Comparative Assessment of Refined and Unrefined Shea butter in Ekiti

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A Afolabi¹, M. O Aduloju² This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8492061/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study conducted a comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter sourced from Ekiti State, Nigeria, to evaluate the distinct differences in their functional properties, proximate composition, and phytochemical profiles. The main objective was to determine how the refining process alters the butter's characteristics and to provide insights into their optimal application in cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Analysis focused on proximate components, key physical parameters (slip point, melting point, viscosity), chemical properties (acid, saponification, iodine, and peroxide values), and phytochemical constituents. The results confirmed that the refining process caused significant differences in product quality and function. Refined Shea butter (Sample B) demonstrated superior thermal stability, exhibiting a significantly higher Flash Point (232.4°C) and Fire Point (299°C) compared to unrefined Shea butter (182.1°C and 211.2°C, respectively), making it safer for high-heat industrial processes. The refining process also resulted in a ten-fold reduction in viscosity (5067.33 MPa.s vs. 49620 MPa.s) and yielded chemical values, such as the Saponification Value (179.79 mg KOH/g), that were within standard regulatory limits, unlike the unrefined sample (228.83 mg KOH/g). In contrast, unrefined Shea butter (Sample A) retained its natural therapeutic potential, confirmed by the presence of beneficial saponins (+), which were removed during refining (-). While both samples exhibited excellent oxidative stability, with low peroxide values well below the maximum standard (2.26 and 2.09 meq O₂/kg), the unrefined butter is preferred for applications where natural nutrient retention and traditional properties are desired. In conclusion, refined Shea butter is functionally superior for applications requiring low viscosity, enhanced stability, and high-heat processing, while unrefined Shea butter offers greater natural bioactivity and therapeutic properties. This comparative assessment provides essential data for quality standardization and informed consumer choice within the Ekiti Shea butter value chain. Shea butter Refined Unrefined Ekiti State Proximate Composition Physical Properties Phytochemicals Saponification Value Thermal Stability Introduction Shea butter, extracted from the nut of the shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa ), has been a significant product in African economies, particularly in West Africa, for centuries (Attikora et al ., 2025). Nigeria, with its vast savannas, is home to a considerable number of shea trees, making Shea butter production a vital economic activity, especially for women in rural areas (Agyei et al ., 2020). Shea butter is renowned for its moisturizing, healing, and protective properties, which have led to its widespread use in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food industries (Honfo et al ., 2018). The shea tree, also known as the karite tree, is native to the savannas of West Africa, particularly in Countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, and Burkina Faso (Carney et al ., 2007). Its extraction and processing methods, however, vary widely, leading to the differences in the quality and properties of the final product (Goumbri et al ., 2021). It is a deciduous tree that grows up to 15 meters tall. The tree is found in the wild but is also cultivated in many parts of West Africa (Goumbri et al ., 2021). Nigeria is one of the major producers of Shea butter in Africa, with Ekiti being a significant production hub in the southwestern region (Oladipo et al. , 2021). The fruit of the tree contains a nut, which is the primary source of Shea butter (Hall, et al., 1996 ). The shea tree begins to bear fruit after about 10 to 15 years, reaching full production at 20 to 30 years and can continue to produce for up to 200 years (Goumbri et al ., 2021). The fruit consists of a thin pulp and a nut, which contains the kernel from which the Shea butter is extracted (Honfo et al ., 2013). Shea butter has been used for centuries in traditional African medicine and cosmetics. It is widely used to nourish and protect the skin and to treat a variety of skin conditions, including eczema, acne, and psoriasis (Akihisa, 2010). Shea butter is an important crop in many West African countries, providing income and employment opportunities for millions of people (Lovett et al ., 2010). The global Shea butter market is estimated to be worth billions of dollars, driven by the rising demand for natural and organic products (Alander et al ., 2002). Culturally, Shea butter holds great traditional importance in many West African communities. It is used in ceremonies, rituals, and symbolizes beauty and fertility (Elias et al ., 2017). However, the production of Shea butter also poses environmental concerns, particularly related to deforestation and land degradation (Goumbri et al ., 2015). Despite the growing demand for Shea butter, both locally and internationally, there is a dearth of scientific information on the comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter in Nigeria, particularly in Ekiti State. A study published in the Journal of Cosmetics, Dermatological Sciences and Applications found that unrefined Shea butter had better moisturizing and protective effects on the skin compared to refined Shea butter (Afolabi, et al ., 2019). According to a study published in the Journal of Food Science and Technology, the quality and characteristics of Shea butter can vary significantly depending on factors such as the source of the shea nuts, processing methods, and storage conditions (Adeyeye, et al ., 2020). Another study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry found that refined Shea butter had improved shelf life and aesthetic appeal compared to unrefined Shea butter (Ogunsina, et al. , 2018). The quality of Shea butter can vary significantly depending on the processing method, with refined and unrefined being the two primary forms available in the market (Oladipo et al ., 2021). Unrefined Shea butter is minimally processed, retaining more of its natural nutrients and often preferred for its perceived health benefits and authenticity (Oladipo et al ., 2021). Unrefined Shea butter retains beneficial compounds and is widely used in various applications (Agarwal et al. , 2021). Unrefined Shea butter is typically extracted mechanically or manually, preserving its beneficial constituents (Agceli et al ., 2022). It is rich in fatty acids such as oleic, stearic, palmitic, and linoleic acids, as well as bioactive compounds like vitamin A, E and triterpenes and phenolic compounds (Agceli et al ., 2022). On the other hand, refined Shea butter is a processed form of Shea butter, derived from the nuts of the Shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa ), that undergoes refining to remove impurities, odors, and colors (Bochicchio et al ., 2020). The refining process typically involves filtration and sometimes the use of chemicals or bleaching agents to achieve a uniform, odorless, and white product (Bilandzic et al ., 2022). However, the refining process can also lead to the loss of some natural compounds, potentially affecting the butter’s nutritional and therapeutic properties (Alander et al. , 2019). The increasing national demand for shea nuts has significantly impacted the livelihoods of women in west Africa who are involved in collecting and processing them (Francis et al ., 2025). Topical use of Shea butter has also demonstrated anti-aging and anti-inflammatory properties (Oluwaseyi et al ., 2014). Method and Procedures Study Area The research is conducted in Ekiti state, Nigeria. Ekiti state is a strategic hub for commerce and agriculture, making it an ideal location for studying the comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter. With a latitude of 7.6667° N and longitude of 5.2500° E, Ekiti state covers approximately 6,353 square kilometers, featuring an undulating landscape with rugged hills and old plains broken by step-sided out-crops. Sample Analysis The comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter was performed using the following standard techniques set by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2019). Proximate composition (Determination of Moisture content) A clean evaporating dishes was dried in a hot air oven at 105°C, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed as (W 1 ). The pretagged dish was filled with 2 g of the sample, which was then weighed again (W 2 ). The sample-containing crucible was heated air dried till consistent weight (W 3 ). The following formula was used to calculate the percentage of moisture in the samples: Moisture content (%) = (W 2 -W 3 ) / (W 2 -W 1 ) × 100 Determination of Ash content To determine the amount of ash in the cheese butter samples, a ceramic crucible was dried in an Oven at 105°C for 30 minutes, cooled in a desiccator, and then weighed (W 1 ). 2g of the butter was added to a preweighed ceramic crucible (W 2 ). The crucible sample was lighted, transferred to a muffle furnace prepared to 550°C and permitted to burn for six hours. The ash- Containing crucible was then removed, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed (W 3 ). The ash content as a percentage was estimated as follows: Ash (%) = (W 3 − W 1 ) (W 2 − W 1 ) × 100 Where: W 1 = weight of empty crucible with lid W 2 = weight of crucible with lid + sample before ashing. W 3 = weight of crucible with lid + sample after ashing Determination of Crude protein content The crude protein was evaluated using the Kjeldahl method. About two grams of the sample was digested with cupper catalyst and 20 mL concentrated sulphuric acid in Kjeldahl digester apparatus leading to a clear-green output. The digest was diluted with 100 cm 3 of distilled water after cooling. To distill the digest, 50 cm 3 of 2% boric acid were added to the receiving flask for the distillate while 40 cm 3 of 40% NaOH was added to the digest before being placed on the Kjeldahl distillation device, the tubes were placed in the conical containing the boric acid and mixed indicator. Heat was utilized to distilled the ammonia that was liberated by the distillate into boric acid solution. Thereafter, titrating the distillate with 0.1 M HCl, the amount of nitrogen recovered was calculated using the following equation: The crude protein was determined from the amount of the nitrogen obtained and a factor 6.25 as: % Crude Protein = % N 2 (Nitrogen) × 6.25 Where M is the molarity of Acid V, the volume of HCl used, Vt is the total volume of diluted digest and Va is the volume of aliquot distilled. Determination of Crude fat Using the Soxhlet equipment and petroleum ether as the extraction solvent, the crude fat was quantified repeatedly, weighing was done on a dry round bottom flask of the Soxhlet extraction machine that contained petroleum ether and boiling chips (40 to 60°C) (W 1 ). The extraction apparatus was installed with the extraction thimble containing the 20 g sample. On the extraction thimble, a condenser and cooling circulator were installed. The round bottom flask containing the boiling chips and the extraction solvent was heated for six hours using the heating mantle. After recovering the solvent, crude fat was gathered in the flask with a circular bottom. Weighing the gathered fat and the flask with a round bottom (W 2 ), the percentage of crude fat was estimated as follows: Crude fat (%) = (W 2 − W 3 )/ (W 2 − W 1 ) × 100 Where: W 1 = weight of empty filter paper W 2 = weight of filter paper + sample before extraction W 3 = weight of filter paper + sample after extraction Determination of Carbohydrate content The total amount of carbohydrate was determined by difference. As shown in the relationship below, the percentage of total carbohydrate was computed by deducting 100 from the total of the percentages of moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein, and crude fiber. % Total carbohydrate = 100 - (% moisture + % Ash + % fat + % Protein) Physical Parameters ● Slip point: A capillary tube containing a little quantity of fat was heated gradually. The "slip point" is the temperature at which fat merely begins to slide downward because of its weight. ● Clear point: A capillary tube was filled with a little quantity of fat, and it was gradually heated. The "clear point" is the temperature at which fat totally melts and turns transparent. ● Smoke point: A metal container containing 10 ml of the melted fat was filled and heated in an oven at a regulated rate. The temperature at which a thin, steady stream of bluish smoke initially appears is known as the smoke point. ● The flash point: 10 ml of the melted fat was placed into a metal container and heated at a regulated pace, with a flame being passed over the surface of the sample at regular intervals. The term "flash point" refers to the temperature at which a flash may be seen everywhere on a sample's surface as a result of volatile gaseous compounds igniting. ● The fire point: A regulated rate of heating was applied to 1g of fat on a metal container while a flame was periodically passed over the sample's surface. The temperature at which development of volatiles owing to the thermal degradation of the lipids progresses so swiftly that continuous combustion occurs (a fire), is called “fire point” ● The refractive index: The Abbe refractometer was used to determine the refractive index by apply a few drops of sample on the prism, close the prisms and secured them. The measurement is taking by reading the scale after series of adjustment of light source, mirror illuminator and viewed the boundary line between light and dark area through eyepiece. ● Specific Gravity: A 50 ml Pycometer bottle was carefully cleaned with soap, water, and petroleum ether before being dried and weighed. The bottle was weighed after being filled with water. The bottle was filled with molten butter (oil) and weighed after being thoroughly dried. Calculation Specific gravity = Weight of Xml of oil /Weight of Xml of water Chemical parameters ● Determination of Acid Value or FFA To 25 ml diethyl ether, 25 ml alcohol and 1 ml of 1% phenolphthalein were added, the mixture was neutralized with 0.1M NaOH, 5g of Shea butter was dissolved in the neutralized solvent and then titrated with 0.1M NaOH solution, shaken constantly until a pink color was observed which persisted for 15 seconds. Calculation: Av = X mls x (fat factor) Where X = Volume of 0.1 m NaOH used in titration W = Weight of sample take ● Determination of Saponification Value (S.V) The Shea butter (2g) was added to 25ml alcoholic KOH solution in as Erlenmeyer flask, a reflux condenser was attached to the flask and heated in boiling water for one hour with frequent shaking. Then 1ml of 1% phenolphthalein was added and titrate hot with standard 0.5 N HCl (an ml). End point is colorless. A blank determination was made (b mill) Calculation: SV = (b – a) x 28.05 Wt (in g) of sample ● Determination of Iodine value Shea butter (0.5g) was put into a glass stoppered bottle (250ml). 10ml CCL4 was added and dissolved the butter. 20mls wij’s solution added and inserted the stopper and allowed to stand in subdued light for 30 minutes. 15ml KI solution (10%) and 100ml water were added. Titrate with 0.1M NaS203 using starch indicator. A blank determination was carried out commencing with 10ml of CCl4 Calculation Iodine Value = (b – a) x 1.296 Wt (in g) of sample Where: b = Blank titration a = Test titration ● Determination of Peroxide value The fat (1g) was introduced into a clean dry boiling tube, to the fat 1g powered potassium and 20ml solvent mixture were added, and then placed in a boiling water bath for 60 seconds, the content was poured into a titration flask containing 20ml potassium iodide solution, the tube was washed twice with 25ml portions of water and the washings were added to the titration flask. The contents in titration flask was titrated with 0.002M thiosulphate using starch as indicator. Peroxide value = (sample titre –blank titer) x Molarity of Na2S2O3 standard solution x100 / weight of sample used Phytochemical screening Qualitative Determination of Phytochemicals Composition of the Samples Bioactive screening for alkaloids, anthraquinones, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, tannins and terpenoids were done. Test for alkaloids Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of each sample (0.5 ml) was stirred with 5 ml of 1% aqueous hydrochloric acid on a steam bath. 1ml of the filtrate was treated with a few drops of Draggendorff’s reagent. Blue/black turbidity was taken as preliminary evidence for the presence of alkaloids in the extract being evaluated. Test for anthraquinones Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.3 ml) was mixed with 10% ammonia solution. Pink color precipitation indicates the presence of Anthraquinones. Test for coumarins Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.3ml) was mixed with distilled water (10ml). Drops of 10% sodium hydroxide was added to the mixture. Formation of yellow color shows the presence of coumarins. Tests flavonoids Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.3 ml) was mixed with 0.03ml of distilled water, 1ml of 2 N Sodium Hydroxide was added. Yellow color indicates flavonoids color. Test for phenols Drops of 10% ferric chloride was mixed with 0.5ml freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample. Formation of blue or green color shows presence of phenol. Test for saponins The ability of saponins to produce frothing in aqueous solution was used as screening test for saponins. Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.5 ml) was shaken with 5ml of distilled water in a test tube. Absence of frothing shows the absence of saponins. Test for tannins Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.5 ml) was stirred with about 10ml distilled water, it was filtered, and ferric chloride was added to the filtrate. A blue-black green precipitate was taken as evidence for presence of tannins while no change in color means absence of tannins. Test for terpenoids Freshly prepared ethanoic extract of sample (0.5 ml) was mixed with 1ml of chloroform Concentrated H2SO4 (15ml) was carefully added to the solution to form a thin layer. The presence of a reddish-brown coloration at the interface gave a positive result for terpenoids. Results and Discussion Physical parameters Analysis Results Table 1 Summary of Physical parameters analysis results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter. Physical parameter Sample A Sample B Slip point \(\:^\circ\:\) C 32.78 29.58 Smoke point \(\:^\circ\:\) C 87.15 101.85 Flash point \(\:^\circ\:\) C 182.1 232.4 Fire point \(\:^\circ\:\) C 211.2 299 Clear point \(\:^\circ\:\) C 39.2 34.6 Melting point \(\:^\circ\:\) C 30 28.3 Refractive index (RI) at 25 \(\:^\circ\:\) C 12.5 12.5 Viscosity (MPa.s)/Spindle 49620 5067.33 Density 0.95 0.96 Sample A- Unrefined Shea butter Sample B- Refined Shea butter Slip point The results show a higher slip point for unrefined Shea butter (32.78 \(\:^\circ\:\) C) compared to refined Shea butter (29.58 \(\:^\circ\:\) C). These results are generally considered good and fall within acceptable ranges for Shea butter. The typical slip point for Shea butter is 27-38 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. Therefore, both samples are within the regulatory standards. The difference in slip points is primarily due to the refining process. Refining involves heating and filtering, which can alter the chemical composition and crystal structure of the butter, resulting in a lower slip point (Abdel-Razek et al ., 2023). This change contributes to the distinct properties of each type of Shea butter (Abdel-Razek et al ., 2023). The slip point directly influences the physical properties of Shea butter (Uwadia O.E., 2019). Unrefined Shea butter has a higher slip point, meaning it remains solid at a higher temperature (Uwadia O.E., 2019). This makes it feel slightly firmer at room temperature and less prone to melting in warmer conditions (Uwadia O.E., 2019). This property makes it excellent for body butters and balms where a firm texture is desired while Refined Shea butter has a lower slip point, which makes it softer and easier to spread at a lower temperature (Uwadia O.E., 2019). This characteristic makes it suitable for lotions and creams, as it gives the product a smooth, luxurious feel upon application to the skin. Smoke Point The analysis show that unrefined Shea butter has a smoke point of 87.15 \(\:^\circ\:\) C, while refined Shea butter has a significantly higher smoke point of 101.85 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. The refining process removes impurities, free fatty acids, and other volatile components that have lower smoking temperatures (Kolawole et al ., 2024). The presence of these impurities in the unrefined Shea butter is what causes it to smoke at a much lower temperature (Ramroudi et al ., 2021). The results are within the general range for smoke point in Shea butter, but they are on the lower end, especially for the unrefined sample. Some literature indicates that refined Shea butter can have a smoke point as high as 211 \(\:^\circ\:C\) to 233 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. The typical smoke point for Refined Shea butter is within 250 \(\:^\circ\:C\) (Higher flash point) while in unrefined Shea butter it can be lower (e.g., 211 \(\:^\circ\:C-244^\circ\:C\:in\:studies)\) , often due to impurities. The values obtained in this analysis, while valid for the specific samples, are indicative of the significant impact that the refining process has on the butter's thermal stability. Flash Point The unrefined Shea butter exhibited a flash point of 182.1 \(\:^\circ\:\) C, while the refined Shea butter had a significantly higher value of 232.4 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. This substantial difference of over 50 \(\:^\circ\:C\:\) demonstrates that the refining process removes volatile impurities and free fatty acids, which lowers the substance's flammability and greatly improves its thermal stability. These results are highly favorable, as a higher flash point indicates a safer product to handle, especially in manufacturing processes involving heat. The values are well within a safe operational range, confirming that both are suitable for use, though the refined butter provides a much greater safety margin. This parameter's implication is that refined Shea butter is the more advisable choice for applications that require high-temperature processing. Fire Point The unrefined Shea butter had a fire point of 211.2 \(\:^\circ\:\) C, while the refined Shea butter had a significantly higher fire point of 299 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. The remarkable nearly 88 \(\:^\circ\:C\:\) difference reinforces the earlier flash point findings and confirms the superior thermal stability of the refined product. The refining process has effectively removed the most combustible components, making the refined Shea butter far less likely to sustain a fire (Adewole et al ., 2018). From a safety and handling perspective, this makes the refined variety unequivocally the better option for any application where thermal stress or fire risk is a concern. Clear point The analysis revealed that the unrefined Shea butter has a clear point of 39.2 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. Where as the refined Shea butter has a lower clear point of 34.6 \(\:^\circ\:\) C. This difference, though smaller than the flash and fire points, is significant in practical application. The lower clear point of the refined butter is a direct consequence of the refining process, which alters the composition by removing certain high-melting-point triglycerides and impurities (Alhassan and Adekole, 2016). This results in a product that melts more easily and quickly on contact with the skin, a desirable characteristic for many cosmetic formulations (Alhassan and Adekole, 2016). The results obtained for both samples are well within the acceptable ranges for Shea butter and are not subject to specific regulatory standards, as this parameter is primarily related to product functionality rather than safety. The clear point directly contributes to the sensory properties of the Shea butter, with the lower temperature of the refined variety providing a smoother, less grainy texture and a more luxurious feel on the skin. Conversely, the higher clear point of the unrefined butter means it will maintain its solid form at slightly higher ambient temperatures, which can be an advantage for products intended for use in warmer climates (Ogbolu and Oluwole, 2018). The choice between refined and unrefined Shea butter, based on the clear point, depends on the desired final product texture. If a smooth, quick-melting consistency is required for lotions, creams, or whipped body butters, the refined Shea butter is more suitable (Ogbolu and Oluwole, 2018). However, if a firmer, more stable butter is needed, the unrefined variety is a better choice. The implications of these results highlight a key trade-off the refining process sacrifices a degree of natural thermal stability for enhanced functionality and a more aesthetically pleasing texture (Akihisa, 2010). Melting point In this analysis, the unrefined Shea butter was found to have a melting point of 30 \(\:^\circ\:\) C, while the refined Shea butter had a slightly lower melting point of 28.3 \(\:^\circ\:\) C.. There are no specific regulatory standards for the melting point of edible fats and oils, as this parameter is more indicative of functional quality and application rather than safety. The lower melting point of the refined Shea butter is a direct result of the refining process, which removes impurities and alters the triglyceride composition, leading to a product that melts more easily and quickly (Honfo et al ., 2010). This characteristic significantly contributes to its properties by giving it a smoother, less grainy texture and making it more readily absorbed by the skin (Goumbri et al ., 2024). In contrast, the slightly higher melting point of the unrefined butter contributes to its characteristic firmness and can make it feel a bit waxier (Macridachis et al ., 2025). Based on these findings, the choice between the two varieties depends on the intended application. For cosmetic and personal care products where a luxurious, fast-absorbing, and non-greasy feel is desired, the refined Shea butter is the more advisable option, its lower melting point ensures a pleasant sensory experience (Saba et al ., 2022). Refractive index The unrefined and refined Shea butter samples were found to have an identical refractive index of 12.5. This result is significant because it indicates that despite the refining process, the core chemical composition of the Shea butter, particularly its fatty acid profile, was not significantly altered. The results obtained are considered excellent from a quality control perspective. While the given value may fall outside the typical range for Shea butter, the critical finding for this comparative study is the consistency and lack of change between the two samples. This identical result suggests that the refining process was efficient in removing impurities and volatile components without damaging or altering the fundamental lipid structure of the butter (Kanwaljit et al., 2021). The refractive index does not contribute to the sensory properties of the Shea butter, such as its texture or feel (Olaniyan and Oje, 2023). Its main purpose is to serve as a marker of identity and purity (Essengue et al ., 2023). Since the values for both samples are identical, based on this parameter alone, there is no basis to advise going for one over the other. The implications of these results are that the refining process is a physical rather than a chemical one, at least in terms of altering the core molecular makeup. Viscosity (MPa.s)/Spindle The analysis of the samples yielded a dramatic difference: the unrefined Shea butter had a viscosity of 49620 MPa.s, while the refined Shea butter had a significantly lower viscosity of 5067.33 MPa.s. This marked decrease in viscosity, approximately a ten-fold reduction, is a direct and expected result of the refining process. These results are not inherently "good" or "bad," but they are crucial indicators of the product's functional properties. There are no specific regulatory standards for the viscosity of Shea butter, as it is a characteristic that is optimized for specific applications. The difference in viscosity directly contributes to the distinct properties and user experience of each type of butter. The high viscosity of the unrefined Shea butter accounts for its dense, firm, and often grainy texture, which can make it more challenging to work with in formulations. Conversely, the much lower viscosity of the refined Shea butter is what gives it a consistently smooth, creamy, and easily spreadable consistency, which is highly desirable for cosmetic and personal care products. Based on these results, the choice between the two varieties is application-dependent. For manufacturers of products such as body lotions, creams, and balms where a smooth, uniform texture and easy application are prioritized, the refined Shea butter is the more advisable option. For a consumer seeking a more rustic, dense product that feels raw and unprocessed, the unrefined version would be preferable. The implications of this significant difference in viscosity highlight how the refining process is a deliberate engineering of the butter's physical properties. It demonstrates that refining transforms the butter from a firm, dense natural product into a commercially optimized ingredient with superior rheological properties, designed to meet the demands of modern cosmetic formulations. Density The analysis of the samples revealed a density of 0.95 for the unrefined Shea butter and a very similar density of 0.96 for the refined Shea butter. This minimal difference between the two samples is a positive finding. It indicates that the refining process did not significantly alter the fundamental mass-to-volume ratio of the butter, suggesting that it is primarily a purification process rather than a substantive chemical transformation. The results obtained are well within the typical range for vegetable fats and oils and are considered acceptable. There are no specific regulatory standards that mandate a particular density for Shea butter, as this parameter is primarily used for verification and quality control rather than for direct application-based performance. Given the near-identical density values, this parameter does not contribute significantly to the functional or sensory properties of the Shea butter in a way that would make one variety more advisable than the other. The decision to use either refined or unrefined Shea butter cannot be based on density, but rather on other properties like viscosity and melting point, which show a more significant difference and are more relevant to product formulation. The primary implication of these results is that the refining process is highly effective at removing impurities and enhancing the butter's safety and sensory profile without compromising its core structural integrity. The consistent density across both samples serves as evidence that the essential nature of the Shea butter is preserved, confirming that the refining process is a refinement of physical attributes rather than a chemical modification of its fundamental mass. Proximate Analysis Table 2 Summary of Proximate Analysis results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter Physical parameter Sample A Sample B Moisture (%) 1.008 0.93 Crude fat (%) 97.967 97.83 Ash (%) 0.014 0.007 Protein (%) 0.43 0.4 Crude fibre N/A N/A Carbohydrate 0.581 0.833 Sample A- Unrefined Shea butter Sample B- Refined Shea butter Moisture Content The results indicate that the refined Shea butter sample has a slightly lower moisture content (0.93%) than the unrefined sample (1.008%). This is an expected outcome, as the refining process, particularly the deodorization step which involves heating under a vacuum, is effective at removing residual water (O'Brien, 2008). According to the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) “2013” standard for Shea butter (NIS 888:2015) and the East African Standard (EAS 782:2013), the maximum permissible moisture and volatile matter content for Shea butter is 0.2%. Both the unrefined (1.008%) and refined (0.93%) samples in this study exceed this regulatory limit. This suggests that both products may be susceptible to microbial degradation and have a potentially shorter shelf life than ideal (Obibuzor et al ., 2016). The higher moisture content is a negative attribute for both samples, though the refined butter is marginally better (Anderson and Alander, 2018). The elevated levels could be due to improper processing, handling, or storage conditions (Naughton, 2021). For cosmetic and food applications, a lower moisture content is highly desirable to ensure stability and safety (Abayomi et al ., 2021). Therefore, based on this parameter, the refined Shea butter is slightly more advisable, although both samples fail to meet the established quality standards. Crude Fat Both the unrefined (97.967%) and refined (97.83%) Shea butter samples exhibited very high crude fat content, which is characteristic of Shea butter. The values are extremely close, indicating that the refining process did not significantly reduce the overall lipid content of the butter. Crude fat represents the total lipid content in a sample, which includes triglycerides, fatty acids, phospholipids, and other fat-soluble components. For Shea butter, the fat content is the primary and most valuable component, responsible for its characteristic moisturizing, emollient, and therapeutic properties (Honfo et al., 2014 ). These results are consistent with findings in the literature, where the fat content of Shea butter is typically reported to be above 95% (Maranz et al ., 2004). The high concentration of lipids, primarily triglycerides of stearic and oleic acids, confirms the product's identity and suitability for its common uses in skincare and food (Odoom et al ., 2022). The slight difference between the two samples is negligible and likely falls within the range of experimental error. The high fat content is a positive and essential attribute for both Shea butter types (Agbede and Adebiyi, 2019). It confirms the authenticity and high quality of the base product in terms of its primary functional components. Since both values are excellent and very similar, there is no significant preference between refined and unrefined Shea butter based on this parameter alone. Ash Content The refined Shea butter sample showed a lower ash content (0.007%) compared to the unrefined sample (0.014%). This result is logical, as the refining process (e.g., filtration, degumming, and bleaching) is specifically designed to remove non-lipid impurities, including inorganic materials. The lower ash value in the refined butter indicates a higher level of purity (Gunstone, 2011). Both values are very low, which is a positive quality indicator. However, the 50% reduction in ash content in the refined product highlights the effectiveness of the purification process. According to the Codex Alimentarius standard for edible fats and oils (CODEX STAN 210–1999), specifications for impurities are stringent, and a lower value is always preferred. A low ash content is a positive quality attribute. The lower value in the refined sample suggests it is cleaner and freer from inorganic contaminants. Therefore, for applications where purity is paramount, such as in high-end cosmetics or pharmaceuticals, the refined Shea butter is more advisable. Protein Content The analysis revealed a very low protein content in both samples, which is typical for a lipid-based product. The unrefined Shea butter (0.43%) contained slightly more protein than the refined sample (0.4%). This marginal decrease in the refined butter is expected, as refining processes are designed to remove non-glyceride components, including proteins and mucilaginous materials (O'Brien, 2008). While present in small quantities, these proteinaceous materials in unrefined butter may contribute to its characteristic aroma and color (Saka et al ., 2018). However, they can also potentially be involved in browning reactions or degradation over time (Hassan et al ., 2022). The low protein content is normal for Shea butter. The slightly lower level in refined Shea butter points to its higher purity. From a stability and purity standpoint, the refined Shea butter is marginally better. However, for those who prefer a more natural product with all its original components intact, the unrefined version may be preferred. Carbohydrate Content The carbohydrate content was found to be a minor fraction in both samples. Interestingly, the calculated carbohydrate value was higher in the refined Shea butter (0.833%) compared to the unrefined sample (0.581%). This result is counterintuitive, as one would expect the refining process to remove carbohydrates along with other impurities. This anomaly can likely be attributed to the nature of "by difference" calculation. Since fat is the overwhelming component (over 97%), even a very small experimental error in the measurement of fat or any other major component would lead to a larger relative error in the final calculated value for carbohydrate (Nielsen, 2010). It is therefore possible that this difference is not chemically significant but rather an artifact of cumulative experimental variations. Carbohydrates are minor components and are not functionally important in Shea butter. Given the potential for calculation error, it is difficult to draw a firm conclusion based on this parameter. Therefore, this result has little bearing on the choice between unrefined and refined Shea butter. Chemical Parameters Table 3 Summary of Chemical Parameters results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter Chemical Parameters Sample A Sample B Iodine Value (g of iodine/ 100 fat) 1.75 2.37 Saponification (mg KOH/g fat) 228.83 186.56 Acid value (mg KOH/g fat) 69.3 18.95 Peroxide value (meq O 2 /kg fat) 2.26 2.09 FFA (%Oleic acid) 3.49 0.95 Sample A- Unrefined Shea butter Sample B- Refined Shea butter Iodine Value (IV) The results obtained for both the unrefined (1.75) and refined (2.37) samples are exceptionally low. Standard literature and regulatory specifications for Shea butter report an iodine value typically ranging from 55 to 72 g iodine/100g (Codex Alimentarius, 2017; Honfo et al., 2014 ). The values from this study are significantly outside this range, which may suggest a potential error in the titration procedure, reagent preparation, or an issue with the samples themselves. However, comparing the two results relatively, the refined butter shows a slightly higher Iodine value. This is an anomalous finding, as refining processes are not expected to increase the number of double bonds. This minor difference is likely attributable to experimental variance (Bello et al ., 2017). Given the profound deviation from established norms, these Iodine value results should be interpreted with caution. The expected low Iodine value range for Shea butter (relative to liquid oils like soybean oil) confirms its solid nature at room temperature, which is due to a high concentration of saturated fatty acids like stearic acid (Musa et al ., 2017). Due to the significant discrepancy with standard values, it is difficult to draw a firm conclusion. Based on established data, both samples should have a much higher IV. No preference can be assigned based on these anomalous results. Saponification Value (SV) The saponification value for the refined Shea butter (182.56 mg KOH/g) falls well within the typical range specified by regulatory bodies like the Codex Alimentarius (178–190 mg KOH/g) and the East African Standard (178–198 mg KOH/g). This confirms the identity of the fat as Shea butter. Conversely, the saponification value for the unrefined sample (228.83 mg KOH/g) is remarkably high and lies far outside the standard range. Such a high value would suggest a predominance of low molecular weight fatty acids, which is not characteristic of Shea butter. This could indicate the presence of other saponifiable impurities in the unrefined sample that were successfully removed during the refining process. The refining process has brought the SV back to a standard, acceptable value. The high SV of the unrefined butter is a negative quality indicator, suggesting impurity or alteration. The SV of the refined butter aligns perfectly with industry standards, confirming its authenticity. Therefore, based on this parameter, the refined Shea butter is highly advisable as it meets quality specifications. Acid Value (AV) The acid value for the unrefined Shea butter (69.3 mg KOH/g) is extremely high, indicating a severe state of hydrolytic rancidity. This level is far above the maximum permissible limits set by standards. For instance, the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) specifies a maximum acid value of 10.0 mg KOH/g for Grade III (the lowest grade) raw Shea butter. This result suggests the unrefined sample is of very poor quality, possibly due to improper handling of the shea nuts, prolonged storage, or microbial action. The refining process, which includes a neutralization step specifically designed to remove FFAs, has drastically reduced the acid value to 18.95 mg KOH/g. While this represents a significant improvement, this value is still considered high and exceeds the Codex limit for refined oils (typically max 0.6 mg KOH/g). Nonetheless, the reduction demonstrates the efficacy of refining in improving the quality of a degraded raw material. A high acid value is a major defect. The unrefined sample is unsuitable for most applications without prior processing. The refined sample, while not perfect, is of substantially better quality. Based on this critical parameter, the refined Shea butter is unequivocally the more advisable choice. Peroxide Value (PV) The peroxide values for both the unrefined (2.26 meq O₂/kg) and refined (2.09 meq O₂/kg) samples are low. According to the Codex Alimentarius standard, the maximum PV for virgin fats is 15 meq O₂/kg, and for refined fats is 10 meq O₂/kg. Both samples are well within these limits, indicating that they are not significantly oxidized and are relatively fresh in terms of primary oxidation. The slightly lower PV in the refined sample is a positive attribute. Refining processes can remove pro-oxidants (like certain metals) and primary oxidation products, thereby enhancing the oxidative stability of the final product (O'Brien, 2008). The low PV is a positive attribute for both samples. It suggests good initial quality with respect to oxidation. The refined Shea butter is marginally better. Based on this parameter, both butters are acceptable, but the refined product shows slightly better potential for stability. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Content Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content is a direct measurement of the free fatty acids resulting from the hydrolysis of triglycerides. It is directly related to the acid value and is often expressed as the percentage of the predominant fatty acid in the oil, which for Shea butter is oleic acid. Like acid value, it is a key indicator of quality and hydrolytic degradation. The FFA results correlate with the trend observed in the acid value analysis. The unrefined Shea butter has a high FFA content of 3.49%. According to the SON standard for Shea butter, this value places the sample in Grade III, which is the lowest quality grade designated for non-edible industrial purposes (max FFA of 3.0% for this grade is slightly exceeded). In contrast, the refined Shea butter has a much lower FFA of 0.95%. This value meets the specification for Grade I Shea butter (max FFA of 1.0%), making it suitable for cosmetic and edible applications. This demonstrates the primary benefit of the refining process: to convert a low-grade raw material into a high-quality, stable product by removing undesirable free fatty acids. High FFA content is detrimental to the quality, flavor, and stability of the butter. The unrefined sample is of low grade. The refined sample is of high grade. Therefore, for any application requiring high purity and stability, such as cosmetics or food, the refined Shea butter is strongly recommended. Phytochemical Screening Table 4 Summary of Phytochemical Qualitative Analysis results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter. Phytochemical Screening Sample A Sample B Saponin + * Tannin * * Phenol * * Alkaloid + + Flavonoid * * Cardiac glycoside * * Terpenoid * * + - Present - Absent Saponins are naturally occurring plant glycosides known for their ability to form a soap-like foam when agitated in water. They are a major component of the unsaponifiable fraction of Shea butter and are highly valued for their therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and skin-soothing effects (Honfo et al., 2014 ). The presence of saponins in the unrefined Shea butter is an expected and highly positive result. It confirms that the butter retains its natural, bioactive unsaponifiable fraction, which is responsible for many of its renowned healing and protective qualities (Akihisa et al ., 2010). Conversely, the absence of saponins in the refined sample is also an expected outcome. The industrial refining process (neutralization, bleaching, deodorization) purifies the fat but in doing so, removes most of the non-lipid components, including these beneficial saponins (O'Brien, 2008). The presence of saponins makes unrefined Shea butter a functional ingredient with therapeutic value. The refined butter, lacking these compounds, acts primarily as a simple emollient (moisturizer). For any application where anti-inflammatory, skin-soothing, or healing properties are important, unrefined Shea butter is the superior and more advisable choice. Tannin The absence of tannins in both the unrefined and refined Shea butter samples is a neutral to positive finding. Shea butter is not typically known to be a significant source of tannins. Their absence is beneficial for cosmetic and food applications as it means the butter is non-astringent and less likely to cause bitterness or protein precipitation. Tannins are a class of water-soluble polyphenolic compounds known for their astringent (causing contraction of skin cells and other body tissues) properties. In high concentrations, they can act as anti-nutritional factors or cause irritation, though in some applications, their astringent quality is desired (Okeke and Elekwa, 2013). This result confirms the suitability of both types of butter for general use without the potential drawbacks of tannins. As both samples tested negative, there is no preference between refined and unrefined Shea butter based on this parameter. Phenol Phenols (or phenolic compounds) are a large group of chemical compounds characterized by a hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring. In plants, they act as antioxidants, protecting against oxidative stress. Phenolic compounds in Shea butter, such as gallic acid and cinnamic acid esters, are credited with its antioxidant and UV-B absorbing properties (Maranz et al ., 2004). The negative result for phenols in both samples is highly unexpected and contradicts a large body of scientific literature that has consistently identified various phenolic compounds in Shea butter. This discrepancy strongly suggests a limitation in the analytical method used.. While the test result was negative, it is scientifically established that unrefined Shea butter contains beneficial phenols (Maranz, 2005). These are largely removed during refining. Based on established literature, unrefined Shea butter would be advisable for its antioxidant properties. Alkaloid The presence of alkaloids in both samples indicates that these compounds are natural constituents of the shea kernel (Onyenweaku et al ., 2014). The fact that they persisted through the refining process suggests they are either heat-stable or fat-soluble (Essien et al ., 2016). The specific alkaloids and their concentrations are unknown from this test, but their presence in a product with a long history of safe use implies they are in trace, non-toxic amounts (Tella et al ., 2023). This is a characteristic finding for the source material. Flavonoid Similar to the result for general phenols, the negative result for flavonoids is surprising. Given that flavonoids are a subclass of phenols and are known to be present in Shea butter, this result is most likely due to the low sensitivity of the qualitative test or interference from the fatty sample matrix. It is highly probable that flavonoids are present, especially in the unrefined sample, but at levels below the detection limit of the screening method. As with the phenol result, this finding is likely a false negative due to methodological limitations. Based on the broader scientific consensus that unrefined Shea butter contains these beneficial antioxidants, unrefined Shea butter would be the recommended choice for applications requiring antioxidant activity (Adegoke and Olaniyan et al ., 2018). Cardiac Glycoside The absence of cardiac glycosides in both samples is an important and positive safety finding. It confirms that both unrefined and refined Shea butter are free from these potentially toxic compounds, making them safe for cosmetic and edible use (Oyekanmi et al ., 2023). This result confirms the safety of both products. As both tested negative, there is no preference between refined and unrefined Shea butter on the basis of this parameter. Terpenoid Terpenoids (or terpenes) are a very large and diverse class of naturally occurring organic chemicals. In Shea butter, the most important terpenoids are the triterpene alcohols (e.g., lupeol, amyrin, butyrospermol) and their cinnamic acid esters. These compounds are a major part of the unsaponifiable fraction and are scientifically proven to have strong anti-inflammatory and chemo-preventive properties (Akihisa et al ., 2010). This is another highly unexpected negative result. The triterpene alcohols are cornerstone compounds of Shea butter's healing fraction. Their apparent absence in the unrefined sample is almost certainly an artifact of the testing method. The qualitative test used was likely unsuitable or not sensitive enough to detect these specific lipid-soluble terpenoids within the butter matrix. The presence of these anti-inflammatory terpenoids is a key reason for using unrefined Shea butter. Refining is known to remove a significant portion of them. Therefore, despite the test result, unrefined Shea butter is the strongly advisable choice for anyone seeking the well-documented anti-inflammatory benefits of the product. Conclusion Refined Shea butter is concluded to be the more suitable product for industrial and commercial use (e.g., in mass-produced cosmetics or food processing) due to its superior stability, improved melt profile, and desirable, low-viscosity texture. The refining process successfully removes most impurities and volatile components, yielding a consistent and stable ingredient. Unrefined Shea butter is concluded to be the preferred choice for therapeutic and natural cosmetic applications where the maximum health benefit is sought, as it retains the saponins and is expected to retain higher concentrations of other beneficial triterpene alcohols, which are crucial for the product's renowned anti-inflammatory and emollient properties. Declarations Ethics Declarations This study did not involve human participants or animals. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institution. Consent to participate Not applicable. Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Data Availability The data used during the current study are present in the manuscript Author contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Oluwafemi Alex Afolabi designed the study, collected the data, and performed the formal analysis under the supervision of Mobolaji Omiye Aduloju. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Oluwafemi Alex Afolabi. Mobolaji Omiye Aduloju provided critical comments and revisions on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Department of Chemical Sciences, Bamidele Olumilua University of Education, Science and Technology (BOUESTI), Ikere-Ekiti, for providing laboratory facilities and technical support for this research. References Abaide, A. S., Souza, A. G., Borba, K. C., & Chiavelli, L. U. R. (2021). Characterization of vegetable oils by physicochemical parameters. Journal of Food Science and Technology , 58(3), 1020–1028. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04597-8 Addaquay, J. (2011). Shea butter value chain improvement in Ghana. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Ademola, O. A., & Farombi, E. O. (2019). Thermal stability of edible oils and effects of refining. Journal of Lipid Science , 8(2), 45–59. Adeniyi, O. D., & Adesina, O. A. (2014). Extraction and characterization of Shea butter oi l. International Journal of Engineering Science , 4(9), 12–17. Borchani, C., Besbes, S., Blecker, C., & Attia, H. (2010). Chemical characteristics and oxidative stability of flaxseed oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 87(7), 667–674. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-010-1556-2 Cissé, M., & Traoré, M. (2020). Physicochemical properties of traditional and industrial Shea butter. Journal of Food Quality , 2020, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8861405 David, F., Sandra, P., & Wylie, P. L. (2005). Analysis of edible oils by GC–MS. Journal of Chromatographic Science , 43(8), 454–460. FAO. (2020). FAOSTAT statistical database: Oil crops. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Goreja, W. G. (2004). Shea butter: The nourishing properties of Africa’s best-kept natural beauty secret. Amazing Herbs Press. Gyamfi, A., Oduro, I., & Ellis, W. O. (2016). Effect of storage on Shea butter quality. Journal of Food Science and Technology , 53(4), 2310–2318. Hall, J. B., Aebischer, D. P., Tomlinson, H. F., Osei-Amaning, E., & Hindle, J. R. (1996). Vitellaria paradoxa: A monograph . University of Wales . Honfo, F. G., Hell, K., Akissoe, N., Linssen, J., & Nout, M. J. R. (2014). Processing of shea nuts and chemical composition of Shea butter. Food Research International , 66, 45–52. Kittiphoom, S. (2012). Utilization of Shea butter in food and cosmetics. International Food Research Journal , 19(1), 456–460. .Muhammad, N., Bamishaiye, E. I., & Olayemi, F. F. (2011). Physicochemical properties of Shea butter. International Journal of Science and Nature, 2(3), 457–460. Obibuzor, J. U., Anyasor, G. N., Ekpe, G., & Idung, J. (2013). Solvent extraction of shea fat. Journal of Applied Sciences , 13(1), 45–49. Ojo, O. A., & Adebayo, A. H. (2012). Quality characteristics of Nigerian Shea butter. African Journal of Food Science , 6(21), 512–515. Pande, G., & Akoh, C. C. (2010). Enzymatic modification of shea stearin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 58(9), 5346–5351. Salimon, J., Ahmed, A., & Mohd, N. (2012). Physicochemical characteristics of Malaysian Shea butter. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society , 89(3), 537–542. Sarkar, A., & Singh, R. P. (2021). Oxidation and peroxide formation in edible oils. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition , 61(5), 759–776. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Nigeria, with its vast savannas, is home to a considerable number of shea trees, making Shea butter production a vital economic activity, especially for women in rural areas (Agyei \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). Shea butter is renowned for its moisturizing, healing, and protective properties, which have led to its widespread use in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food industries (Honfo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). The shea tree, also known as the karite tree, is native to the savannas of West Africa, particularly in Countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, and Burkina Faso (Carney \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2007). Its extraction and processing methods, however, vary widely, leading to the differences in the quality and properties of the final product (Goumbri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). It is a deciduous tree that grows up to 15 meters tall. The tree is found in the wild but is also cultivated in many parts of West Africa (Goumbri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). Nigeria is one of the major producers of Shea butter in Africa, with Ekiti being a significant production hub in the southwestern region (Oladipo \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fruit of the tree contains a nut, which is the primary source of Shea butter (Hall, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The shea tree begins to bear fruit after about 10 to 15 years, reaching full production at 20 to 30 years and can continue to produce for up to 200 years (Goumbri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). The fruit consists of a thin pulp and a nut, which contains the kernel from which the Shea butter is extracted (Honfo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2013). Shea butter has been used for centuries in traditional African medicine and cosmetics. It is widely used to nourish and protect the skin and to treat a variety of skin conditions, including eczema, acne, and psoriasis (Akihisa, 2010). Shea butter is an important crop in many West African countries, providing income and employment opportunities for millions of people (Lovett \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2010). The global Shea butter market is estimated to be worth billions of dollars, driven by the rising demand for natural and organic products (Alander \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2002). Culturally, Shea butter holds great traditional importance in many West African communities. It is used in ceremonies, rituals, and symbolizes beauty and fertility (Elias \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the production of Shea butter also poses environmental concerns, particularly related to deforestation and land degradation (Goumbri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2015). Despite the growing demand for Shea butter, both locally and internationally, there is a dearth of scientific information on the comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter in Nigeria, particularly in Ekiti State. A study published in the Journal of Cosmetics, Dermatological Sciences and Applications found that unrefined Shea butter had better moisturizing and protective effects on the skin compared to refined Shea butter (Afolabi, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019). According to a study published in the Journal of Food Science and Technology, the quality and characteristics of Shea butter can vary significantly depending on factors such as the source of the shea nuts, processing methods, and storage conditions (Adeyeye, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). Another study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry found that refined Shea butter had improved shelf life and aesthetic appeal compared to unrefined Shea butter (Ogunsina, \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2018). The quality of Shea butter can vary significantly depending on the processing method, with refined and unrefined being the two primary forms available in the market (Oladipo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnrefined Shea butter is minimally processed, retaining more of its natural nutrients and often preferred for its perceived health benefits and authenticity (Oladipo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). Unrefined Shea butter retains beneficial compounds and is widely used in various applications (Agarwal \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2021). Unrefined Shea butter is typically extracted mechanically or manually, preserving its beneficial constituents (Agceli \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). It is rich in fatty acids such as oleic, stearic, palmitic, and linoleic acids, as well as bioactive compounds like vitamin A, E and triterpenes and phenolic compounds (Agceli \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). On the other hand, refined Shea butter is a processed form of Shea butter, derived from the nuts of the Shea tree (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e), that undergoes refining to remove impurities, odors, and colors (Bochicchio \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). The refining process typically involves filtration and sometimes the use of chemicals or bleaching agents to achieve a uniform, odorless, and white product (Bilandzic \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). However, the refining process can also lead to the loss of some natural compounds, potentially affecting the butter\u0026rsquo;s nutritional and therapeutic properties (Alander \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2019). The increasing national demand for shea nuts has significantly impacted the livelihoods of women in west Africa who are involved in collecting and processing them (Francis \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Topical use of Shea butter has also demonstrated anti-aging and anti-inflammatory properties (Oluwaseyi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2014).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method and Procedures","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe research is conducted in Ekiti state, Nigeria. Ekiti state is a strategic hub for commerce and agriculture, making it an ideal location for studying the comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter. With a latitude of 7.6667\u0026deg; N and longitude of 5.2500\u0026deg; E, Ekiti state covers approximately 6,353 square kilometers, featuring an undulating landscape with rugged hills and old plains broken by step-sided out-crops.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter was performed using the following standard techniques set by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProximate composition (Determination of Moisture content)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA clean evaporating dishes was dried in a hot air oven at 105\u0026deg;C, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed as (W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e). The pretagged dish was filled with 2 g of the sample, which was then weighed again (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e). The sample-containing crucible was heated air dried till consistent weight (W\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). The following formula was used to calculate the percentage of moisture in the samples:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%) = (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-W\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) / (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u003c/strong\u003e 100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of Ash content\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the amount of ash in the cheese butter samples, a ceramic crucible was dried in an\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOven at 105\u0026deg;C for 30 minutes, cooled in a desiccator, and then weighed (W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e). 2g of the butter was added to a preweighed ceramic crucible (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e). The crucible sample was lighted,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003etransferred to a muffle furnace prepared to 550\u0026deg;C and permitted to burn for six hours. The ash-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContaining crucible was then removed, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed (W\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). The ash\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003econtent as a percentage was estimated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAsh (%) = (W\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; 100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of empty crucible with lid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of crucible with lid\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sample before ashing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of crucible with lid\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sample after ashing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of Crude protein content\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe crude protein was evaluated using the Kjeldahl method. About two grams of the sample was digested with cupper catalyst and 20 mL concentrated sulphuric acid in Kjeldahl digester apparatus leading to a clear-green output. The digest was diluted with 100 cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e of distilled water after cooling. To distill the digest, 50 cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e of 2% boric acid were added to the receiving flask for the distillate while 40 cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e of 40% NaOH was added to the digest before being placed on the Kjeldahl distillation device, the tubes were placed in the conical containing the boric acid and mixed indicator. Heat was utilized to distilled the ammonia that was liberated by the distillate into boric acid solution. Thereafter, titrating the distillate with 0.1 M HCl, the amount of nitrogen recovered was calculated using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe crude protein was determined from the amount of the nitrogen obtained and a factor 6.25 as: % Crude Protein = % N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (Nitrogen) \u0026times; 6.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM is the molarity of Acid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eV, the volume of HCl used,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVt is the total volume of diluted digest and Va is the volume\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eof aliquot distilled.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of Crude fat\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the Soxhlet equipment and petroleum ether as the extraction solvent, the crude fat was quantified repeatedly, weighing was done on a dry round bottom flask of the Soxhlet extraction machine that contained petroleum ether and boiling chips (40 to 60\u0026deg;C) (W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e). The extraction apparatus was installed with the extraction thimble containing the 20 g sample. On the extraction thimble, a condenser and cooling circulator were installed. The round bottom flask containing the boiling chips and the extraction solvent was heated for six hours using the heating mantle. After recovering the solvent, crude fat was gathered in the flask with a circular bottom. Weighing the gathered fat and the flask with a round bottom (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), the percentage of crude fat was estimated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fat (%) = (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;W\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)/ (W\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;W\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; 100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of empty filter paper\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of filter paper\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sample before extraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of filter paper\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sample after extraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of Carbohydrate content\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total amount of carbohydrate was determined by difference. As shown in the relationship below, the percentage of total carbohydrate was computed by deducting 100 from the total of the percentages of moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein, and crude fiber.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Total carbohydrate\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100 - (% moisture + % Ash + % fat + % Protein)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhysical Parameters\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Slip point:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA capillary tube containing a little quantity of fat was heated gradually. The \"slip point\" is the temperature at which fat merely begins to slide downward because of its weight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Clear point:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA capillary tube was filled with a little quantity of fat, and it was gradually heated. The \"clear point\" is the temperature at which fat totally melts and turns transparent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Smoke point:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA metal container containing 10 ml of the melted fat was filled and heated in an oven at a regulated rate. The temperature at which a thin, steady stream of bluish smoke initially appears is known as the smoke point.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● The flash point:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 ml of the melted fat was placed into a metal container and heated at a regulated pace, with a flame being passed over the surface of the sample at regular intervals. The term \"flash point\" refers to the temperature at which a flash may be seen everywhere on a sample's surface as a result of volatile gaseous compounds igniting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● The fire point:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA regulated rate of heating was applied to 1g of fat on a metal container while a flame was periodically passed over the sample's surface. The temperature at which development of volatiles owing to the thermal degradation of the lipids progresses so swiftly that continuous combustion\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eoccurs (a fire), is called \u0026ldquo;fire point\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● The refractive index:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Abbe refractometer was used to determine the refractive index by apply a few drops of sample on the prism, close the prisms and secured them. The measurement is taking by reading the scale after series of adjustment of light source, mirror illuminator and viewed the boundary line between light and dark area through eyepiece.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Specific Gravity:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 50 ml Pycometer bottle was carefully cleaned with soap, water, and petroleum ether before being dried and weighed. The bottle was weighed after being filled with water. The bottle was filled with molten butter (oil) and weighed after being thoroughly dried.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalculation Specific gravity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Weight of Xml of oil /Weight of Xml of water\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Determination of Acid Value or FFA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo 25 ml diethyl ether, 25 ml alcohol and 1 ml of 1% phenolphthalein were added, the mixture was neutralized with 0.1M NaOH, 5g of Shea butter was dissolved in the neutralized solvent and then titrated with 0.1M NaOH solution, shaken constantly until a pink color was observed which persisted for 15 seconds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalculation: Av\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;X mls x (fat factor)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere X\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Volume of 0.1 m NaOH used in titration W\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Weight of sample take\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Determination of Saponification Value (S.V)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Shea butter (2g) was added to 25ml alcoholic KOH solution in as Erlenmeyer flask, a reflux condenser was attached to the flask and heated in boiling water for one hour with frequent shaking. Then 1ml of 1% phenolphthalein was added and titrate hot with standard 0.5 N HCl (an ml). End point is colorless. A blank determination was made (b mill) Calculation: SV = (b \u0026ndash; a) x 28.05 Wt (in g) of sample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Determination of Iodine value\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShea butter (0.5g) was put into a glass stoppered bottle (250ml). 10ml CCL4 was added and dissolved the butter. 20mls wij\u0026rsquo;s solution added and inserted the stopper and allowed to stand in subdued light for 30 minutes. 15ml KI solution (10%) and 100ml water were added. Titrate with 0.1M NaS203 using starch indicator. A blank determination was carried out commencing with 10ml of CCl4 Calculation Iodine Value = (b \u0026ndash; a) x 1.296 Wt (in g) of sample\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere: b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003etitration a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Test titration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e● Determination of Peroxide value\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fat (1g) was introduced into a clean dry boiling tube, to the fat 1g powered potassium and 20ml solvent mixture were added, and then placed in a boiling water bath for 60 seconds, the content was poured into a titration flask containing 20ml potassium iodide solution, the tube was washed twice with 25ml portions of water and the washings were added to the titration flask. The contents in titration flask was titrated with 0.002M thiosulphate using starch as indicator.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeroxide value = (sample titre \u0026ndash;blank titer) x Molarity of Na2S2O3 standard solution x100 / weight of sample used\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePhytochemical screening\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative Determination of Phytochemicals Composition of the Samples Bioactive screening for alkaloids, anthraquinones, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, tannins and terpenoids were done.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for alkaloids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreshly prepared ethanolic extract of each sample (0.5 ml) was stirred with 5 ml of 1% aqueous hydrochloric acid on a steam bath. 1ml of the filtrate was treated with a few drops of Draggendorff\u0026rsquo;s reagent. Blue/black turbidity was taken as preliminary evidence for the presence of alkaloids in the extract being evaluated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for anthraquinones\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.3 ml) was mixed with 10% ammonia solution. Pink color precipitation indicates the presence of Anthraquinones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for coumarins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.3ml) was mixed with distilled water (10ml). Drops of 10% sodium hydroxide was added to the mixture. Formation of yellow color shows the presence of coumarins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTests flavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.3 ml) was mixed with 0.03ml of distilled water, 1ml of 2 N Sodium Hydroxide was added. Yellow color indicates flavonoids color.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for phenols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrops of 10% ferric chloride was mixed with 0.5ml freshly prepared ethanolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eextract of sample. Formation of blue or green color shows presence of phenol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for saponins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ability of saponins to produce frothing in aqueous solution was used as screening test for saponins. Freshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.5 ml) was shaken with 5ml of distilled water in a test tube. Absence of frothing shows the absence of saponins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for tannins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreshly prepared ethanolic extract of sample (0.5 ml) was stirred with about 10ml distilled water, it was filtered, and ferric chloride was added to the filtrate. A blue-black green precipitate was taken as evidence for presence of tannins while no change in color means absence of tannins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest for terpenoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreshly prepared ethanoic extract of sample (0.5 ml) was mixed with 1ml of chloroform Concentrated H2SO4 (15ml) was carefully added to the solution to form a thin layer. The presence of a reddish-brown coloration at the interface gave a positive result for terpenoids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePhysical parameters Analysis Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Physical parameters analysis results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical parameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlip point \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmoke point \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlash point \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e232.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFire point \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e299\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear point \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMelting point \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRefractive index (RI) at 25\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViscosity (MPa.s)/Spindle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49620\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5067.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A- Unrefined Shea butter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B- Refined Shea butter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSlip point\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results show a higher slip point for unrefined Shea butter (32.78\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC) compared to refined Shea butter (29.58\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC). These results are generally considered good and fall within acceptable ranges for Shea butter. The typical slip point for Shea butter is 27-38\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. Therefore, both samples are within the regulatory standards. The difference in slip points is primarily due to the refining process. Refining involves heating and filtering, which can alter the chemical composition and crystal structure of the butter, resulting in a lower slip point (Abdel-Razek \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e ., 2023). This change contributes to the distinct properties of each type of Shea butter (Abdel-Razek \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e ., 2023). The slip point directly influences the physical properties of Shea butter (Uwadia O.E., 2019). Unrefined Shea butter has a higher slip point, meaning it remains solid at a higher temperature (Uwadia O.E., 2019). This makes it feel slightly firmer at room temperature and less prone to melting in warmer conditions (Uwadia O.E., 2019). This property makes it excellent for body butters and balms where a firm texture is desired while Refined Shea butter has a lower slip point, which makes it softer and easier to spread at a lower temperature (Uwadia O.E., 2019). This characteristic makes it suitable for lotions and creams, as it gives the product a smooth, luxurious feel upon application to the skin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSmoke Point\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis show that unrefined Shea butter has a smoke point of 87.15\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC, while refined Shea butter has a significantly higher smoke point of 101.85\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. The refining process removes impurities, free fatty acids, and other volatile components that have lower smoking temperatures (Kolawole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). The presence of these impurities in the unrefined Shea butter is what causes it to smoke at a much lower temperature (Ramroudi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). The results are within the general range for smoke point in Shea butter, but they are on the lower end, especially for the unrefined sample. Some literature indicates that refined Shea butter can have a smoke point as high as 211\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:C\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e to 233\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. The typical smoke point for Refined Shea butter is within 250\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:C\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Higher flash point) while in unrefined Shea butter it can be lower (e.g., 211\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:C-244^\\circ\\:C\\:in\\:studies)\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, often due to impurities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe values obtained in this analysis, while valid for the specific samples, are indicative of the significant impact that the refining process has on the butter's thermal stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFlash Point\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe unrefined Shea butter exhibited a flash point of 182.1\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC, while the refined Shea butter had a significantly higher value of 232.4\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. This substantial difference of over 50\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:C\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003edemonstrates that the refining process removes volatile impurities and free fatty acids, which lowers the substance's flammability and greatly improves its thermal stability. These results are highly favorable, as a higher flash point indicates a safer product to handle, especially in manufacturing processes involving heat. The values are well within a safe operational range, confirming that both are suitable for use, though the refined butter provides a much greater safety margin. This parameter's implication is that refined Shea butter is the more advisable choice for applications that require high-temperature processing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFire Point\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe unrefined Shea butter had a fire point of 211.2\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC, while the refined Shea butter had a significantly higher fire point of 299\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. The remarkable nearly 88\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:C\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003edifference reinforces the earlier flash point findings and confirms the superior thermal stability of the refined product. The refining process has effectively removed the most combustible components, making the refined Shea butter far less likely to sustain a fire (Adewole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). From a safety and handling perspective, this makes the refined variety unequivocally the better option for any application where thermal stress or fire risk is a concern.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClear point\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis revealed that the unrefined Shea butter has a clear point of 39.2\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. Where as the refined Shea butter has a lower clear point of 34.6\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC. This difference, though smaller than the flash and fire points, is significant in practical application. The lower clear point of the refined butter is a direct consequence of the refining process, which alters the composition by removing certain high-melting-point triglycerides and impurities (Alhassan and Adekole, 2016). This results in a product that melts more easily and quickly on contact with the skin, a desirable characteristic for many cosmetic formulations (Alhassan and Adekole, 2016). The results obtained for both samples are well within the acceptable ranges for Shea butter and are not subject to specific regulatory standards, as this parameter is primarily related to product functionality rather than safety. The clear point directly contributes to the sensory properties of the Shea butter, with the lower temperature of the refined variety providing a smoother, less grainy texture and a more luxurious feel on the skin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the higher clear point of the unrefined butter means it will maintain its solid form at slightly higher ambient temperatures, which can be an advantage for products intended for use in warmer climates (Ogbolu and Oluwole, 2018). The choice between refined and unrefined Shea butter, based on the clear point, depends on the desired final product texture. If a smooth, quick-melting consistency is required for lotions, creams, or whipped body butters, the refined Shea butter is more suitable (Ogbolu and Oluwole, 2018). However, if a firmer, more stable butter is needed, the unrefined variety is a better choice. The implications of these results highlight a key trade-off the refining process sacrifices a degree of natural thermal stability for enhanced functionality and a more aesthetically pleasing texture (Akihisa, 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMelting point\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this analysis, the unrefined Shea butter was found to have a melting point of 30\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC, while the refined Shea butter had a slightly lower melting point of 28.3\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:^\\circ\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eC.. There are no specific regulatory standards for the melting point of edible fats and oils, as this parameter is more indicative of functional quality and application rather than safety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lower melting point of the refined Shea butter is a direct result of the refining process, which removes impurities and alters the triglyceride composition, leading to a product that melts more easily and quickly (Honfo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2010). This characteristic significantly contributes to its properties by giving it a smoother, less grainy texture and making it more readily absorbed by the skin (Goumbri \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). In contrast, the slightly higher melting point of the unrefined butter contributes to its characteristic firmness and can make it feel a bit waxier (Macridachis \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2025). Based on these findings, the choice between the two varieties depends on the intended application. For cosmetic and personal care products where a luxurious, fast-absorbing, and non-greasy feel is desired, the refined Shea butter is the more advisable option, its lower melting point ensures a pleasant sensory experience (Saba \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRefractive index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe unrefined and refined Shea butter samples were found to have an identical refractive index of 12.5. This result is significant because it indicates that despite the refining process, the core chemical composition of the Shea butter, particularly its fatty acid profile, was not significantly altered. The results obtained are considered excellent from a quality control perspective. While the given value may fall outside the typical range for Shea butter, the critical finding for this comparative study is the consistency and lack of change between the two samples. This identical result suggests that the refining process was efficient in removing impurities and volatile components without damaging or altering the fundamental lipid structure of the butter (Kanwaljit \u003cem\u003eet\u003c/em\u003e al., 2021). The refractive index does not contribute to the sensory properties of the Shea butter, such as its texture or feel (Olaniyan and Oje, 2023). Its main purpose is to serve as a marker of identity and purity (Essengue \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). Since the values for both samples are identical, based on this parameter alone, there is no basis to advise going for one over the other. The implications of these results are that the refining process is a physical rather than a chemical one, at least in terms of altering the core molecular makeup.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eViscosity (MPa.s)/Spindle\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the samples yielded a dramatic difference: the unrefined Shea butter had a viscosity of 49620 MPa.s, while the refined Shea butter had a significantly lower viscosity of 5067.33 MPa.s. This marked decrease in viscosity, approximately a ten-fold reduction, is a direct and expected result of the refining process. These results are not inherently \"good\" or \"bad,\" but they are crucial indicators of the product's functional properties. There are no specific regulatory standards for the viscosity of Shea butter, as it is a characteristic that is optimized for specific applications. The difference in viscosity directly contributes to the distinct properties and user experience of each type of butter. The high viscosity of the unrefined Shea butter accounts for its dense, firm, and often grainy texture, which can make it more challenging to work with in formulations. Conversely, the much lower viscosity of the refined Shea butter is what gives it a consistently smooth, creamy, and easily spreadable consistency, which is highly desirable for cosmetic and personal care products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on these results, the choice between the two varieties is application-dependent. For manufacturers of products such as body lotions, creams, and balms where a smooth, uniform texture and easy application are prioritized, the refined Shea butter is the more advisable option. For a consumer seeking a more rustic, dense product that feels raw and unprocessed, the unrefined version would be preferable. The implications of this significant difference in viscosity highlight how the refining process is a deliberate engineering of the butter's physical properties. It demonstrates that refining transforms the butter from a firm, dense natural product into a commercially optimized ingredient with superior rheological properties, designed to meet the demands of modern cosmetic formulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDensity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the samples revealed a density of 0.95 for the unrefined Shea butter and a very similar density of 0.96 for the refined Shea butter. This minimal difference between the two samples is a positive finding. It indicates that the refining process did not significantly alter the fundamental mass-to-volume ratio of the butter, suggesting that it is primarily a purification process rather than a substantive chemical transformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results obtained are well within the typical range for vegetable fats and oils and are considered acceptable. There are no specific regulatory standards that mandate a particular density for Shea butter, as this parameter is primarily used for verification and quality control rather than for direct application-based performance. Given the near-identical density values, this parameter does not contribute significantly to the functional or sensory properties of the Shea butter in a way that would make one variety more advisable than the other. The decision to use either refined or unrefined Shea butter cannot be based on density, but rather on other properties like viscosity and melting point, which show a more significant difference and are more relevant to product formulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary implication of these results is that the refining process is highly effective at removing impurities and enhancing the butter's safety and sensory profile without compromising its core structural integrity. The consistent density across both samples serves as evidence that the essential nature of the Shea butter is preserved, confirming that the refining process is a refinement of physical attributes rather than a chemical modification of its fundamental mass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec34\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProximate Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Proximate Analysis results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical parameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fat (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.967\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fibre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.833\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A- Unrefined Shea butter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B- Refined Shea butter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMoisture Content\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results indicate that the refined Shea butter sample has a slightly lower moisture content (0.93%) than the unrefined sample (1.008%). This is an expected outcome, as the refining process, particularly the deodorization step which involves heating under a vacuum, is effective at removing residual water (O'Brien, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) \u0026ldquo;2013\u0026rdquo; standard for Shea butter (NIS 888:2015) and the East African Standard (EAS 782:2013), the maximum permissible moisture and volatile matter content for Shea butter is 0.2%. Both the unrefined (1.008%) and refined (0.93%) samples in this study exceed this regulatory limit. This suggests that both products may be susceptible to microbial degradation and have a potentially shorter shelf life than ideal (Obibuzor \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016). The higher moisture content is a negative attribute for both samples, though the refined butter is marginally better (Anderson and Alander, 2018). The elevated levels could be due to improper processing, handling, or storage conditions (Naughton, 2021). For cosmetic and food applications, a lower moisture content is highly desirable to ensure stability and safety (Abayomi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). Therefore, based on this parameter, the refined Shea butter is slightly more advisable, although both samples fail to meet the established quality standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec36\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCrude Fat\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth the unrefined (97.967%) and refined (97.83%) Shea butter samples exhibited very high crude fat content, which is characteristic of Shea butter. The values are extremely close, indicating that the refining process did not significantly reduce the overall lipid content of the butter. Crude fat represents the total lipid content in a sample, which includes triglycerides, fatty acids, phospholipids, and other fat-soluble components. For Shea butter, the fat content is the primary and most valuable component, responsible for its characteristic moisturizing, emollient, and therapeutic properties (Honfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These results are consistent with findings in the literature, where the fat content of Shea butter is typically reported to be above 95% (Maranz \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2004). The high concentration of lipids, primarily triglycerides of stearic and oleic acids, confirms the product's identity and suitability for its common uses in skincare and food (Odoom \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). The slight difference between the two samples is negligible and likely falls within the range of experimental error. The high fat content is a positive and essential attribute for both Shea butter types (Agbede and Adebiyi, 2019). It confirms the authenticity and high quality of the base product in terms of its primary functional components. Since both values are excellent and very similar, there is no significant preference between refined and unrefined Shea butter based on this parameter alone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec37\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAsh Content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe refined Shea butter sample showed a lower ash content (0.007%) compared to the unrefined sample (0.014%). This result is logical, as the refining process (e.g., filtration, degumming, and bleaching) is specifically designed to remove non-lipid impurities, including inorganic materials. The lower ash value in the refined butter indicates a higher level of purity (Gunstone, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth values are very low, which is a positive quality indicator. However, the 50% reduction in ash content in the refined product highlights the effectiveness of the purification process. According to the Codex Alimentarius standard for edible fats and oils (CODEX STAN 210\u0026ndash;1999), specifications for impurities are stringent, and a lower value is always preferred. A low ash content is a positive quality attribute. The lower value in the refined sample suggests it is cleaner and freer from inorganic contaminants. Therefore, for applications where purity is paramount, such as in high-end cosmetics or pharmaceuticals, the refined Shea butter is more advisable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec38\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProtein Content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis revealed a very low protein content in both samples, which is typical for a lipid-based product. The unrefined Shea butter (0.43%) contained slightly more protein than the refined sample (0.4%). This marginal decrease in the refined butter is expected, as refining processes are designed to remove non-glyceride components, including proteins and mucilaginous materials (O'Brien, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile present in small quantities, these proteinaceous materials in unrefined butter may contribute to its characteristic aroma and color (Saka \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). However, they can also potentially be involved in browning reactions or degradation over time (Hassan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). The low protein content is normal for Shea butter. The slightly lower level in refined Shea butter points to its higher purity. From a stability and purity standpoint, the refined Shea butter is marginally better. However, for those who prefer a more natural product with all its original components intact, the unrefined version may be preferred.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec39\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbohydrate Content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carbohydrate content was found to be a minor fraction in both samples. Interestingly, the calculated carbohydrate value was higher in the refined Shea butter (0.833%) compared to the unrefined sample (0.581%). This result is counterintuitive, as one would expect the refining process to remove carbohydrates along with other impurities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis anomaly can likely be attributed to the nature of \"by difference\" calculation. Since fat is the overwhelming component (over 97%), even a very small experimental error in the measurement of fat or any other major component would lead to a larger relative error in the final calculated value for carbohydrate (Nielsen, 2010). It is therefore possible that this difference is not chemically significant but rather an artifact of cumulative experimental variations. Carbohydrates are minor components and are not functionally important in Shea butter. Given the potential for calculation error, it is difficult to draw a firm conclusion based on this parameter. Therefore, this result has little bearing on the choice between unrefined and refined Shea butter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChemical Parameters\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Chemical Parameters results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical Parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIodine Value (g of iodine/ 100 fat)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaponification (mg KOH/g fat)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e228.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e186.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcid value (mg KOH/g fat)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeroxide value (meq O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/kg fat)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFFA (%Oleic acid)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A- Unrefined Shea butter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B- Refined Shea butter\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIodine Value (IV)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results obtained for both the unrefined (1.75) and refined (2.37) samples are exceptionally low. Standard literature and regulatory specifications for Shea butter report an iodine value typically ranging from 55 to 72 g iodine/100g (Codex Alimentarius, 2017; Honfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The values from this study are significantly outside this range, which may suggest a potential error in the titration procedure, reagent preparation, or an issue with the samples themselves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, comparing the two results relatively, the refined butter shows a slightly higher Iodine value. This is an anomalous finding, as refining processes are not expected to increase the number of double bonds. This minor difference is likely attributable to experimental variance (Bello \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017). Given the profound deviation from established norms, these Iodine value results should be interpreted with caution. The expected low Iodine value range for Shea butter (relative to liquid oils like soybean oil) confirms its solid nature at room temperature, which is due to a high concentration of saturated fatty acids like stearic acid (Musa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017). Due to the significant discrepancy with standard values, it is difficult to draw a firm conclusion. Based on established data, both samples should have a much higher IV. No preference can be assigned based on these anomalous results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSaponification Value (SV)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe saponification value for the refined Shea butter (182.56 mg KOH/g) falls well within the typical range specified by regulatory bodies like the Codex Alimentarius (178\u0026ndash;190 mg KOH/g) and the East African Standard (178\u0026ndash;198 mg KOH/g). This confirms the identity of the fat as Shea butter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the saponification value for the unrefined sample (228.83 mg KOH/g) is remarkably high and lies far outside the standard range. Such a high value would suggest a predominance of low molecular weight fatty acids, which is not characteristic of Shea butter. This could indicate the presence of other saponifiable impurities in the unrefined sample that were successfully removed during the refining process. The refining process has brought the SV back to a standard, acceptable value. The high SV of the unrefined butter is a negative quality indicator, suggesting impurity or alteration. The SV of the refined butter aligns perfectly with industry standards, confirming its authenticity. Therefore, based on this parameter, the refined Shea butter is highly advisable as it meets quality specifications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAcid Value (AV)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe acid value for the unrefined Shea butter (69.3 mg KOH/g) is extremely high, indicating a severe state of hydrolytic rancidity. This level is far above the maximum permissible limits set by standards. For instance, the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) specifies a maximum acid value of 10.0 mg KOH/g for Grade III (the lowest grade) raw Shea butter. This result suggests the unrefined sample is of very poor quality, possibly due to improper handling of the shea nuts, prolonged storage, or microbial action.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe refining process, which includes a neutralization step specifically designed to remove FFAs, has drastically reduced the acid value to 18.95 mg KOH/g. While this represents a significant improvement, this value is still considered high and exceeds the Codex limit for refined oils (typically max 0.6 mg KOH/g). Nonetheless, the reduction demonstrates the efficacy of refining in improving the quality of a degraded raw material. A high acid value is a major defect. The unrefined sample is unsuitable for most applications without prior processing. The refined sample, while not perfect, is of substantially better quality. Based on this critical parameter, the refined Shea butter is unequivocally the more advisable choice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePeroxide Value (PV)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe peroxide values for both the unrefined (2.26 meq O₂/kg) and refined (2.09 meq O₂/kg) samples are low. According to the Codex Alimentarius standard, the maximum PV for virgin fats is 15 meq O₂/kg, and for refined fats is 10 meq O₂/kg. Both samples are well within these limits, indicating that they are not significantly oxidized and are relatively fresh in terms of primary oxidation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe slightly lower PV in the refined sample is a positive attribute. Refining processes can remove pro-oxidants (like certain metals) and primary oxidation products, thereby enhancing the oxidative stability of the final product (O'Brien, 2008). The low PV is a positive attribute for both samples. It suggests good initial quality with respect to oxidation. The refined Shea butter is marginally better. Based on this parameter, both butters are acceptable, but the refined product shows slightly better potential for stability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFree Fatty Acid (FFA) Content\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFree Fatty Acid (FFA) content is a direct measurement of the free fatty acids resulting from the hydrolysis of triglycerides. It is directly related to the acid value and is often expressed as the percentage of the predominant fatty acid in the oil, which for Shea butter is oleic acid. Like acid value, it is a key indicator of quality and hydrolytic degradation. The FFA results correlate with the trend observed in the acid value analysis. The unrefined Shea butter has a high FFA content of 3.49%. According to the SON standard for Shea butter, this value places the sample in Grade III, which is the lowest quality grade designated for non-edible industrial purposes (max FFA of 3.0% for this grade is slightly exceeded). In contrast, the refined Shea butter has a much lower FFA of 0.95%. This value meets the specification for Grade I Shea butter (max FFA of 1.0%), making it suitable for cosmetic and edible applications. This demonstrates the primary benefit of the refining process: to convert a low-grade raw material into a high-quality, stable product by removing undesirable free fatty acids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh FFA content is detrimental to the quality, flavor, and stability of the butter. The unrefined sample is of low grade. The refined sample is of high grade. Therefore, for any application requiring high purity and stability, such as cosmetics or food, the refined Shea butter is strongly recommended.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhytochemical Screening\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Phytochemical Qualitative Analysis results conducted on refined and unrefined Shea butter.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytochemical Screening\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaponin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTannin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlkaloid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCardiac glycoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTerpenoid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e+ - Present\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e- Absent\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaponins are naturally occurring plant glycosides known for their ability to form a soap-like foam when agitated in water. They are a major component of the unsaponifiable fraction of Shea butter and are highly valued for their therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and skin-soothing effects (Honfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of saponins in the unrefined Shea butter is an expected and highly positive result. It confirms that the butter retains its natural, bioactive unsaponifiable fraction, which is responsible for many of its renowned healing and protective qualities (Akihisa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2010). Conversely, the absence of saponins in the refined sample is also an expected outcome. The industrial refining process (neutralization, bleaching, deodorization) purifies the fat but in doing so, removes most of the non-lipid components, including these beneficial saponins (O'Brien, 2008). The presence of saponins makes unrefined Shea butter a functional ingredient with therapeutic value. The refined butter, lacking these compounds, acts primarily as a simple emollient (moisturizer). For any application where anti-inflammatory, skin-soothing, or healing properties are important, unrefined Shea butter is the superior and more advisable choice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTannin\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe absence of tannins in both the unrefined and refined Shea butter samples is a neutral to positive finding. Shea butter is not typically known to be a significant source of tannins. Their absence is beneficial for cosmetic and food applications as it means the butter is non-astringent and less likely to cause bitterness or protein precipitation. Tannins are a class of water-soluble polyphenolic compounds known for their astringent (causing contraction of skin cells and other body tissues) properties. In high concentrations, they can act as anti-nutritional factors or cause irritation, though in some applications, their astringent quality is desired (Okeke and Elekwa, 2013). This result confirms the suitability of both types of butter for general use without the potential drawbacks of tannins. As both samples tested negative, there is no preference between refined and unrefined Shea butter based on this parameter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhenol\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhenols (or phenolic compounds) are a large group of chemical compounds characterized by a hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring. In plants, they act as antioxidants, protecting against oxidative stress. Phenolic compounds in Shea butter, such as gallic acid and cinnamic acid esters, are credited with its antioxidant and UV-B absorbing properties (Maranz \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2004). The negative result for phenols in both samples is highly unexpected and contradicts a large body of scientific literature that has consistently identified various phenolic compounds in Shea butter. This discrepancy strongly suggests a limitation in the analytical method used.. While the test result was negative, it is scientifically established that unrefined Shea butter contains beneficial phenols (Maranz, 2005). These are largely removed during refining. Based on established literature, unrefined Shea butter would be advisable for its antioxidant properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAlkaloid\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe presence of alkaloids in both samples indicates that these compounds are natural constituents of the shea kernel (Onyenweaku \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2014). The fact that they persisted through the refining process suggests they are either heat-stable or fat-soluble (Essien \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e ., 2016). The specific alkaloids and their concentrations are unknown from this test, but their presence in a product with a long history of safe use implies they are in trace, non-toxic amounts (Tella \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). This is a characteristic finding for the source material.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFlavonoid\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilar to the result for general phenols, the negative result for flavonoids is surprising. Given that flavonoids are a subclass of phenols and are known to be present in Shea butter, this result is most likely due to the low sensitivity of the qualitative test or interference from the fatty sample matrix. It is highly probable that flavonoids are present, especially in the unrefined sample, but at levels below the detection limit of the screening method. As with the phenol result, this finding is likely a false negative due to methodological limitations. Based on the broader scientific consensus that unrefined Shea butter contains these beneficial antioxidants, unrefined Shea butter would be the recommended choice for applications requiring antioxidant activity (Adegoke and Olaniyan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCardiac Glycoside\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe absence of cardiac glycosides in both samples is an important and positive safety finding. It confirms that both unrefined and refined Shea butter are free from these potentially toxic compounds, making them safe for cosmetic and edible use (Oyekanmi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). This result confirms the safety of both products. As both tested negative, there is no preference between refined and unrefined Shea butter on the basis of this parameter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTerpenoid\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTerpenoids (or terpenes) are a very large and diverse class of naturally occurring organic chemicals. In Shea butter, the most important terpenoids are the triterpene alcohols (e.g., lupeol, amyrin, butyrospermol) and their cinnamic acid esters. These compounds are a major part of the unsaponifiable fraction and are scientifically proven to have strong anti-inflammatory and chemo-preventive properties (Akihisa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2010). This is another highly unexpected negative result. The triterpene alcohols are cornerstone compounds of Shea butter's healing fraction. Their apparent absence in the unrefined sample is almost certainly an artifact of the testing method. The qualitative test used was likely unsuitable or not sensitive enough to detect these specific lipid-soluble terpenoids within the butter matrix. The presence of these anti-inflammatory terpenoids is a key reason for using unrefined Shea butter. Refining is known to remove a significant portion of them. Therefore, despite the test result, unrefined Shea butter is the strongly advisable choice for anyone seeking the well-documented anti-inflammatory benefits of the product.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eRefined Shea butter is concluded to be the more suitable product for industrial and commercial use (e.g., in mass-produced cosmetics or food processing) due to its superior stability, improved melt profile, and desirable, low-viscosity texture. The refining process successfully removes most impurities and volatile components, yielding a consistent and stable ingredient. Unrefined Shea butter is concluded to be the preferred choice for therapeutic and natural cosmetic applications where the maximum health benefit is sought, as it retains the saponins and is expected to retain higher concentrations of other beneficial triterpene alcohols, which are crucial for the product's renowned anti-inflammatory and emollient properties.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study did not involve human participants or animals. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used during the current study are present in the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Oluwafemi Alex Afolabi designed the study, collected the data, and performed the formal analysis under the supervision of Mobolaji Omiye Aduloju. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Oluwafemi Alex Afolabi. Mobolaji Omiye Aduloju provided critical comments and revisions on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge the Department of Chemical Sciences, Bamidele Olumilua University of Education, Science and Technology (BOUESTI), Ikere-Ekiti, for providing laboratory facilities and technical support for this research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbaide, A. S., Souza, A. G., Borba, K. C., \u0026amp; Chiavelli, L. U. R. (2021). 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Processing of shea nuts and chemical composition of Shea butter. \u003cem\u003eFood Research International\u003c/em\u003e, 66, 45\u0026ndash;52.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKittiphoom, S. (2012). Utilization of Shea butter in food and cosmetics. \u003cem\u003eInternational Food Research Journal\u003c/em\u003e, 19(1), 456\u0026ndash;460.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e.Muhammad, N., Bamishaiye, E. I., \u0026amp; Olayemi, F. F. (2011). Physicochemical properties of Shea butter. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Science and Nature, 2(3), 457\u0026ndash;460.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eObibuzor, J. U., Anyasor, G. N., Ekpe, G., \u0026amp; Idung, J. (2013). Solvent extraction of shea fat. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, 13(1), 45\u0026ndash;49.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOjo, O. A., \u0026amp; Adebayo, A. H. (2012). Quality characteristics of Nigerian Shea butter. \u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Food Science\u003c/em\u003e, 6(21), 512\u0026ndash;515.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePande, G., \u0026amp; Akoh, C. C. (2010). Enzymatic modification of shea stearin. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, 58(9), 5346\u0026ndash;5351.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSalimon, J., Ahmed, A., \u0026amp; Mohd, N. (2012). Physicochemical characteristics of Malaysian Shea butter. \u003cem\u003eJournal of the American Oil Chemists\u0026rsquo; Society\u003c/em\u003e, 89(3), 537\u0026ndash;542.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSarkar, A., \u0026amp; Singh, R. P. (2021). Oxidation and peroxide formation in edible oils. \u003cem\u003eCritical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition\u003c/em\u003e, 61(5), 759\u0026ndash;776.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Shea butter, Refined, Unrefined, Ekiti State, Proximate Composition, Physical Properties, Phytochemicals, Saponification Value, Thermal Stability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8492061/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8492061/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study conducted a comparative assessment of refined and unrefined Shea butter sourced from Ekiti State, Nigeria, to evaluate the distinct differences in their functional properties, proximate composition, and phytochemical profiles. The main objective was to determine how the refining process alters the butter's characteristics and to provide insights into their optimal application in cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical industries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis focused on proximate components, key physical parameters (slip point, melting point, viscosity), chemical properties (acid, saponification, iodine, and peroxide values), and phytochemical constituents. The results confirmed that the refining process caused significant differences in product quality and function. Refined Shea butter (Sample B) demonstrated superior thermal stability, exhibiting a significantly higher Flash Point (232.4\u0026deg;C) and Fire Point (299\u0026deg;C) compared to unrefined Shea butter (182.1\u0026deg;C and 211.2\u0026deg;C, respectively), making it safer for high-heat industrial processes. The refining process also resulted in a ten-fold reduction in viscosity (5067.33 MPa.s vs. 49620 MPa.s) and yielded chemical values, such as the Saponification Value (179.79 mg KOH/g), that were within standard regulatory limits, unlike the unrefined sample (228.83 mg KOH/g).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, unrefined Shea butter (Sample A) retained its natural therapeutic potential, confirmed by the presence of beneficial saponins (+), which were removed during refining (-). While both samples exhibited excellent oxidative stability, with low peroxide values well below the maximum standard (2.26 and 2.09 meq O₂/kg), the unrefined butter is preferred for applications where natural nutrient retention and traditional properties are desired.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, refined Shea butter is functionally superior for applications requiring low viscosity, enhanced stability, and high-heat processing, while unrefined Shea butter offers greater natural bioactivity and therapeutic properties. This comparative assessment provides essential data for quality standardization and informed consumer choice within the Ekiti Shea butter value chain.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Comparative Assessment of Refined and Unrefined Shea butter in Ekiti","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-13 07:14:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8492061/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2f01a4f2-3272-454c-be92-15b6be1a2fad","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 13th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-29T09:10:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-13 07:14:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8492061","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8492061","identity":"rs-8492061","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}