Relationships between uranium occurrence and pyrite in Yimin Formation in the Hailar Basin

Relationships between uranium occurrence and pyrite in Yimin Formation in the Hailar Basin | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Relationships between uranium occurrence and pyrite in Yimin Formation in the Hailar Basin Fanmin Meng, Fengjun Nie, Wenbo Zhou, Zhaobin Yan, Fei Xia, Da Sun, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5228875/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The sandstone uranium deposits in the Kelulun Depression are the first commercially viable uranium deposits discovered in the Hailar Basin and the ore-bearing strata corresponding to the Lower Cretaceous Yimin Formation. To elucidate the origins and formative mechanisms of pyrites and investigate their relation to uranium mineralization, both the characteristics of pyrites and uranium minerals and the S isotope and the trace element composition of pyrites were investigated. Results indicated that coffinites (as cements and star-like clusters) are the most common uranium mineral type, followed by pitchblendes and U-Ti oxides. Pyrites are mainly framboidal, cement, or euhedral. S isotope fractionation in the pyrites varies due to different S sources (biogenic or abiotic), with framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites showing δ 34 S values of -63.70 to -3.38‰, -30.26 to 9.52‰, and 3.32 to 8.27‰, respectively. As and Tl enrichment indicates formation in a low-temperature environment. High Ca and P levels in the uranium minerals are indicative of microbial participation. The carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation in the Kelulun Depression played synergistic roles in uranium mineralization, which resulted in highly diverse uranium ore occurrences. Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geochemistry Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geology pyrites uranium mineralization Yimin Formation sandstone uranium deposits Kelulun Depression Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. Introduction Sandstone uranium deposits are typically large and shallow, and are also relatively cost efficient and environmentally friendly to mine. As such, these deposits have become the primary focus of uranium exploration efforts both in and outside of China 1 – 4 . The reductive immobilization of uranium is one of the determining factors for the formation of sandstone uranium deposits 5 – 7 . Reductants of uranium include residual carbonaceous clasts and sulfides (especially pyrite) and reductants from deep regions of the crust (CH 4 , H 2 S, CO) 8 – 10 . Pyrite is a common mineral in sandstones that is a major adsorbent and reductant of uranium and has a major role in the migration and precipitation of U, thus, it is often associated with uranium minerals in sandstone deposits 11 . The sensitivity of pyrites to redox conditions renders them excellent indicators of the geochemical processes to which the ore-bearing fluids have been subjected 12 – 14 . Therefore, studying the micromorphology, trace elements, and S isotope composition of pyrites can provide insights regarding their mode of genesis, the origin of their ore-forming hydrothermal fluids, and their relation to uranium minerals. These insights may serve as important references for subsequent studies on the genesis of sandstone uranium deposits 15 , 16 . The Kelulun Depression is a secondary tectonic element of the Zhabenuoer Depression in the southwestern Hailar Basin, China, and a sandstone uranium deposit of considerable size has been discovered in the Cretaceous Yimin Formation that lies within the Kelulun Depression. Many studies have investigated the uranium ore-bearing layer of the Kelulun Depression, including examination of the geochemical characteristics 17 , sedimentary environment 18 , provenance 19 , hydrogeological conditions 20 , airborne radioactivity measurements 21 , uranium mineralogy 22 , and the potential for uranium mineralization 23 – 26 . However, the origins of the pyrite in the Kelulun Depression and their relationship with uranium mineralization have not been investigated. To address this gap in the literature, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and Laser Ablation Multi-Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-MC-ICPMS) were used to elucidate the types and occurrences of uranium minerals in the Yimin Formation, as well as the morphology, S isotope composition, and trace element composition of the associated pyrites. The aim of this study is to investigate the genesis and evolution of the pyrites and the sources of the ore-forming materials, as well as their relation to uranium mineralization. The findings of this study can benefit subsequent uranium exploration work in the study area. 2. Geological background The Hailar Basin is a Mesozoic continental rift basin that lies on the eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Fig. 1 a), between the Siberian and North China plates 27 – 30 . It is controlled by the northeast-trending Derbugan and Ergun faults, and has experienced multiple tectonic episodes since its formation, including rifting in the Late Jurassic, a syn-rifting stage during the Early Cretaceous, shrinking in the late Early Cretaceous, and differential uplift and subsidence in the Late Cretaceous-Neogene 31 – 36 . These tectonic episodes formed a tectonic pattern with “two uplifts and three depressions” 37 – 39 . The Kelulun Depression, which lies in the southwestern Hailar Basin (Fig. 1 b), trends in the NE direction and is bound by a fault running along its western side (Fig. 1 c) 41 , 42 . The region has experienced two periods of intense tectonic reversal since the Early Cretaceous, both of which have played important roles in the formation of its sandstone uranium deposits 26 , 42 . The basement of the Kelulun Depression is mainly composed of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and Hercynian granites, with large quantities of granite, intermediate-to-acidic felsic igneous rocks, and intermediate-to-alkaline igneous rocks running along its margins 43 – 46 . The sedimentary strata in this region are the Cretaceous Nantun (K 1 t ), Tongbomiao (K 1 n ), Damoguaihe (K 1 d ), and Yimin Formations (K 1 y ), the Neogene Huchashan Formation (N 2 h ), and Quaternary strata (Q). The ore-bearing layer in the study area, the Lower Cretaceous Yimin Formation, was formed by the sedimentation of highly reduced dark coal-bearing detritus 25 , 47 – 49 . 3. Sample acquisition and analytical methods Twelve ore samples comprising grey fine-grained sandstones and black silty sandstone were obtained from boreholes ZKH5-2 and ZKH12-1 in the Kelulun Depression. The sampling locations can be seen in Fig. 1 c. Uranium mineral analysis was conducted at the State Key Laboratory for Nuclear Resources and Environment, East China University of Technology. Analysis was performed using a JEOL-JXA 8530 EPMA system with an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) system (Inca Energy). Analysis was conducted using an accelerating potential of 15.0 kV, current of 20.0 nA, and beam diameter of < 2 µm. Pyrite trace element and S isotope analyses were performed at the State Key Laboratory of Continental Tectonics and Dynamics, Northwest University. Pyrite S isotope analysis was performed using a LA-MC-ICPMS system (Nu Plasma 1700 MC-ICP-MS) with a 193 nm excimer laser ablation system (RESOlution M-50, ASI). The analyses were performed using a laser energy density of 3.6 J/cm 2 , frequency of 3 Hz, and ablation beam diameter of 37 µm. Further details on the analytical method can be found in Chen et al., (2022) 50 . Concentrations of trace element in pyrite were determined using a 193 nm ArF excimer laser system (RESOLution S155-LR, ASI) coupled with an Agilent 7900 ICP-MS. The spot size and frequency of the laser were set to 30–67 µm and 6 Hz respectively. Trace element compositions of sulfides were calibrated against various reference materials (SRM 610, SRM 612, BCR-2G). The sulfide reference material of MASS-1 was used as the unknown sample to verify the accuracy of the calibration method. An Excel-based software ICPMSDataCal 10.8 was used to perform off-line selection and integration of background and analyzed signals, time-drift correction and quantitative calibration for trace element analysis. The analytical approach was similar to that outlined in Bao et al. (2016) 51 . 4. Results 4.1 Pyrite morphologies Microscopic observation indicates three distinct morphologies for pyrites from the Yimin Formation: framboidal, cement, and euhedral. The characteristics of each micromorphology type are: (1) Framboids pyrites Framboids occur as spheres or ellipsoids (the 3D shape) (Fig. 2a) with diameters ranging from 1 to 50 μm (mostly 10–30 μm). Most framboids were found inside carbonaceous clasts (Fig. 2b) and clay minerals (Fig. 2c), however, some were also observed in the interstitial spaces between clast particles. Both the microevolutionary processes by which pyrite microcrystals aggregate to form framboids (Fig. 2d) and the conversion of framboidal pyrites into cement and euhedral pyrites (Fig. 2e) was observed under the microscope. Coffinite is closely associated with pyrite minerals in the study area, with the former largely found inside framboidal pyrites or between pyrite microcrystals (Fig. 2f). (2) Cement pyrites Cement pyrites occur mainly between clast particles (Fig. 3a), where they act as cement. Large numbers of framboidal and microcrystalline pyrites were observed in the cement pyrites in some parts of the study area (Fig. 3b), however, were observed inside carbonaceous clasts (Fig. 3c), usually in association with coffinite (Fig. 3d). The association between cement pyrites and carbonaceous clasts indicates that the former are diagenetically related to organic matter. (3) Euhedral pyrites Anhedral and non-euhedral were mainly found inside plant cell cavities (Fig. 3c) and at the margins of clast particles (Fig. 3e), with diameters ranging from 2 to 150 μm (mainly 10–50 μm), with few occurring as euhedral grains (Fig. 3f). 4.2 S isotope compositions of the pyrites S isotope analysis of the pyrites (Table 1) indicated δ 34 S values of -63.70 to -3.38 ‰, -30.26 to 9.52 ‰, and 3.32 to 8.27 ‰ for the framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites, respectively. The large range spanned by these δ 34 S values is indicative of significant S isotope fractionation, which in turn implies the derivation of S from multiple sources (Fig. 4). Table 1. LA-MC-ICPMS sulfur isotopic compositions of pyrite in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression. Sample No. Types of pyrites δ 33 S v-CDT SE δ 34 S v-CDT 2SE 20HL017A-12 framboid -3.06 0.23 -3.38 0.53 20HL017A-3 framboid -14.52 0.20 -19.53 1.77 20HL017A-7 framboid -1.14 0.15 -4.49 0.33 20HL017A-8 framboid -3.16 0.16 -7.31 0.42 20HL018A-10 framboid -28.23 0.15 -53.20 0.42 20HL018A-11 framboid -34.25 0.15 -62.75 0.30 20HL018A-7 framboid -21.35 0.15 -44.90 0.48 20HL018A-8 framboid -17.55 0.04 -49.76 1.70 20HL018A-9 framboid -25.26 0.15 -47.41 0.39 20HL018B-1 framboid -23.69 0.12 -43.58 0.26 20HL018B-2 framboid -22.15 0.16 -44.76 0.23 20HL018A-2 framboid -34.20 0.15 -63.70 0.24 20HL018A-3 framboid -10.41 0.05 -19.85 0.28 20HL018B-6 framboid -21.31 0.11 -43.92 0.23 20HL017A-1 cement -7.81 0.06 -16.24 0.26 20HL017A-2 cement -12.16 0.07 -25.61 0.48 20HL017A-4 cement -11.93 0.07 -23.21 0.36 20HL017A-5 cement 0.99 0.22 0.79 0.50 20HL017A-6 cement 1.20 0.13 0.06 0.30 20HL018A-1 cement -6.39 0.06 -12.42 0.30 20HL018A-4 cement -9.11 0.13 -16.86 0.85 20HL018A-5 cement -15.57 0.07 -30.26 0.58 20HL018A-6 cement -12.65 0.08 -24.80 0.23 20HL018B-4 cement 5.96 0.09 9.52 0.26 20HL022A-2 cement -10.68 0.11 -22.68 0.55 20HL022A-3 cement -7.82 0.11 -15.67 0.25 20HL022A-5 cement -0.81 0.08 -2.52 0.25 20HL022B-2 cement -5.33 0.07 -7.21 0.79 20HL022B-3 cement -12.20 0.11 -20.37 0.37 20HL022B-4 cement 1.49 0.07 3.35 0.24 20HL017A-10 euhedral 2.53 0.20 3.32 0.53 20HL017A-11 euhedral 3.54 0.23 6.18 0.56 20HL017B-1 euhedral 4.14 0.13 8.27 0.35 20HL017B-2 euhedral 1.48 0.10 5.70 0.33 20HL022A-4 euhedral 3.70 0.14 6.30 0.85 4.3 Trace element compositions of the pyrites Substantial differences in the trace element composition were found between the various pyrite micromorphologies (Table 2), but all had high As and Pb contents and low V, Cd, and Tl contents. Framboidal pyrites are Cu-rich (average 105.9 ppm), whereas cement pyrites are Cu- (average 155.56 ppm) and Mo- (average 707.45 ppm) rich with relatively high Ni contents (average 54.67ppm). Euhedral pyrites are Cu (average 159.8 ppm), Mo (average 412.0 ppm), Co (average 46.98 ppm), and Ni- (average 83.93 ppm) rich, with high Sb contents (average 41.2 ppm). Table 2. LA-MC-ICPMS analysis of trace element in different types of pyrite in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression. Sample No. Types of pyrites V Cr Co Ni Cu Zn As Se Mo Cd Sb Tl Pb 20HL018A-6 framboid 58.5 33.9 4.3 5.5 104.7 25.1 132.1 14.9 15.1 0.6 24.6 8.5 347.9 20HL018A-7 framboid 46.2 11.7 6.5 8.9 123.0 27.0 199.1 9.6 11.0 0.9 23.1 12.5 500.7 20HL018A-8 framboid 65.9 40.4 5.2 7.9 121.2 59.2 192.9 20.1 57.1 0.8 28.1 4.9 557.0 20HL017A-3 framboid 25.7 581.0 28.2 23.9 147.0 44.1 272.6 45.5 56.1 0.0 8.2 3.5 353.4 20HL017A-5 framboid 9.2 82.9 7.5 5.4 144.6 11.1 344.8 0.8 17.1 0.4 20.4 4.7 393.5 20HL017A-6 framboid 3.3 33.8 13.0 9.4 39.4 16.5 303.7 1.1 15.4 0.8 3.5 4.0 218.2 20HL017A-7 framboid 12.2 1.1 23.3 8.5 112.7 19.6 1094.7 7.8 15.1 1.5 19.8 5.1 291.4 20HL017A-8 framboid 6.0 758.5 41.1 5.6 103.9 12.8 326.9 9.2 9.9 0.4 14.7 5.3 237.9 20HL017A-9 framboid 12.5 39.0 37.9 7.0 108.2 16.0 512.7 5.2 9.5 1.1 9.2 5.2 223.5 20HL017A-10 framboid 6.3 132.1 15.0 11.2 94.3 21.7 270.8 0.4 19.5 0.4 6.9 7.1 304.6 20HL017A-11 framboid 5.2 988.0 7.1 10.7 91.3 17.3 104.8 0.2 24.0 0.6 4.7 9.6 229.7 20HL018B-3 cement 19.4 197.1 62.4 155.0 339.7 12.3 329.8 5.2 2285.4 6.0 15.5 4.4 256.9 20HL022B-1 cement 3.5 11.7 3.8 8.4 250.4 30.5 28.9 0.7 265.7 0.1 0.6 2.0 37.8 20HL022B-1 cement 3.5 4.4 3.8 8.4 250.4 30.5 28.9 0.7 265.7 0.1 0.6 2.0 37.8 20HL018A-1 cement 0.4 5.4 93.1 78.1 48.7 14.1 438.4 3.6 20.3 7.1 11.8 10.6 1324.3 20HL018A-2 cement 0.2 33.6 53.5 115.6 45.1 15.7 287.4 0.2 38.3 8.6 23.9 28.3 856.9 20HL018A-3 cement 0.2 5.0 32.3 48.3 29.0 18.6 310.5 4.0 17.3 7.6 16.0 28.1 644.3 20HL018A-4 cement 0.4 1.9 58.0 87.9 35.5 12.3 432.7 5.9 32.9 7.3 21.5 25.9 716.2 20HL018A-5 cement 0.4 4.1 40.5 89.5 61.7 29.1 362.4 8.6 20.0 5.3 23.1 34.1 598.6 20HL017A-2 cement 2.0 2.7 49.3 63.1 26.1 14.7 339.2 2.8 20.9 9.1 13.0 15.5 931.8 20HL017A-4 cement 0.8 69.3 56.8 52.4 18.3 15.1 431.8 11.8 16.1 7.1 16.0 18.3 1467.3 20HL022B-3 cement 1.6 21.9 1.6 7.1 89.3 12.0 84.3 3.6 642.6 0.2 0.7 2.6 68.5 20HL022B-4 cement 0.5 4.3 0.2 3.1 151.7 21.9 23.8 1.5 370.4 0.1 1.2 0.5 4.8 20HL022B-4 cement 4.0 22.5 1.7 5.6 88.9 16.0 61.7 1.4 462.9 0.1 0.7 2.8 7.4 20HL018B-4 cement 2.0 12.0 8.8 44.1 535.9 3.7 349.9 2.8 642.6 1.0 9.6 2.5 389.1 21HL009A-1 cement 3.4 12.2 6.0 4.8 119.6 3.7 530.7 5.4 3454.9 0.4 1.1 7.9 601.4 20HL018B-2 euhedral 45.9 4.3 184.3 330.6 118.6 21.9 303.3 10.7 8.3 9.4 182.5 5.7 7007.3 20HL022A-1 euhedral 5.2 3.1 15.8 30.3 282.1 27.8 60.2 1.7 376.4 0.8 2.8 2.3 86.5 20HL022A-2 euhedral 1.8 2.1 1.5 3.8 212.4 17.8 14.3 0.3 287.9 0.1 0.3 1.6 13.2 20HL022A-3 euhedral 6.9 18.0 3.0 12.3 106.9 29.7 55.9 2.1 585.6 0.3 0.3 2.5 64.9 20HL022A-4 euhedral 7.0 3.6 9.4 14.0 201.6 30.7 34.1 1.2 729.6 0.1 1.3 1.0 53.2 20HL022A-5 euhedral 1.8 1.6 10.8 13.0 100.2 16.2 34.5 0.9 529.0 0.1 0.3 1.8 18.7 20HL017B-1 euhedral 2.1 7.4 12.2 16.8 67.2 32.1 34.7 1.5 453.4 0.1 0.5 2.7 14.6 4.4 Types and occurrences of uranium minerals 4.1 Types of uranium minerals Based on EPMA, coffinite is the most common type of uranium mineral in the study area, followed by pitchblende and U-Ti oxide (Table 3). Coffinites have UO 2 contents of 57.03–65.92%, SiO 2 contents of 9.24–15.55%, CaO contents of 1.64–4.55%, P 2 O 5 contents of 2.51–7.52%, and Y 2 O 3 contents of 1.20–4.01%, whereas pitchblendes have UO 2 contents of 70.91–76.70%, SiO 2 contents of 1.84–5.59%, and trace amounts of CaO, PbO, and Y 2 O 3 , and U-Ti oxides have UO 2 contents of 32.85–37.92%, TiO 2 contents of 37.36–43.56%, SiO 2 contents of 9.86–12.81%, with trace amounts of CaO, BeO, P 2 O 5 , Y 2 O 3 , and ZrO 2 . Table 3. Results of electron probe component analysis (%) for uranium minerals in the study area. Point No. SiO 2 CaO TiO 2 ZrO 2 Y 2 O 3 UO 2 P 2 O 5 FeO Total Types of uranium minerals 1 12.78 2.59 0.25 0.22 1.64 63.55 2.51 1.19 84.71 Coffinite 2 15.55 3.90 0.36 0.56 4.01 57.03 6.30 1.21 88.92 3 12.42 3.81 0.37 0.41 3.84 58.14 7.52 1.60 88.10 4 12.42 3.81 0.37 0.41 3.84 57.14 7.52 1.60 87.10 5 12.86 2.62 0.42 0.03 2.13 64.32 2.98 0.31 85.67 6 11.28 4.55 0.34 0.01 2.39 58.90 6.07 4.02 87.56 7 13.72 2.72 0.34 0.19 1.39 64.42 3.84 0.32 86.94 8 10.02 2.01 0.22 0.00 1.97 65.92 2.83 2.25 85.22 9 10.24 3.59 0.88 0.15 1.38 60.71 5.67 1.39 84.01 10 9.24 3.67 0.38 0.16 2.03 63.71 6.71 1.45 87.34 11 11.39 1.64 0.23 0.07 1.38 64.54 3.67 1.83 84.76 12 13.40 3.39 0.01 0.00 2.37 60.13 6.11 2.02 87.43 13 12.93 2.97 0.19 0.01 1.31 62.90 6.37 0.42 87.09 14 14.62 2.96 0.14 0.00 1.20 60.65 6.54 0.62 86.72 15 11.28 4.55 0.34 0.01 2.39 59.90 6.07 4.02 88.56 16 2.85 6.55 0.04 0.04 0.12 73.85 0.03 0.96 84.42 Pitchblende 17 2.60 6.57 0.01 0.01 0.06 74.07 0.05 1.07 84.43 18 3.50 6.20 0.00 0.00 0.05 76.42 0.09 0.89 87.14 19 3.54 6.76 0.01 0.01 0.05 75.94 0.12 1.30 87.72 20 1.84 4.37 0.02 0.00 0.04 75.65 0.07 0.95 82.93 21 2.57 4.97 0.00 0.03 0.03 76.70 0.07 1.00 85.37 22 2.53 4.88 0.00 0.00 0.02 74.99 0.04 0.98 83.44 23 3.76 1.91 2.78 1.11 0.19 74.79 0.21 1.60 86.35 24 5.59 1.54 3.31 1.36 0.21 70.91 0.20 1.70 84.81 25 4.93 1.61 2.98 1.28 0.11 73.96 0.25 1.90 87.01 26 10.73 0.68 42.54 0.69 0.79 32.85 0.03 1.14 89.45 U-Ti Oxide 27 10.44 2.41 37.36 0.76 0.25 36.49 0.08 1.75 89.54 28 12.81 0.36 39.68 0.78 0.03 33.48 0.09 2.43 89.66 29 9.86 1.32 39.48 0.78 0.67 36.56 0.06 2.18 90.91 30 10.71 1.95 41.94 1.29 0.45 37.92 0.03 2.23 96.52 31 10.98 2.21 40.83 1.27 0.59 37.34 0.01 2.13 95.36 32 11.28 0.71 43.56 0.68 0.83 33.94 0.05 1.07 92.12 4.2 Occurrences of uranium minerals Most of the uranium minerals in the study area were found inside framboidal pyrites and their margins. Some uranium minerals occurring inside clastic quartzs and feldspars or their margins. Uranium minerals exhibit four types of occurrences: (1) Coffinites occurring inside framboidal pyrites or in interstitial spaces between pyrite microcrystals (Fig. 5a), with some filling the interstices between framboid aggregates as cement (Fig. 5b). Strong association is observed between this type of coffinite and framboidal pyrites. (2) Pitchblendes occurring independently as irregular clasts (Fig. 5c). (3) Coffinites occurring as star-like clusters or microvein fillings in the margins of detrital quartz and feldspar grains, fractures, or dissolution pits (Fig. 5d-f). (4) Coffinites and U-Ti oxides occurring as cements (Fig. 5g) or burrs around pyrite (Fig. 5h) and anatase grains in biotite cleavage planes (Fig. 5i). The results of EPMA scans on the uranium minerals and their associated minerals are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. These element maps indicate that uranium occurs mainly independently (mostly in the form of coffinite), while some are adsorbed or colloid-bound. Adsorbed uranium is mainly found in cleavage planes of chloritized biotite, whereas colloid-bound uranium mostly occurs as U-Ti oxides, with both adsorbed and colloid-bound uranium present only in small quantities (Fig. 7 a-c, f) . Figs. 7d and 7e indicate that most of the uranium occurs in the interstitial spaces between the microcrystalline or framboidal pyrites, i.e., in the interstices of pyrite aggregates, with small amounts observed on the margins of the framboidal pyrites. These results suggest that uranium occurs mainly as independent uranium minerals around pyrite grains and in the interstitial spaces of pyrite aggregates in the study area. 5. Discussion 5.1 Sulfur sources and pyrite genesis The formation of pyrites is strongly linked to the migration and accumulation of S. Therefore, S isotope analysis was used to trace the sources of the S, determine the mode of pyrite mineralization, and reveal the sources of the ore-forming materials, providing important reference for studies into the origin of mineral deposits 55 – 57 . Organic sources of S are formed by thermal, baric, and microbial actions on organic matter (such as carbonaceous clasts) in the ore-bearing layer, whereas inorganic sources of S are due to the weathering of rocks to form soluble S salts, which are then carried to the ore-bearing layer by fluid 58 . The S elements in pyrite have previously been found to be mainly derived from sulfate-reducing microorganisms (BSR), the pyrolysis of organic matter (TDS), thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), and inorganic sulfate reduction 59 . Pyrites formed by inorganic sulfate reduction usually have positive δ 34 S values of around 20‰. Pyrolysis occurs when S-containing organic matter is subjected to temperatures above 50 ℃, which results in their decomposition into H 2 S, with pyrites formed by this process usually demonstrating δ 34 S values of -17–10‰ 60 . Thermochemical sulfate reduction refers to the reduction of S from sulfate minerals in the presence of hydrocarbon gases at high temperatures, which produces large quantities of reduced S. Microbial sulfate reduction is usually carried out in subsurface waters by anaerobic bacteria at temperatures below 50 ℃. In this process, 32 SO2–3 is preferentially reduced to H 2 32 S, which produces 32 S- enriched H 2 S gas. After these gases are dissolved, the S elements react with Fe 2+ in the water to form pyrites 61 . As this type of sulfate reduction leads to S fractionation, the pyrites formed by this process have strongly negative δ 34 S values (typically − 42.7 to -5‰). The δ 34 S values of Yimin Formation pyrites in the Kelulun Depression vary over a wide range (from − 63.70 to 9.52‰), which indicates that S isotopes are fractionated by the processes that contribute to the pyrite formation in the area 62 , 63 . This fractionation will modify whatever the S isotope composition was. Bonnetti et al. (2020) 62 research finding that one key feature of roll-front deposits across the globe is the large range in S isotope fractionation found in the ore-stage pyrite. The euhedral and cement pyrite has a higher δ 34 S composition than the framboid pyrite. The complex sulfur sources and different fractionation processes, combined with biological and non-biological effects, have resulted in a large variation range of the δ 34 S value in pyrite in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression, as well as different microscopic morphologies and occurrence characteristics. More and more studies have employed the relatively negative δ 34 S value of pyrite to indicate the evidence of biological uranium mineralization, especially in sandstone-type uranium deposits in northern China (Fig. 4 ) 64 , 65 . However, different sulfur sources and fractionation environments may affect the δ 34 S value of pyrite. Framboids are the predominant types of pyrite in the Yimin Formation. BSR typically generates light reduced sulfur species that react with iron oxides or hydroxides to form pyrite 66 , indicating that BSR is the dominant process in ore-stage sulfidation. However, cement and euhedral pyrites exhibit heavier sulfur isotopic signatures and slightly lower trace element concentrations, suggesting potential involvement of later-stage fluids. Therefore, during ore-stage sulfidation, both biogenic and abiogenic processes may occur simultaneously or sequentially. The transition between these processes primarily depends on sulfate ions supplied by oxygenated groundwater 67 . Pyrites exhibit a variety of micromorphologies in sedimentary rocks: framboidal, cement, and euhedral 68 – 70 . Framboidal pyrites typically form during the syn-depositional or early diagenetic stage 71 – 73 , with syn-depositional framboids tending to crystallize in oxygen-rich waters before sinking into the sediment 74 , whereas framboids forming during the early diagenetic stage nucleating and growing in anoxic pore water 75 – 76 . Framboids formed during the late diagenetic stage tend to be tightly clustered and have small interstitial spaces and will gradually transform into cement and euhedral pyrites when exposed to S- and Fe-bearing hydrothermal fluids 77 – 78 . The framboidal pyrites in the study area were formed by the replacement or filling of organic pellets 79 – 81 , with their enrichment in As, Cu, Ni, Co, and 32 S indicative of a microbial origin 82 . The strongly negative δ 34 S values (-63.70 to -3.38‰) of these pyrites indicates that they were formed by microbial sulfate reduction. The Yimin Formation contains large quantities of organic matter (e.g., carbonaceous clasts and thin coal seams), which are the result of microbial activity. These microbes reduce the dissolved sulfates to H 2 S, which then reacts with Fe 2+ to form framboidal pyrites. Furthermore, the observation of pyrite fillings in plant cell cavities and the replacement of coal clast with pyrite (Fig. 3 c, d) further indicates biological origins for the pyrites in the area. The cement pyrites in the study area also have negative δ 34 S values (-30.26 to 9.52‰), which may be the result of microbial or thermochemical sulfate reduction. The physical association between the cement and framboidal pyrites suggests that the former may have formed via the dissolution and recrystallization of framboidal pyrites (Fig. 3 b). Euhedral pyrites have positive δ 34 S values (3.32 to 8.27‰), and could thus be derived from abiotic reactions between sulfate and H 2 S bearing fluids. Based on the overprinting and overgrowth relationships of the framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites, the origin and evolution of Yimin Formation pyrites may be surmised as follows (Fig. 8 ): (a) Microbial sulfate reduction caused pyrite microcrystals to evolve into framboidal pyrites, with spherical aggregates forming in closed spaces and framboidal aggregates in open spaces (Fig. 8 a). The close association of many framboidal pyrites with carbonaceous clasts hints at the cause of their low (negative) δ 34 S values. (b) The intermediate stage of pyrite evolution corresponds to the transformation of framboids into cement via the action of S- and Fe-rich hydrothermal fluids, which then fill the interstitial spaces between the framboidal pyrites, leading to the formation of cement pyrites with large quantities of framboidal and microcrystalline pyrites (Fig. 8 b). Framboidal pyrite aggregates and microcrystalline pyrites were also observed to have transformed into cement pyrite. (c) The addition of low-temperature hydrothermal fluid gradually transforms the tightly arranged framboids into polygonal pyrites, which eventually become euhedral pyrites (Fig. 8 c). The most common pyrite morphology observed in the Yimin Formation is framboidal, followed by aggregated pyrite microcrystals. This morphology has the closest association with uranium minerals. The next most common morphology, cement pyrite, is derived from framboidal pyrite aggregates and microcrystalline pyrite. The abundance of cement pyrite could be attributed to the presence of hydrothermal fluids and the clast grains being sufficiently porous to allow for the rapid precipitation of the cement pyrites. As pore spaces are limited in the late stages of diagenesis, euhedral pyrite (derived from framboidal pyrite) is the least common pyrite morphology. 5.2 Source of trace element behavior in pyrite The environment in which a pyrite was formed can be inferred from its Co and Ni contents and Co/Ni ratio, as these parameters are sensitive to the physicochemical conditions of its formative environment 83 . Sedimentary, hydrothermal, and igneous pyrites have Co/Ni ratios of < 1, 1.17–5.0, and 5.0–50.0 84–85 , respectively. Framboidal pyrites have Co contents of 4.3– 41.1 ppm, Ni contents of 5.4–23.9 ppm, and Co/Ni ratios of 0.66–7.34. Cement pyrites have Co contents of 0.2–93.1 ppm, Ni contents of 3.1–155 ppm, and Co/Ni ratios of 0.06–1.35. Euhedral pyrites have Co contents of 01.5–184.3 ppm, Ni contents of 3.8–330.6 ppm, and Co/Ni ratios of 0.24–0.83. The result of different pyrites indicating that most of the pyrites in the study area are sedimentary. Most plot in Zone II of the Co-Ni discrimination plot, with some in Zone III (Fig. 9 ). According to the results of Fig. 2 d-f and Fig. 9 , the pyrites in the study area generally have a sedimentary origin, with some having a hydrothermal origin. The formative environment of a pyrite can also be inferred from its trace elements, i.e., its Mo content and V/Cr and Ni/Co ratios 87 – 89 . The vast majority of pyrites in the study area have V/Cr values lower than two and Ni/Co values lower than five, which is indicative of an oxygen-rich formative environment. The Mo contents of the pyrites range from 8.31 ppm to 3454.87 ppm, the higher Mo contents observed in pyrite may be related to the transport of Mo by the oxidizing meteoric fluids to the uranium reservoir 90 . Keith et al. (2016) 91 showed that the trace element composition of a pyrite is influenced by the temperature at which it formed. As and Tl are abundant in low-temperature environments 92 . Pyrites from the Yimin Formation have As contents of 14.35–1094.73 ppm (average 269.76 ppm) and Tl contents of 0.52–34.06 ppm (average 8.79 ppm). The significant As and Tl enrichment indicates that the ore-bearing fluid formed in a low-temperature environment 93 , 94 . Futhermore, framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites have very similar trace element (As、Cu、Ni、Co、Mo and Sb) signature (Fig. 10 ). Therefore, trace element signature for the different types of pyrite populations likely characterise a single event of pyrite crystallisation, which most probably originated from the same fluid. 5.3 Relationship between pyrite and uranium mineralization Pyrites are important reductants in sandstone uranium deposits as they act as adsorbents and reductants that facilitate the migration and precipitation of uranium 95 – 96 . The close association between pyrite and the uranium minerals in the Yimin Formation shows that the former plays an important role in the reduction and precipitation of uranium. However, the mechanisms by which the pyrites and uranium minerals in the study area formed remain ambiguous. To address the relationship between uranium minerals and several types of pyrite has been described. Uranium minerals occur mainly fill the voids of framboidal pyrites and the interstices of microcrystalline pyrites (Fig. 5 a), which implies that coffinite may have formed contemporaneously with the framboidal pyrite aggregates lying near carbonaceous clasts. Uranium minerals were also observed to occur as cement-like fillings around early pyrites (Fig. 5 b). The uranium mineralization in the Yimin Formation can be divided into two stages 17 : the pre-accumulation stage and interlayer oxidation stage, with pyrites playing important roles in all uranium mineralization processes. The thin coal seams and carbonaceous clasts in the grey sandstones of the Yimin Formation having formed from microorganisms present in the sediment. Therefore, their presence is suggesting the presence of microbial colonies that was well-suited for microbial life during the pre-accumulation stage. Framboidal pyrites that have formed via microbial sulfate reduction have large surface areas that can adsorb the trace levels of uranium that were dissolved in the Kelulun Depression and accumulate them on microcrystalline grains, leading to the initiation of uranium accumulation during the sedimentary and diagenetic stages. In addition, a significant spike in the radioactivity of the primary mudstones and thin coal seams in the Yimin Formation around this period proves that the uranium began to accumulate during the sedimentary-diagenetic period 38 . Two rounds of tectonic inversion in the Hailar Basin during the Late Cretaceous-Neogene exposed the Yimin Formation at the surface and created a tectonic pattern in which the Kelulun Depression was bound by faults on its western side 97 , 98 . This also intensified the “recharge-runoff-discharge” process of the supergene fluids, rendering it easier for the uranium-bearing oxygen-rich fluids formed by the leaching of uranium-rich granites on the western side of the Kelulun Depression to seep into the Yimin Formation. During the interlayer oxidation stage, Uranyl and sulfate ions, along with bacteria, reach the redox interface of uranium precipitation through oxidation within groundwater-permeable sandstone, the carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation each played a distinct role in uranium reduction 7 . The replacement of organic matter by pyrite in the Yimin Formation ore may serve as evidence of organic matter biodegradation (Fig. 2 c, d), where microbial communities utilized organic material as food source. The higher Ca and P content in uranium minerals could also indicate bacterial activity (Fig. 11 ). During BSR (bacterial sulfate reduction), H 2 S generated through bacterial metabolic processes provides reducing conditions for uranyl ion precipitation, establishing a reductive barrier 99 . Consequently, uranium originally associated with organic matter (OM) is replaced by coffinite, which serves as a favorable host for uranium mineralization. The biogenic reduction of uranium via BSR leads to close associations between OM, uranium minerals, and biogenic framboidal pyrite. The preservation of framboidal pyrite that is not replaced by uranium minerals indicates that uranium mineralization in the Yimin Formation formed during BSR, supported by evidence of biomineralization. When pyrites form on framboidal pyrites that have already adsorbed uranium, their insides and surrounds will contain uranium minerals from the early uranium accumulation stage and interlayer oxidation stage (Fig. 8 b). The carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation in the Kelulun Depression played synergistic roles in uranium mineralization, which resulted in highly diverse uranium ore occurrences. The findings of this study will contribute to our understanding of the rules that govern uranium ore formation in the sandstone uranium deposits of the Kelulun Depression. 6. Conclusions (1) Coffinite is the most common uranium mineral in the Yimin Formation, with only small amounts of pitchblendes and U-Ti oxides observed. Coffinite occurs as cement-like fillings inside and around pyrites or star-like clusters and irregular grains on the margins of clast grains, fissures, and dissolution pits. Pitchblendes occur as independent and irregular clast grains. U-Ti oxides occur as cements, burrs, or microlenticles in the biotite cleavage planes. (2) Pyrites in the Yimin Formation are in the form of framboidal, cement, and euhedral morphologies, which are linked to each other by their evolutionary relationships microcrystalline pyrites aggregate to form framboidal pyrites, which then evolve into cement and euhedral pyrites. The pyrites in the Yimin Formation have both biogenic and abiotic origins. Abiotic pyrites were formed by thermochemical sulfate reduction, whereas biogenic pyrites were formed by microbial sulfate reduction. (3) The carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation in the Kelulun Depression played synergistic roles in uranium mineralization, which resulted in highly diverse uranium ore occurrences. This is an important finding for understanding uranium mineralization in the Yimin Formation. Declarations Corresponding Author Fengjun Nie — School of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province 330013, China, Email: [email protected] . Author Information Fanmin Meng — School of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province 330013, China, Email: [email protected] . Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding Projects: Uranium mineralization and Potential Evaluation of sandstone-type uranium deposit in the Hailar Basin: case study on geoscience big data and technique of artificial intelligence on metallogenic prediction（Grant No. HNKP202308（36）. Mechanism of constraints of the basin and range coupling on uranium mineralization in the southern Great Xing’an Range and its lateral basins（Grant No. U2244205）. Acknowledgments: Special thanks go to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions and comments. 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Z., Wang, J. P., Li, W. H. & Zhao, X. G. Mineralization Characteristics of Diantou Uranium Deposit in the Southern Margin of Ordos and comparison with Dongsheng Uranium Deposit. Acta Geol. Sin . 80 , 724–732 (2006). Chen, C. et al. The relationship between pyrite and sandstone-hosted uranium mineralization of the Zhiluo Formation in the northern Ordos Basin. Acta Geol. Sinica . 90 (12), 3375–3380 (2016). http://www.geojournals.cn/dzxb/ch/index.Aspx. Druhan, J. L., Steefel, C. I., Conrad, M. E. & DePaolo, D. J. A large column analog experiment of stable isotope variations during reactive transport. Acomprehensive model of sulfur cycling and d 34 S fractionation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta . 124 , 366–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2013.08.036 (2014). Gregory, D. D. et al. Trace element content of sedimentary pyrite in black shales. Econ. Geol. 110 , 1389–1410. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.110.6.1389 (2015). Reich, M. et al. 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Rev. 72 (11), 728–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.07.012 (2016). Zhang, L. et al. Hydrothermal mineralization in the sandstone-hosted Hangjinqi uranium deposit, North Ordos Basin, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 80 , 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.06.012 (2017). Taylor, S. R. Trace element abundances and the chondritic earth model. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta . 28 (12), 1989–1998. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(64)90142-5 (1964). Algeo, T. J. & Tribovillard, N. Environmental analysis of paleoceanographic systems based in on molybedenum uranium covariation. Chem. Geol. 268 (3–4), 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.09.001 (2009). Wu, B. L. et al. Geological and geochemical characteristics of uranium minerals in the sandstone-type uranium deposits in the north of Ordos Basin and their genetic significance. Acta Geol. Sin . 90 , 3393–3407 (2016). http://www.geojournals.cn/dzxb/ch/index.Aspx Hu, X. W., Yang, X. Y., Ren, Y. S., Du, G. F. & Wu, Z. J. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5228875","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":431614218,"identity":"32e131a3-1e22-4f69-827a-24895dda85fc","order_by":0,"name":"Fanmin Meng","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACNvb+Dwc+VNjU87O3H3yQUFFDWAsfzwHDhzPOpCVI9pxJNnhw5hhhLXISCcbGvC2HEwxmJJhJPmxhJsJhPAfSJHgbmPMMgIyKxAY2Bv727gQCfmk4JiG5g63YnL3x2I3EHTIMEmfObiBgy8E2CcMzPIw7ew6k3Ug8w8ZgIJFLQItEMptEYpsE44YbCWYFiW3MxGhJYzY42GaQCNLCQJwWnjOMDxvOJBiDAlki4cwxHoJ+kW/vYTj8p+K/HCgqP/6oqJHjb+/FrwUD8JCmfBSMglEwCkYBVgAAwBlPy5ouZzYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fanmin","middleName":"","lastName":"Meng","suffix":""},{"id":431614220,"identity":"172e6811-d10c-4cfa-9560-ff657cef10f1","order_by":1,"name":"Fengjun Nie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fengjun","middleName":"","lastName":"Nie","suffix":""},{"id":431614223,"identity":"97035ea8-a6e1-4cbd-89d0-193195453ede","order_by":2,"name":"Wenbo Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Geological Party No. 243, CNNC","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wenbo","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":431614226,"identity":"b2876c3d-1681-403c-b653-847b24519034","order_by":3,"name":"Zhaobin Yan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhaobin","middleName":"","lastName":"Yan","suffix":""},{"id":431614228,"identity":"53ee8c5b-bcb3-425f-949b-a40d03291be5","order_by":4,"name":"Fei Xia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fei","middleName":"","lastName":"Xia","suffix":""},{"id":431614229,"identity":"523887f4-d1bd-4edf-9ca7-2ecca749b368","order_by":5,"name":"Da Sun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Da","middleName":"","lastName":"Sun","suffix":""},{"id":431614230,"identity":"deff17e1-e856-415e-a13a-ecc41e49f4c3","order_by":6,"name":"Xin Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xin","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":431614231,"identity":"edd54888-16d4-4123-ba95-4d749d25b8c9","order_by":7,"name":"Qing Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qing","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":431614232,"identity":"20d2bc8e-3781-45c1-8c8f-ca8dc7cc1fc5","order_by":8,"name":"Huizhi Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"East China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Huizhi","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-09 03:23:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5228875/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5228875/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":78951753,"identity":"1baa6060-da7a-4c9f-97fe-26493330e4b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2818072,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological map of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea. Geotectonic map of the Hailar Basin. b. Tectonic subdivisions of the Hailar Basin. c. Geological map of the Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/4a734c8250701ec28ef238cc.jpg"},{"id":78951737,"identity":"6206202d-ec46-43a0-8941-dfd2adc2d718","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":182407,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOccurrence of framboidal pyrite in the Yimin formation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) An individual framboid with concentric growth, (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) framboidal and microcrystalline pyrite fillings in carbonaceous clasts, (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) framboidal and microcrystalline pyrite fillings in clay minerals, (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e) pyrite microcrystals in the form of framboidal aggregates, (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e) evolution of framboidal pyrites into cement pyrites, (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) coffinite occurs as a cementing matrix among aggregates of framboidal pyrite. Q, quartz. Cof, coffinite. Chl, chlorite. F-Py, framboidal pyrite. E-Py, euhedral pyrite. C-Py, cement pyrite. OM, organic matter.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/f1409b0d7451938c0e0cf95a.jpg"},{"id":78951730,"identity":"fdbfb372-41ce-4b85-b25b-dd51fd11e3e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180513,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOccurrence of cement and euhedral pyrite in the Yimin Formation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) Pervasive pyrite infilling in the matrix with basal cementation under the reflected light, (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) Evolution of framboidal pyrites into cement pyrites, (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) cement and non-euhedral pyrite fillings in plant cell cavities, (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of coffinite and non-pyrites in carbonaceous clasts, (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e) anhedral pyrites on biotite grain margins, (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) euhedral pyrites. Q, quartz. Kfs, potassium feldspar. Cof, coffinite. Bt, biotite. F-Py, framboidal pyrite. E-Py, euhedral pyrite. C-Py, cement pyrite. OM, organic matter.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/e90369a2eb68f4eccb7b98a4.jpg"},{"id":78952427,"identity":"c1141955-12ae-4226-bca5-3b6c78bac4fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:14:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68261,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Determination diagram of sulfur source in pyrite, showing a large bias toward negatived δ\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003eS values, which is consistent with biogenically-induced sulfate reduction (modified according to Zhao et al., 2018, Hu et al., 2022). Data sources are: Bonnetti et al., 2015, 2017, 2020. Cai et al., 2007. Min et al., 2005.\u003csup\u003e52-54\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/2243e1b2d3c0efdbe7d0d97f.jpg"},{"id":78951782,"identity":"839be8b7-5727-4bfc-b826-03e91923567c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:38","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":606651,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOccurrences of uranium minerals in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) Coffinite between framboidal pyrite aggregates, (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) Coffinite occurs as a cementing matrix among aggregates of framboidal pyrite, (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) irregular particles of pitchblende, (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e) Coffinite is distributed along the edges of clastic quartz and feldspar micro-veins, (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e) Coffinite distributed in the margin of clastic quartz, (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) Coffinite distributed in the dissolution minerals of potassium feldspar, (\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e) Chlorite-Pyrite-Coffinite, (\u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e) Biotite-Pyrite-Coffinite, (\u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003e) Chlorite-Anatase-Titanium-uranium oxide. Cof, coffinite. Pit, pitchblende. U-Ti oxide, uranium titanium oxide. Qtz, quartz. Kfs, potassium feldspar. Ab, albite. An, anorthite. Bt, biotite. Ant, anatase. Chl, chlorite. Py, pyrite.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/dad839a92acbc3e2843bf7b9.jpg"},{"id":78951744,"identity":"e648e403-39f1-4010-997f-81d94f0de64e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":158328,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEPMA scan of uranium minerals and accompanying minerals, Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) U-Ti oxides adsorbed onto chlorite, (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Fe, (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Si, (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of U, (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Ti, (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Ca.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/ef12b9b92b3029f8bb7501ce.jpg"},{"id":78951784,"identity":"ab9c8aab-96d4-48b6-a22c-3419b325e743","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:38","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255577,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEPMA scans of uranium minerals and accompanying minerals, Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) Coffinite fillings in framboidal pyrite, (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of U, (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Si, (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of S, (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Fe, (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) distribution of Y.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/ac3b4dbf10d795f44d7fcc40.jpg"},{"id":78951751,"identity":"e6d71da6-a3d7-436b-a0a7-d429c0707297","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":250705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOccurrences of pyrite-associated uranium minerals and pyrite evolution in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/126316614c29d80e251c1a41.jpg"},{"id":78952431,"identity":"306575e3-bf39-45c9-b30d-5fe391172f1c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:14:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84610,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCo-Ni discrimination plot of pyrites from the Yimin Formation \u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZones I and II – sedimentary and metasedimentary. Zones III and IV – magmatic and hydrothermal.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/2f7de20c036ee824a31f0d1f.jpg"},{"id":78951763,"identity":"fe218b02-6605-40e9-8a0b-1e7eb0689f06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:06:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTrace element signature of different types of pyrite populations occurring in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression. Median values are presented in diagram.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/267e218fd5d733db1097159d.jpg"},{"id":78952442,"identity":"fd548b1e-770f-49dd-a562-12b72e4585d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-21 09:14:38","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255926,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBSE images along with EDS elemental mapping of Fe, S, U, P and Ca for uranium mineral.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure.11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/c8ed1cf7222fbb00c39b0e0d.jpg"},{"id":106960868,"identity":"4ea85f29-b82a-42bf-846d-97f21677d8cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-15 09:23:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5975533,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5228875/v1/b28b5e16-0d88-4691-89fd-87395241349f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Relationships between uranium occurrence and pyrite in Yimin Formation in the Hailar Basin","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSandstone uranium deposits are typically large and shallow, and are also relatively cost efficient and environmentally friendly to mine. As such, these deposits have become the primary focus of uranium exploration efforts both in and outside of China \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The reductive immobilization of uranium is one of the determining factors for the formation of sandstone uranium deposits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Reductants of uranium include residual carbonaceous clasts and sulfides (especially pyrite) and reductants from deep regions of the crust (CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS, CO) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Pyrite is a common mineral in sandstones that is a major adsorbent and reductant of uranium and has a major role in the migration and precipitation of U, thus, it is often associated with uranium minerals in sandstone deposits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The sensitivity of pyrites to redox conditions renders them excellent indicators of the geochemical processes to which the ore-bearing fluids have been subjected \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, studying the micromorphology, trace elements, and S isotope composition of pyrites can provide insights regarding their mode of genesis, the origin of their ore-forming hydrothermal fluids, and their relation to uranium minerals. These insights may serve as important references for subsequent studies on the genesis of sandstone uranium deposits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kelulun Depression is a secondary tectonic element of the Zhabenuoer Depression in the southwestern Hailar Basin, China, and a sandstone uranium deposit of considerable size has been discovered in the Cretaceous Yimin Formation that lies within the Kelulun Depression. Many studies have investigated the uranium ore-bearing layer of the Kelulun Depression, including examination of the geochemical characteristics \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, sedimentary environment \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, provenance \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, hydrogeological conditions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, airborne radioactivity measurements \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, uranium mineralogy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and the potential for uranium mineralization \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24 CR25\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, the origins of the pyrite in the Kelulun Depression and their relationship with uranium mineralization have not been investigated. To address this gap in the literature, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and Laser Ablation Multi-Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-MC-ICPMS) were used to elucidate the types and occurrences of uranium minerals in the Yimin Formation, as well as the morphology, S isotope composition, and trace element composition of the associated pyrites. The aim of this study is to investigate the genesis and evolution of the pyrites and the sources of the ore-forming materials, as well as their relation to uranium mineralization. The findings of this study can benefit subsequent uranium exploration work in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Geological background","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Hailar Basin is a Mesozoic continental rift basin that lies on the eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea), between the Siberian and North China plates \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is controlled by the northeast-trending Derbugan and Ergun faults, and has experienced multiple tectonic episodes since its formation, including rifting in the Late Jurassic, a syn-rifting stage during the Early Cretaceous, shrinking in the late Early Cretaceous, and differential uplift and subsidence in the Late Cretaceous-Neogene \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32 CR33 CR34 CR35\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These tectonic episodes formed a tectonic pattern with \u0026ldquo;two uplifts and three depressions\u0026rdquo; \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR38\" citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kelulun Depression, which lies in the southwestern Hailar Basin (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb), trends in the NE direction and is bound by a fault running along its western side (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The region has experienced two periods of intense tectonic reversal since the Early Cretaceous, both of which have played important roles in the formation of its sandstone uranium deposits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The basement of the Kelulun Depression is mainly composed of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and Hercynian granites, with large quantities of granite, intermediate-to-acidic felsic igneous rocks, and intermediate-to-alkaline igneous rocks running along its margins \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR44 CR45\" citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The sedimentary strata in this region are the Cretaceous Nantun (K\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e), Tongbomiao (K\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e), Damoguaihe (K\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e), and Yimin Formations (K\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003ey\u003c/em\u003e), the Neogene Huchashan Formation (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e), and Quaternary strata (Q). The ore-bearing layer in the study area, the Lower Cretaceous Yimin Formation, was formed by the sedimentation of highly reduced dark coal-bearing detritus \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR48\" citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"3. Sample acquisition and analytical methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eTwelve ore samples comprising grey fine-grained sandstones and black silty sandstone were obtained from boreholes ZKH5-2 and ZKH12-1 in the Kelulun Depression. The sampling locations can be seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUranium mineral analysis was conducted at the State Key Laboratory for Nuclear Resources and Environment, East China University of Technology. Analysis was performed using a JEOL-JXA 8530 EPMA system with an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) system (Inca Energy). Analysis was conducted using an accelerating potential of 15.0 kV, current of 20.0 nA, and beam diameter of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2 \u0026micro;m.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrite trace element and S isotope analyses were performed at the State Key Laboratory of Continental Tectonics and Dynamics, Northwest University. Pyrite S isotope analysis was performed using a LA-MC-ICPMS system (Nu Plasma 1700 MC-ICP-MS) with a 193 nm excimer laser ablation system (RESOlution M-50, ASI). The analyses were performed using a laser energy density of 3.6 J/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, frequency of 3 Hz, and ablation beam diameter of 37 \u0026micro;m. Further details on the analytical method can be found in Chen et al., (2022) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrations of trace element in pyrite were determined using a 193 nm ArF excimer laser system (RESOLution S155-LR, ASI) coupled with an Agilent 7900 ICP-MS. The spot size and frequency of the laser were set to 30\u0026ndash;67 \u0026micro;m and 6 Hz respectively. Trace element compositions of sulfides were calibrated against various reference materials (SRM 610, SRM 612, BCR-2G). The sulfide reference material of MASS-1 was used as the unknown sample to verify the accuracy of the calibration method. An Excel-based software ICPMSDataCal 10.8 was used to perform off-line selection and integration of background and analyzed signals, time-drift correction and quantitative calibration for trace element analysis. The analytical approach was similar to that outlined in Bao et al. (2016) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Pyrite morphologies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic observation indicates three distinct morphologies for pyrites from the Yimin Formation: framboidal, cement, and euhedral. The characteristics of each micromorphology type are:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Framboids pyrites\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFramboids occur as spheres or ellipsoids (the 3D shape) (Fig. 2a) with diameters ranging from 1 to 50 \u0026mu;m (mostly 10\u0026ndash;30 \u0026mu;m). Most framboids were found inside carbonaceous clasts (Fig. 2b) and clay minerals (Fig. 2c), however, some were also observed in the interstitial spaces between clast particles. Both the microevolutionary processes by which pyrite microcrystals aggregate to form framboids (Fig. 2d) and the conversion of framboidal pyrites into cement and euhedral pyrites (Fig. 2e) was observed under the microscope. Coffinite is closely associated with pyrite minerals in the study area, with the former largely found inside framboidal pyrites or between pyrite microcrystals (Fig. 2f).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2) Cement pyrites\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCement pyrites occur mainly between clast particles (Fig. 3a), where they act as cement. Large numbers of framboidal and microcrystalline pyrites were observed in the cement pyrites in some parts of the study area (Fig. 3b), however, were observed inside carbonaceous clasts (Fig. 3c), usually in association with coffinite (Fig. 3d). The association between cement pyrites and carbonaceous clasts indicates that the former are diagenetically related to organic matter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(3) Euhedral pyrites\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnhedral and non-euhedral were mainly found inside plant cell cavities (Fig. 3c) and at the margins of clast particles (Fig. 3e), with diameters ranging from 2 to 150 \u0026mu;m (mainly 10\u0026ndash;50 \u0026mu;m), with few occurring as euhedral grains (Fig. 3f).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 S isotope compositions of the pyrites\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eS isotope analysis of the pyrites (Table 1) indicated \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003eS values of -63.70 to -3.38 \u0026permil;, -30.26 to 9.52 \u0026permil;, and 3.32 to 8.27 \u0026permil; for the framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites, respectively. The large range spanned by these \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003eS values is indicative of significant S isotope fractionation, which in turn implies the derivation of S from multiple sources (Fig. 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eLA-MC-ICPMS sulfur isotopic compositions of pyrite in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample No.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTypes of pyrites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e33\u003c/sup\u003eS\u003csub\u003ev-CDT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003eS\u003csub\u003ev-CDT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2SE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.06\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.38\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-14.52\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-19.53\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.77\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.14\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n 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18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-47.41\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018B-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-23.69\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-43.58\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018B-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-22.15\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-44.76\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018A-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-34.20\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n 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12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018A-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.39\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-12.42\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018A-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-9.11\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-16.86\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018A-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-15.57\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-30.26\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018A-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-12.65\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-24.80\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018B-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.96\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.52\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-10.68\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-22.68\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.82\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-15.67\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.81\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.52\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022B-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.33\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.21\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022B-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-12.20\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-20.37\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022B-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.35\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.53\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.32\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.54\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.18\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017B-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.14\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.27\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017B-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.70\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17.7083%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.70\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5417%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18.75%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Trace element compositions of the pyrites\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubstantial differences in the trace element composition were found between the various pyrite micromorphologies\u0026nbsp;(Table 2), but all had high As and Pb contents and low V, Cd, and Tl contents. Framboidal pyrites are Cu-rich (average 105.9 ppm), whereas cement pyrites are Cu- (average 155.56 ppm) and Mo- (average 707.45 ppm) rich with relatively high Ni contents (average 54.67ppm). Euhedral pyrites are Cu (average 159.8 ppm), Mo (average 412.0 ppm), Co (average 46.98 ppm), and Ni- (average 83.93 ppm) rich, with high Sb contents (average 41.2 ppm).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u003c/strong\u003e LA-MC-ICPMS analysis of trace element in different types of pyrite in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"652\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample No.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTypes of pyrites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018A-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e132.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n 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5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e393.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e303.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e218.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017A-7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eframboid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1094.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n 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7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e229.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL018B-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e197.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e155.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e339.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e329.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2285.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e256.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022B-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e265.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n 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\u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e212.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e287.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e106.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e585.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e201.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e729.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL022A-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e529.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.6208%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20HL017B-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.3028%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeuhedral\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.65749%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.89297%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.42202%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e453.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6.11621%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5.8104%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7.18654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.4 Types and occurrences of uranium minerals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Types of uranium minerals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on EPMA, coffinite is the most common type of uranium mineral in the study area, followed by pitchblende and U-Ti oxide (Table 3). Coffinites have UO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 57.03\u0026ndash;65.92%, SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 9.24\u0026ndash;15.55%, CaO contents of 1.64\u0026ndash;4.55%, P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 2.51\u0026ndash;7.52%, and Y\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 1.20\u0026ndash;4.01%, whereas pitchblendes have UO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 70.91\u0026ndash;76.70%, SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 1.84\u0026ndash;5.59%, and trace amounts of CaO, PbO, and Y\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and U-Ti oxides have UO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 32.85\u0026ndash;37.92%, TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 37.36\u0026ndash;43.56%, SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents of 9.86\u0026ndash;12.81%, with trace amounts of CaO, BeO, P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e, Y\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and ZrO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Results of electron probe component analysis (%) for uranium minerals in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"98%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoint No.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZrO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eY\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTypes of uranium minerals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"15\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoffinite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.42\u003c/p\u003e\n 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6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.55\u003c/p\u003e\n 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8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n 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6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n 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6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e\n 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8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.65\u003c/p\u003e\n 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6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n 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style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n 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style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n 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\u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Occurrences of uranium minerals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMost of the uranium minerals in the study area were found inside framboidal pyrites and their margins. Some uranium minerals occurring inside clastic quartzs and feldspars or their margins. Uranium minerals exhibit four types of occurrences:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Coffinites occurring inside framboidal pyrites or in interstitial spaces between pyrite microcrystals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5a), with some filling the interstices between framboid aggregates as cement (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5b). Strong association is observed between this type of coffinite and framboidal pyrites.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2) Pitchblendes occurring independently as irregular clasts\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;5c).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(3) Coffinites occurring as star-like clusters or microvein fillings in the margins of detrital quartz and feldspar grains, fractures, or dissolution pits\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;5d-f).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(4) Coffinites and U-Ti oxides occurring as cements (Fig. 5g) or burrs around pyrite (Fig. 5h) and anatase grains in biotite cleavage planes (Fig. 5i).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of EPMA scans on the uranium minerals and their associated minerals are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. These element maps indicate that uranium occurs mainly independently (mostly in the form of coffinite), while some are adsorbed or colloid-bound. Adsorbed uranium is mainly found in cleavage planes of chloritized biotite, whereas colloid-bound uranium mostly occurs as U-Ti oxides, with both adsorbed and colloid-bound uranium present only in small quantities (Fig. 7 a-c, f) . Figs. 7d and 7e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eindicate that most of the uranium occurs in the interstitial spaces between the microcrystalline or framboidal pyrites, i.e., in the interstices of pyrite aggregates, with small amounts observed on the margins of the framboidal pyrites. These results suggest that uranium occurs mainly as independent uranium minerals around pyrite grains and in the interstitial spaces of pyrite aggregates in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Sulfur sources and pyrite genesis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe formation of pyrites is strongly linked to the migration and accumulation of S. Therefore, S isotope analysis was used to trace the sources of the S, determine the mode of pyrite mineralization, and reveal the sources of the ore-forming materials, providing important reference for studies into the origin of mineral deposits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Organic sources of S are formed by thermal, baric, and microbial actions on organic matter (such as carbonaceous clasts) in the ore-bearing layer, whereas inorganic sources of S are due to the weathering of rocks to form soluble S salts, which are then carried to the ore-bearing layer by fluid \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The S elements in pyrite have previously been found to be mainly derived from sulfate-reducing microorganisms (BSR), the pyrolysis of organic matter (TDS), thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), and inorganic sulfate reduction \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Pyrites formed by inorganic sulfate reduction usually have positive \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values of around 20\u0026permil;. Pyrolysis occurs when S-containing organic matter is subjected to temperatures above 50 ℃, which results in their decomposition into H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS, with pyrites formed by this process usually demonstrating \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values of -17\u0026ndash;10\u0026permil; \u003csup\u003e60\u003c/sup\u003e. Thermochemical sulfate reduction refers to the reduction of S from sulfate minerals in the presence of hydrocarbon gases at high temperatures, which produces large quantities of reduced S. Microbial sulfate reduction is usually carried out in subsurface waters by anaerobic bacteria at temperatures below 50 ℃. In this process, \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eSO2\u0026ndash;3 is preferentially reduced to H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e32\u003c/sup\u003eS, which produces \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS- enriched H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS gas. After these gases are dissolved, the S elements react with Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e in the water to form pyrites \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. As this type of sulfate reduction leads to S fractionation, the pyrites formed by this process have strongly negative \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values (typically \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;42.7 to -5\u0026permil;). The \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values of Yimin Formation pyrites in the Kelulun Depression vary over a wide range (from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;63.70 to 9.52\u0026permil;), which indicates that S isotopes are fractionated by the processes that contribute to the pyrite formation in the area \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This fractionation will modify whatever the S isotope composition was.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBonnetti et al. (2020) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e research finding that one key feature of roll-front deposits across the globe is the large range in S isotope fractionation found in the ore-stage pyrite. The euhedral and cement pyrite has a higher \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS composition than the framboid pyrite. The complex sulfur sources and different fractionation processes, combined with biological and non-biological effects, have resulted in a large variation range of the \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS value in pyrite in the Yimin Formation, Kelulun Depression, as well as different microscopic morphologies and occurrence characteristics. More and more studies have employed the relatively negative \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS value of pyrite to indicate the evidence of biological uranium mineralization, especially in sandstone-type uranium deposits in northern China (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, different sulfur sources and fractionation environments may affect the \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS value of pyrite. Framboids are the predominant types of pyrite in the Yimin Formation. BSR typically generates light reduced sulfur species that react with iron oxides or hydroxides to form pyrite \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, indicating that BSR is the dominant process in ore-stage sulfidation. However, cement and euhedral pyrites exhibit heavier sulfur isotopic signatures and slightly lower trace element concentrations, suggesting potential involvement of later-stage fluids. Therefore, during ore-stage sulfidation, both biogenic and abiogenic processes may occur simultaneously or sequentially. The transition between these processes primarily depends on sulfate ions supplied by oxygenated groundwater \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePyrites exhibit a variety of micromorphologies in sedimentary rocks: framboidal, cement, and euhedral \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Framboidal pyrites typically form during the syn-depositional or early diagenetic stage \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, with syn-depositional framboids tending to crystallize in oxygen-rich waters before sinking into the sediment \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, whereas framboids forming during the early diagenetic stage nucleating and growing in anoxic pore water \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Framboids formed during the late diagenetic stage tend to be tightly clustered and have small interstitial spaces and will gradually transform into cement and euhedral pyrites when exposed to S- and Fe-bearing hydrothermal fluids \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe framboidal pyrites in the study area were formed by the replacement or filling of organic pellets \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, with their enrichment in As, Cu, Ni, Co, and \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS indicative of a microbial origin \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The strongly negative \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values (-63.70 to -3.38\u0026permil;) of these pyrites indicates that they were formed by microbial sulfate reduction. The Yimin Formation contains large quantities of organic matter (e.g., carbonaceous clasts and thin coal seams), which are the result of microbial activity. These microbes reduce the dissolved sulfates to H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS, which then reacts with Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e to form framboidal pyrites. Furthermore, the observation of pyrite fillings in plant cell cavities and the replacement of coal clast with pyrite (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec, d) further indicates biological origins for the pyrites in the area. The cement pyrites in the study area also have negative \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values (-30.26 to 9.52\u0026permil;), which may be the result of microbial or thermochemical sulfate reduction. The physical association between the cement and framboidal pyrites suggests that the former may have formed via the dissolution and recrystallization of framboidal pyrites (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb). Euhedral pyrites have positive \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values (3.32 to 8.27\u0026permil;), and could thus be derived from abiotic reactions between sulfate and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS bearing fluids.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on the overprinting and overgrowth relationships of the framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites, the origin and evolution of Yimin Formation pyrites may be surmised as follows (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(a) Microbial sulfate reduction caused pyrite microcrystals to evolve into framboidal pyrites, with spherical aggregates forming in closed spaces and framboidal aggregates in open spaces (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea). The close association of many framboidal pyrites with carbonaceous clasts hints at the cause of their low (negative) \u0026delta;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(b) The intermediate stage of pyrite evolution corresponds to the transformation of framboids into cement via the action of S- and Fe-rich hydrothermal fluids, which then fill the interstitial spaces between the framboidal pyrites, leading to the formation of cement pyrites with large quantities of framboidal and microcrystalline pyrites (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eb). Framboidal pyrite aggregates and microcrystalline pyrites were also observed to have transformed into cement pyrite.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(c) The addition of low-temperature hydrothermal fluid gradually transforms the tightly arranged framboids into polygonal pyrites, which eventually become euhedral pyrites (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe most common pyrite morphology observed in the Yimin Formation is framboidal, followed by aggregated pyrite microcrystals. This morphology has the closest association with uranium minerals. The next most common morphology, cement pyrite, is derived from framboidal pyrite aggregates and microcrystalline pyrite. The abundance of cement pyrite could be attributed to the presence of hydrothermal fluids and the clast grains being sufficiently porous to allow for the rapid precipitation of the cement pyrites. As pore spaces are limited in the late stages of diagenesis, euhedral pyrite (derived from framboidal pyrite) is the least common pyrite morphology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Source of trace element behavior in pyrite\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe environment in which a pyrite was formed can be inferred from its Co and Ni contents and Co/Ni ratio, as these parameters are sensitive to the physicochemical conditions of its formative environment \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Sedimentary, hydrothermal, and igneous pyrites have Co/Ni ratios of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1, 1.17\u0026ndash;5.0, and 5.0\u0026ndash;50.0 \u003csup\u003e84\u0026ndash;85\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. Framboidal pyrites have Co contents of 4.3\u0026ndash; 41.1 ppm, Ni contents of 5.4\u0026ndash;23.9 ppm, and Co/Ni ratios of 0.66\u0026ndash;7.34. Cement pyrites have Co contents of 0.2\u0026ndash;93.1 ppm, Ni contents of 3.1\u0026ndash;155 ppm, and Co/Ni ratios of 0.06\u0026ndash;1.35. Euhedral pyrites have Co contents of 01.5\u0026ndash;184.3 ppm, Ni contents of 3.8\u0026ndash;330.6 ppm, and Co/Ni ratios of 0.24\u0026ndash;0.83. The result of different pyrites indicating that most of the pyrites in the study area are sedimentary. Most plot in Zone II of the Co-Ni discrimination plot, with some in Zone III (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). According to the results of Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed-f and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, the pyrites in the study area generally have a sedimentary origin, with some having a hydrothermal origin.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe formative environment of a pyrite can also be inferred from its trace elements, i.e., its Mo content and V/Cr and Ni/Co ratios \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The vast majority of pyrites in the study area have V/Cr values lower than two and Ni/Co values lower than five, which is indicative of an oxygen-rich formative environment. The Mo contents of the pyrites range from 8.31 ppm to 3454.87 ppm, the higher Mo contents observed in pyrite may be related to the transport of Mo by the oxidizing meteoric fluids to the uranium reservoir \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKeith et al. (2016) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e91\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e showed that the trace element composition of a pyrite is influenced by the temperature at which it formed. As and Tl are abundant in low-temperature environments \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e92\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Pyrites from the Yimin Formation have As contents of 14.35\u0026ndash;1094.73 ppm (average 269.76 ppm) and Tl contents of 0.52\u0026ndash;34.06 ppm (average 8.79 ppm). The significant As and Tl enrichment indicates that the ore-bearing fluid formed in a low-temperature environment \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e93\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e94\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Futhermore, framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites have very similar trace element (As、Cu、Ni、Co、Mo and Sb) signature (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, trace element signature for the different types of pyrite populations likely characterise a single event of pyrite crystallisation, which most probably originated from the same fluid.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Relationship between pyrite and uranium mineralization\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePyrites are important reductants in sandstone uranium deposits as they act as adsorbents and reductants that facilitate the migration and precipitation of uranium \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e95\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The close association between pyrite and the uranium minerals in the Yimin Formation shows that the former plays an important role in the reduction and precipitation of uranium. However, the mechanisms by which the pyrites and uranium minerals in the study area formed remain ambiguous. To address the relationship between uranium minerals and several types of pyrite has been described. Uranium minerals occur mainly fill the voids of framboidal pyrites and the interstices of microcrystalline pyrites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea), which implies that coffinite may have formed contemporaneously with the framboidal pyrite aggregates lying near carbonaceous clasts. Uranium minerals were also observed to occur as cement-like fillings around early pyrites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe uranium mineralization in the Yimin Formation can be divided into two stages \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e: the pre-accumulation stage and interlayer oxidation stage, with pyrites playing important roles in all uranium mineralization processes. The thin coal seams and carbonaceous clasts in the grey sandstones of the Yimin Formation having formed from microorganisms present in the sediment. Therefore, their presence is suggesting the presence of microbial colonies that was well-suited for microbial life during the pre-accumulation stage. Framboidal pyrites that have formed via microbial sulfate reduction have large surface areas that can adsorb the trace levels of uranium that were dissolved in the Kelulun Depression and accumulate them on microcrystalline grains, leading to the initiation of uranium accumulation during the sedimentary and diagenetic stages. In addition, a significant spike in the radioactivity of the primary mudstones and thin coal seams in the Yimin Formation around this period proves that the uranium began to accumulate during the sedimentary-diagenetic period \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTwo rounds of tectonic inversion in the Hailar Basin during the Late Cretaceous-Neogene exposed the Yimin Formation at the surface and created a tectonic pattern in which the Kelulun Depression was bound by faults on its western side \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e97\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e98\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This also intensified the \u0026ldquo;recharge-runoff-discharge\u0026rdquo; process of the supergene fluids, rendering it easier for the uranium-bearing oxygen-rich fluids formed by the leaching of uranium-rich granites on the western side of the Kelulun Depression to seep into the Yimin Formation. During the interlayer oxidation stage, Uranyl and sulfate ions, along with bacteria, reach the redox interface of uranium precipitation through oxidation within groundwater-permeable sandstone, the carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation each played a distinct role in uranium reduction \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The replacement of organic matter by pyrite in the Yimin Formation ore may serve as evidence of organic matter biodegradation (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec, d), where microbial communities utilized organic material as food source. The higher Ca and P content in uranium minerals could also indicate bacterial activity (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). During BSR (bacterial sulfate reduction), H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS generated through bacterial metabolic processes provides reducing conditions for uranyl ion precipitation, establishing a reductive barrier \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e99\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, uranium originally associated with organic matter (OM) is replaced by coffinite, which serves as a favorable host for uranium mineralization. The biogenic reduction of uranium via BSR leads to close associations between OM, uranium minerals, and biogenic framboidal pyrite. The preservation of framboidal pyrite that is not replaced by uranium minerals indicates that uranium mineralization in the Yimin Formation formed during BSR, supported by evidence of biomineralization. When pyrites form on framboidal pyrites that have already adsorbed uranium, their insides and surrounds will contain uranium minerals from the early uranium accumulation stage and interlayer oxidation stage (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eb). The carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation in the Kelulun Depression played synergistic roles in uranium mineralization, which resulted in highly diverse uranium ore occurrences. The findings of this study will contribute to our understanding of the rules that govern uranium ore formation in the sandstone uranium deposits of the Kelulun Depression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003e(1) Coffinite is the most common uranium mineral in the Yimin Formation, with only small amounts of pitchblendes and U-Ti oxides observed. Coffinite occurs as cement-like fillings inside and around pyrites or star-like clusters and irregular grains on the margins of clast grains, fissures, and dissolution pits. Pitchblendes occur as independent and irregular clast grains. U-Ti oxides occur as cements, burrs, or microlenticles in the biotite cleavage planes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) Pyrites in the Yimin Formation are in the form of framboidal, cement, and euhedral morphologies, which are linked to each other by their evolutionary relationships microcrystalline pyrites aggregate to form framboidal pyrites, which then evolve into cement and euhedral pyrites. The pyrites in the Yimin Formation have both biogenic and abiotic origins. Abiotic pyrites were formed by thermochemical sulfate reduction, whereas biogenic pyrites were formed by microbial sulfate reduction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) The carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation in the Kelulun Depression played synergistic roles in uranium mineralization, which resulted in highly diverse uranium ore occurrences. This is an important finding for understanding uranium mineralization in the Yimin Formation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorresponding Author\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFengjun Nie \u0026mdash;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSchool of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province 330013, China, Email: [email protected].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFanmin Meng \u0026mdash;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSchool of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province 330013, China, Email: [email protected].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Projects:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eUranium mineralization and Potential Evaluation of sandstone-type uranium deposit in the Hailar Basin: case study on geoscience big data and technique of artificial intelligence on metallogenic prediction（Grant No. HNKP202308（36）.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMechanism of constraints of the basin and range coupling on uranium mineralization in the southern Great Xing\u0026rsquo;an Range and its lateral basins（Grant No. U2244205）.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSpecial thanks go to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions and comments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLu, M., Ye, R. \u0026amp; Zhang, B. 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Geol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e97\u003c/b\u003e, 73\u0026ndash;91. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.97.1.73\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2113/gsecongeo.97.1.73\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2002).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"pyrites, uranium mineralization, Yimin Formation, sandstone uranium deposits, Kelulun Depression","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5228875/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5228875/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe sandstone uranium deposits in the Kelulun Depression are the first commercially viable uranium deposits discovered in the Hailar Basin and the ore-bearing strata corresponding to the Lower Cretaceous Yimin Formation. To elucidate the origins and formative mechanisms of pyrites and investigate their relation to uranium mineralization, both the characteristics of pyrites and uranium minerals and the S isotope and the trace element composition of pyrites were investigated. Results indicated that coffinites (as cements and star-like clusters) are the most common uranium mineral type, followed by pitchblendes and U-Ti oxides. Pyrites are mainly framboidal, cement, or euhedral. S isotope fractionation in the pyrites varies due to different S sources (biogenic or abiotic), with framboidal, cement, and euhedral pyrites showing δ\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eS values of -63.70 to -3.38\u0026permil;, -30.26 to 9.52\u0026permil;, and 3.32 to 8.27\u0026permil;, respectively. As and Tl enrichment indicates formation in a low-temperature environment. High Ca and P levels in the uranium minerals are indicative of microbial participation. The carbonaceous clasts, pyrites, and microbes of the Yimin Formation in the Kelulun Depression played synergistic roles in uranium mineralization, which resulted in highly diverse uranium ore occurrences.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Relationships between uranium occurrence and pyrite in Yimin Formation in the Hailar Basin","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-21 09:06:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5228875/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2e338e7d-3c66-4447-a830-b4fc3042e942","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":45972726,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences"},{"id":45972727,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geochemistry"},{"id":45972728,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-14T04:54:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-21 09:06:29","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5228875","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5228875","identity":"rs-5228875","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}