of the studies had to be considered challenging as previously defined.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe studies must have used relevant instruments and have accurately carried out the testing of these instruments.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe outcomes of the study must be objective and not self-reported. \u0026nbsp; \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSearch Strategies\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA key component in carrying out a systematic review is methodically carrying out search strategies for secondary data. The research question and secondary questions were used to determine the keywords used in the reviewing process. The following keywords were used: \u0026ldquo;multilingualism, multilingualism and cognition, multilingualism and education, multilingualism and literacy, multilingualism and mathematics, multilingualism and educationally disadvantaged environment (challenging contexts), multilingualism and low SES, multilingualism benefits, and multilingualism and South Africa\u0026rdquo;. Literacy and Mathematics were included in the search because, according to the literature, these are the fundamentals of classroom learning. The review also focused on research performed in a South African setting. The literature search was conducted according to the different exploration types below (Table 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Research search options based on specific terms related to study\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTypes of Search Options Used\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 201px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTerms searched\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecific Search Areas\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElectronic Database\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 201px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultilingualism +\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e- Cognition\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Literacy\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Mathematics\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education disadvantaged environment\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Social\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Low SES\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Benefits\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- South Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003eAcademic Search Ultimate,\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003eEBSCO host: Eric\u003cbr\u003eJSTOR\u003cbr\u003eLinguistics Collection\u003cbr\u003eMLA International Bibliography\u003cbr\u003ePsycARTICLES\u003cbr\u003eAPA PsychINFO\u003cbr\u003ePubMed\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInternet Search\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 201px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultilingualism +\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e- Cognition\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Literacy\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Mathematics\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education disadvantaged environment\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Social\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Low SES\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Benefits\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- South Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003egoogle.com\u003cbr\u003egooglescholar.com\u003cbr\u003eyahoo.com\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReference List\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 201px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultilingualism +\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e- Cognition\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Literacy\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Mathematics\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education disadvantaged environment\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Social\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Low SES\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Benefits\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- South Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReference lists from literature review and other studies that met the included criteria requirements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHand Search\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 201px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultilingualism +\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e- Cognition\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Literacy\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Mathematics\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Education disadvantaged environment\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Social\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Low SES\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Benefits\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;South Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity of Pretoria Library services\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDocumenting\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe studies obtained from the keyword search were further refined based on whether they could answer the research questions. The study was separated into two sections: multilingualism in educationally challenging circumstances, and multilingual benefits, which explored the research questions in greater depth. Figure 2, below, depicts the process of locating, reviewing, and recording information from studies through a visual representation. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRecorded the number of articles that came up after applying specified keywords and filters for each search method\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEach study from each search strategy was exported to Endnote X8, a reference management tool.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe studies were then checked for any duplications that may have been exported. To verify proficiency and save time when reviewing the studies, duplicates were deleted.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe articles were then assessed using Bettany-Saltikov\u0026rsquo;s (2010) three-step process, in which the titles of each study were evaluated and the abstracts of each study were checked to confirm that they fit the inclusion criteria. The number of articles was cut from 230218 to 34 throughout this screening process. The remaining studies were examined further, and those that did not fit the inclusion criteria were eliminated. Many studies were discarded because the ages of the participants were incompatible, the research was deemed to focus on bilingualism rather than multilingualism, or the research focused on language from a political rather than an educational standpoint. Other reasons for exclusion included the quality of the study, or if the results indicated that the methodology and procedure did not correlate with the aims. The study\u0026apos;s consistency was determined by the terms \u0026ldquo;explore\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;describe\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;examine\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;understand\u0026rdquo;, which were used to identify the study\u0026apos;s aims/focus.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOnce it was determined that studies met the inclusion criteria and were of high quality, a working table was created to record the information from each relevant study. Because the full articles were examined, the data collection process also served as a screening process. As the summaries were tabulated in the DEF (Appendix X), the study verified that the data was presented accurately and effectively (Wong, 2007).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe captured data was used to complete a descriptive analysis to identify trends. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eData Extraction\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe relevant data from the included research was extracted and then categorised\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eaccording to 1) title of the study, 2) author/s, 3) source, 4) date of publication, 5) location of study (if available), 6) aim of the study, 7) methods, 8) results of the study, and 9) trends. This organisation of information allowed the authors to track the data obtained and was a form of screening to ensure the studies met the inclusion requirements and related to the aims of the review. Trends and gaps, as well as the validity of the included studies, were also established.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQuality Appraisal Process\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 37 studies were included in the review. To ensure the quality and reliability of the selection process, two authors independently reviewed the studies. They followed established procedures carefully and applied the specified inclusion criteria. Additionally, only peer-reviewed research was included to further enhance the validity of the finding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings from the categorisation of results were summarised in a narrative synthesis. To determine trends, the data were then grouped to perform a descriptive analysis. This analysis determines the research available and the areas of focus over a 10-year period (2010\u0026ndash;2020). It also demonstrates where the research gaps are, and where future studies should concentrate their efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1. Pedagogical Practices and Strategies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe evaluated papers mostly concentrate on pedagogical methods that employ or endorse multilingualism, especially in difficult educational contexts. Translanguaging emerges as a significant method, entailing the deliberate utilisation of all language resources by learners to enhance comprehension and engagement (J\u0026oslash;rgensen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Canagarajah, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This method effectively reduces linguistic disparities, particularly when learners\u0026apos; native languages diverge from the official language of instruction. The study indicates that integrating learners\u0026apos; L1 into teaching improves understanding, self-assurance, and academic achievement. Research indicates that when educators use inclusive practices and acknowledge language variety, students exhibit increased engagement and participation in learning activities Casale \u0026amp; Posel, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Chisholm, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These actions affirm learners\u0026apos; cultural identities and cultivate a sense of belonging within the classroom (Nambisan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn environments such as South Africa, where numerous languages coexist, it is essential to adapt pedagogical methods\u0026mdash;such as language awakening and language openness\u0026mdash;to ensure classrooms are attuned to linguistic reality (Calvo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Translanguaging tactics facilitate comprehension while fostering inclusion and learner engagement, transforming language into a resource instead of an obstacle\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2. The Benefits of Multiple Languages in Challenging Contexts\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies repeatedly indicate cognitive benefits linked to multilingualism, encompassing enhanced executive skills such as problem-solving, mental flexibility, and critical thinking (Bialystok, 1991; Bialystok et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Craik \u0026amp; Bialystok, 2005). The cognitive advantages are especially significant in difficult situations where learners encounter challenges like scarce resources and socio-economic disadvantages. Multilingual practices promote enhanced acceptance and understanding of variety in social contexts. Research indicates that multilingual settings enhance social cohesion, foster intercultural comprehension, and diminish marginalisation (Makoe \u0026amp; McKinney, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Embracing multilingualism as a pedagogical resource promotes respect for language and cultural diversity, hence cultivating inclusive and harmonious classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividuals benefiting from multilingualism also exhibit enhanced social skills and a greater acceptance of variety, which are crucial in socio-economically deprived environments (Webb, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The social and cognitive benefits collectively underscore the capacity for multilingualism to foster comprehensive development, particularly for students in challenging educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe direct exploration of areas that benefit from multilingualism is illustrated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3. Challenges and Barriers to Implementing Multilingual Strategies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotwithstanding the encouraging evidence, numerous studies indicate substantial obstacles in implementing multilingual pedagogies. A persistent issue is the inadequacy of teacher training and policy assistance. Many instructors in challenging environments lack the requisite skills, confidence, or resources to effectively implement multilingual solutions such as translanguaging, or to integrate L1-based instruction (Calvo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the literature suggests that multilingual activities are frequently executed inconsistently or superficially owing to infrastructural limits, curricular constraints, and insufficient institutional support. This leads to the neglect of multilingualism as a valuable resource, consequently hindering the complete attainment of its advantages. The research highlights that, in the absence of focused professional development and systemic support, the promise of multilingual pedagogies is mostly unutilised, particularly in under-resourced rural schools or areas impacted by socio-political instability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4. Regional Focus and Research Gaps\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe majority of the existing research has been conducted in European contexts, with few studies from sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, areas characterised by prevalent and intricate multilingual environments (Makoe \u0026amp; McKinney, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This geographical mismatch reveals a substantial research deficiency, highlighting the necessity for context-specific studies that accurately represent local conditions. Furthermore, a sizeable portion of the existing studies highlights social and cognitive advantages, whereas very little focus has been placed on longitudinal effects or policy evaluation. There is a lack of research that assesses long-term impacts of multilingual techniques or investigates scalable models for resource-limited settings. The prevalence of small-scale qualitative studies underscores the need for larger, more robust research approaches that can successfully inform policy and practice over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e5. Attitudes, Perceptions, and Cultural Dimensions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis indicates that educators\u0026apos; perspectives on multilingualism substantially affect the efficacy of teaching practices. Educators\u0026apos; perspectives of languages, viewing multilingualism as either an asset or a hindrance, impact their readiness to adopt inclusive practices (Makoe \u0026amp; McKinney, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Negative perceptions and misunderstandings regarding the value of indigenous languages frequently obstruct their incorporation into the educational environment. Cultural and political influences can determine linguistic regulations and educational methods. Some studies illustrate the conflicts between language revival initiatives and curricular limitations, with cultural perceptions that diminish the importance of specific languages relative to others (J\u0026oslash;rgensen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Mitigating these perceptual and cultural obstacles through professional development and community involvement is essential for cultivating favourable attitudes towards multilingualism at all educational tiers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e6. Multilingual Literatures\u0026rsquo; Contribution to Existing and Future Knowledge in Learning\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria stipulated that the setting be educational. All of the 34 included studies are relevant in determining how trends and gaps in educational multilingualism can be utilised to assess the current state of learning knowledge and contribute to its future. The included studies focused on pedagogical approaches that involved the use and interaction of multiple languages during the learning process. According to the findings, pedagogical approaches that embrace inclusive practices allow for linguistic variance and for learners to use their entire language repertoire to make sense of information and aids in their knowledge development. Inclusive language practices also allow for linguistic disparities to be accommodated, as well as engagement and participation in the learning processes. Teachers\u0026apos; approval of language acquisition is also a key finding in the studies. The findings also hint at how pedagogical approaches might be used in the future. However, when comparing the final number of included studies (34) to the extensive search and the large number of studies found during the initial search, the research and resulting findings are minimal. This, in and of itself, suggests a gap in the literature. Further research in this field is thus apparent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, despite the limited analysis of the studies, a link was evident between the theoretical framework and the outcomes of the included studies, as well as the discovered trends. The included research focused on pedagogical practices and learning environments (even when they are challenging) and the effect on learning and development. Language learning in a collaborative, interactive setting has a positive impact on language and cognitive development, as well as encouraging social contact, expanding and constructing knowledge outside one culture or language, and the ability to share. The foundation for many of the included studies, as well as how language contributes to educational related issues, is social constructivist theory, which speaks to all of the educational facets, whether explicitly expressed or not.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e7. The Nature of Future Research Required in Multilingual Contexts\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe exploration of future avenues in research was determined from the data collected to answer the primary and secondary questions. The lack of research and information available related to \u0026ldquo;multilingualism in challenging educational contexts\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;the benefits of multilingualism in challenging educational contexts\u0026rdquo; exposes the considerable gap in these areas. This can be seen as a benchmark for guiding other researchers and interested parties. However, the limited research available also indicates trends and where research can be expanded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe trends detected indicate that the focus of research has mainly been on pedagogical practices. The findings show that pedagogical practices and knowledge acquisition have a positive correlation. The findings also demonstrates that multilingualism increases involvement and interaction in the classroom, especially for learners whose L1 is not the LoLT it also provides a sense of belonging and a valuing of diversity. Pedagogical practices related to educators\u0026rsquo; attitudes demonstrate how perceptions towards language and diversity can affect contexts. The literature has already established this aspect in multilingual education contexts, but the reiteration of it by this review is important. Although there has been research in this area outside of the challenging context, more research is needed within the field of challenging educational contexts. Another trend noted in the review was the benefits of multilingualism in challenging educational contexts related to cognition, language abilities, social aspects, and overall classroom engagement and learning. Further research is needed to determine reliability as some of these benefits were only demonstrated in one included study. Reviewing the 10-year period of relevant studies indicated that research focusing on benefits declined from 2018 to 2022 This should be evaluated in light of future opportunities to study multilingualism in challenging educational contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe descriptive analysis also provided insight into authorship, location, and identification of gaps and patterns. The majority of the included studies were carried out in Europe, highlighting the need for more research in other regions as well as additional research in general. The inadequate amount of research available is also indicated by the authorship of studies. Except for one author, none of the authors was involved in more than one study. This suggests that there is a lack of research and expertise in this field of multilingualism. Future research involving multilingual in challenging contexts and multilingualism, in general, should be differentiated from bilingualism. Despite being titled \u0026ldquo;multilingualism\u0026rdquo;, many studies examined bilingualism. Bilingualism is still seen as a subject of interest, as evidenced by the number of studies that were excluded due to their bilingual focus.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith the capacity to communicate and travel/relocate increasing worldwide, the number of multilinguals around the world is expected to increase; classrooms will continue to be spaces filled with learners who speak multiple languages and identify with various cultures. This continual increase in cultural and linguistic diversity provides a need to investigate these features, particularly in terms of their relationship to educational issues. This review has demonstrated that more research is needed in all areas of multilingualism, particularly in challenging educational and learning contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that, despite considerable evidence endorsing the cognitive, social, and pedagogical advantages of multilingualism in difficult educational settings, implementation is hindered by systemic, infrastructural, and attitudinal obstacles. Future research must rectify these deficiencies, particularly in under-represented areas, by employing larger-scale studies, longitudinal methodologies, and policy-oriented enquiries. Utilising multilingualism as a resource enables educators to establish more inclusive, effective, and culturally relevant educational settings, hence fostering equal learning opportunities for all students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe overall goal of the review was to explore the existing studies on multilingualism in challenging educational settings. However, the methods employed to investigate the goals have certain limitations. The authors acknowledge that despite the strategies and inclusion criteria applied, there was still a margin of error. Errors may have occurred as a result of a) the large number of research studies found during the initial search, b) studies being overlooked, and c) judgements made about whether or not a study satisfies the inclusion criteria. The review applied qualitative methods and purposive sampling, so there is the possibility of selection bias. Another consideration is the quality of the included studies, as the settings were not identical and the ethical considerations of the included studies were not always known, making determining a study\u0026apos;s reliability and validity problematic. However, internal validity was attempted by applying transparency throughout the entire review process\u0026mdash;research questions were clearly stated, goals were defined, inclusion criteria were applied, and quality control was attempted. The rigorous process used, together with only specific databases being searched, the limited access to research sources, the limit to English-only studies, and the research initially being done for degree purposes, contributed to the limited final number of included studies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis review confirms that multilingualism offers substantial educational, social, and cognitive benefits even within challenging contexts characterised by resource scarcity, linguistic disparities, and societal marginalisation. Effective pedagogical strategies, such as translanguaging and the use of learners\u0026rsquo; L1 as a medium of instruction, facilitate better engagement and learning outcomes. However, the existing research remains limited in scope, particularly in underrepresented regions like South Africa, necessitating further investigation. Addressing these gaps can inform more inclusive language policies and teaching practices, fostering equity and diversity in challenging education systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRecommendations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuture studies should prioritise under-researched settings such as South Africa and similar contexts to better understand the specific challenges and opportunities of multilingual education in these environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicymakers should support inclusive language policies that recognise and leverage students' linguistic resources, promoting multilingual pedagogies like translanguaging.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeacher training programmes need to incorporate strategies for implementing multilingual practices effectively, including resource-appropriate methods suitable for resource-constrained classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational institutions should allocate resources towards developing multilingual teaching materials and supporting environments that reflect linguistic diversity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEngaging multiple stakeholders\u0026rsquo; educators, policymakers, and communities in research can foster contextually relevant solutions and sustainable multilingual practices in education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are no funding sources for this study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlexander, N. 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Summarizing research findings: Systematic review and meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eMalaysian Family Physician\u003c/em\u003e, 2(1), 8\u0026ndash;12. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZelazo, P.D., Muller, U., Frye, \u0026amp; Marcovitch, S., (2003). \u003cem\u003eThe development of executive function in early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development\u003c/em\u003e, 68(3)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Multilingualism, education, challenging contexts, systematic review","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7572833/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7572833/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis paper presents a systematic review of literature on multilingualism in educational contexts, covering the period from 2010 to 2022. The review aims to explore the challenges and benefits of multilingualism in educational space, identify current research trends, and highlight gaps that could inform future studies. Using a structured methodology and targeted keyword searches across multiple academic databases and online sources, 34 relevant studies were selected for analysis. The review reveals that multilingualism research in challenging educational environments primarily concentrates on pedagogical practices, the use of first languages as mediums of instruction, academic performance, and the value of multilingualism as a resource. The findings indicate that multilingual practices, including translanguaging and language-openness strategies, can be effectively implemented in resource-constrained and culturally diverse settings. Nonetheless, a significant gap exists in research focusing on regions like South Africa with high linguistic diversity, indicating the need for further studies. This review provides a theoretical foundation for integrating multilingualism in challenging educational environments and guides future research and policy development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Challenges, Benefits and Policy Implications of Multilingualism in Educational Contexts","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-30 17:09:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7572833/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-11-05T18:02:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T18:05:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"265778991291570346990350263209251845518","date":"2025-10-27T09:59:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-23T20:48:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"115023928134987205816967312665260186824","date":"2025-10-22T10:32:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"206828609384534095889221906477486838338","date":"2025-10-21T08:14:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T12:25:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T11:40:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T09:40:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-26T13:16:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Education","date":"2025-09-26T13:13:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"cf400cfd-9193-4218-bf4d-635037d3efba","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-10T20:23:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-30 17:09:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7572833","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7572833","identity":"rs-7572833","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}