Academic stress in university students: self-perceived levels and modulation in the relationship with pets

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Gijón, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5691042/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Introduction: Academic stress and its reduction, often associated with early dropout rates, has become a key issue on the agenda of international higher education policies. Purpose: The research presented here addresses this problem through the analysis of the Stress Less. Take my Paws project, a dog-assisted therapy initiative implemented at the University of Granada. Specifically, the study aims to establish baseline academic stress levels in samples from the University of Extremadura (serving as the control group) and the University of Granada (where the Stress Less. Take my Paws program will be applied). Method: With a total sample size of N = 1097 (827 in the control group and 270 in the intervention group), the study administered the STAI (Trait and State Anxiety Inventory), DASS-21, and additional questions about participants' relationships with pet. The results indicate: a) the reliability of the applied tests for anxiety, stress, and depression; b) a normal distribution of scores in both the control and intervention groups (pre-intervention) and the absence of significant differences between the two groups regarding stress levels, anxiety, and depressive symptoms; and c) no significant differences between individuals who regularly interact with dogs and those who do not (significant differences were found between dog owners and owners of other types of pets). Conclusión: The relevance of these findings is discussed, highlighting the homogeneity between the control and intervention groups, which will enable various studies on the impact of the Stress Less. Take my Paws program. Academic stress Dog-assisted therapy STAI DASS-21 Self-perceived stress Introduction The increase in academic stress is becoming recognized as a significant health challenge for society at large. Universities are not exempt from this issue. Both academics [1] and university students [2] experience heightened levels of anxiety and stress, particularly during exam periods, when academic stress manifests most intensely. This stress can be linked to pre-existing educational needs or may lead to conditions associated with depression and other mental health problems [3–5]. Examinations and tests are a longstanding tradition in higher education. With predetermined times, locations, and formats, students are aware of when they will be "tested" and prepare in the way they find most appropriate [6]. However, a certain degree of uncertainty varying depending on the type of student, their dedication to studying, and the presence of various emotional factors [7] often leads to elevated stress levels and the onset of anxiety symptoms [8]. Ultimately, an exam or evaluative test represents an asymmetrical relationship for the student, assessing not only their knowledge but also their social performance [8–11]. This dynamic influences not only their grades but also their self-perception [10, 11]. In the university context, recent research conducted in Europe, the United States, and Canada, as well as in other parts of the world, such as Australia [12, 13]; Malaysia [14] or Pakistán [15], has confirmed a general phenomenon: during exam periods, not only do psychological distress and stress levels rise among students, but this often has a measurable impact on their mental health [16]. Stress, anxiety, and depression, as factors influencing early dropout decisions, highlight the significant social and economic impact of elevated stress levels both internationally and within Spain [17–20]. As a result, student health and well-being have been incorporated into the agendas of university policies [21, 22], Various programs have been implemented to reduce student stress and exam anxiety [23, 24]. The literature provides examples of diverse approaches to tackling academic stress. Psychological interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), the creation of specific spaces for relaxation and meditation, and the provision of areas for eating or cooperative work while studying have been established. These initiatives often involve adapting existing university architecture and infrastructure or designing new learning spaces to support these efforts [18]. Notwithstanding, one of the most prominent innovations currently gaining attention in the literature and media is the use of domestic animals, particularly dogs, on university campuses for interaction with students [25]. This approach parallels the therapeutic use of animals in other areas, such as providing care to patients in hospitals or at home, supporting older adults, and assisting individuals with physical or intellectual disabilities [26–28] The idea of using simple interactions with dogs as therapy in various aspects of human life is supported by decades of research across multiple disciplines. It is important to recognize that the relationship between humans and dogs has a long shared history—at least fifteen thousand years in Europe, twelve thousand years in the Far East, and ten thousand years in the Americas, according to the latest archaeological findings [29, 30]. This shared history has fostered countless interactions, joint endeavors, and processes of selection and coevolution, resulting in the development of various breeds with diverse purposes and functionalities. Currently, the presence of dogs as pets—particularly in urban environments—has become widespread, and their role in providing emotional support to the people they live with has grown in importance within our increasingly technologized society. Recent studies [31] highlight the influence of genetics on the tendency to own dogs and point to their significant impact on improving the health of individuals who live with these animals. Numerous universities have implemented initiatives aimed at reducing student stress through dog-assisted activities. Notable examples of these innovations can be found at institutions such as Yale and Harvard, which offer relaxation rooms with dogs where students can visit and unwind by interacting with the animals [32]. Among the universities that have made significant progress in this innovative approach, Kennesaw State University in Georgia stands out with its Animal on Campus program [33] as does Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, which describes itself as “The pet-friendliest campus on the planet.” Similarly, McGill University Library’s initiative [34] which integrates learning environments with the library, has served as a primary model for our pilot innovation project at the Faculty of Education Sciences at the University of Granada. Our program, titled StressLess. Take my Paws , was launched in 2018 and is designed to reduce exam-related stress through student-dog interaction. The program includes at least three relaxation sessions with trained dogs and their handlers during the weeks leading up to exams, with one session scheduled within 24 hours of a final exam. The interaction takes place in a seated or reclining position on the floor, where groups of two to four dogs and five to seven students come together. Students gently pet the dogs while engaging in conversations with the trainers about the dogs' behavior and their training work. This structured yet informal setting fosters relaxation and helps students manage the stress associated with high-pressure academic periods [35, 4]. In Spain, these types of programs have yet to become widespread. Among the pioneering initiatives is the Compludog project at the Complutense University of Madrid, supported by the Affinity Foundation [36]. Another notable example is a study conducted at the University of Jaén, which examined the psychological effects of inducing stress in students and the role of dogs in alleviating these effects during the process [37]. The most advanced reference in Spain is the Animal-Assisted Intervention Office at Rey Juan Carlos University. This office coordinates all animal-assisted activities carried out by the university, both on campus and through outreach initiatives in hospitals, educational centers, and programs for the elderly [38]. As part of the project "Effects of the application of a dog-assisted activities program (DAA) on the levels of academic stress in university students. Acronym LWS (Learning Without Stress). DAAP" (Ref. PID2021-128774OB-100), which aims to analyze the potential impact of the Stress Less. Take my Paws program on academic stress, the objective of this research was to establish baseline stress levels in a sample of undergraduate students from the Universities of Granada and Extremadura. Additionally, the study sought to gather evidence on the potential influence of pet ownership or cohabitation on students' stress and anxiety levels. Method Participants The sample for this study consisted of a total of 1,097 valid participants, with 56% from the University of Granada and 44% from the University of Extremadura. The gender distribution was as follows: 238 men (21.7%) and 859 women (78.3%), aligning with the typical gender proportions for fields related to education and psychology. Participant ages ranged from 18 to 61 years ( M = 21.23; SD = 4.30). In terms of residence, participants hailed from various Spanish cities, with Badajoz (20.9%) and Granada (28.9%) being the most representative. Regarding educational level, 98.8% of participants were pursuing higher education, primarily in undergraduate programs in Education and Psychology. Specifically, 94.2% were enrolled in bachelor’s programs, 4.1% in master’s programs, and 0.2% in doctoral studies. A small percentage were combining their studies with work (1.0%) or were retired (0.1%). Additionally, 37.9% of the participants lived with pets, predominantly dogs. Measures STAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) developed by Spielberger et al., 1971 [39] and validated in Spain by Seisdedos (1982) [40] was used. This instrument consists of 40 items, divided into two subscales of 20 items each: each: State Anxiety (State) : This subscale measures the level of anxiety an individual feels at a specific moment, reflecting a temporary emotional response to stressful situations. Ten of the items are reverse-scored. An example of an item is, “I feel calm.” Trait Anxiety (Trait) : This subscale evaluates the general tendency of an individual to perceive situations as threatening, reflecting a stable personality characteristic. Seven of the items are reverse-scored. An example of an item is, “I worry too much about things that really aren’t important.” Items from the State Anxiety subscale are presented with the instruction: “Please indicate how you feel right now,” while items from the Trait Anxiety subscale are introduced with: “Please indicate how you generally feel.” Responses are recorded using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ( Not at all ) to 4 ( Very much ). The reported reliability of the STAI is high, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .909 for the Trait Anxiety subscale and .930 for the State Anxiety subscale. DASS-21: Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale To assess levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) was used, developed by Lovibond and Lovibond [41] and adapted to the Spanish context by Bados et al. [42]. This instrument consists of 21 items, evenly distributed across three subscales: Depression : This subscale evaluates symptoms of depression, such as the inability to experience pleasure in typically enjoyable activities. An example item is, "I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all." Anxiety : This subscale measures symptoms of anxiety, including physical and emotional responses to stress. An example item is, "I felt I was having difficulty breathing." Stress : This subscale assesses symptoms related to tension and the inability to relax. An example item is, "I felt agitated and worried." The items are introduced with the instruction: "Please read each statement and select the response that best describes how you have felt over the past week." Responses are recorded on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 ( Did not apply to me at all ) to 3 ( Applied to me very much or most of the time ). The reported reliability of the DASS-21 is high, with Cronbach’s alpha values of .899 for the depression subscale, .868 for the anxiety subscale, and .854 for the stress subscale. Questions on pet ownership and interaction In addition to the aforementioned instruments, a series of questions were included to better understand participants' relationships and cohabitation with their pets. These questions explored various aspects of their lives with companion animals: Pet ownership : Participants were asked whether they currently live with a pet. Species : The species of the pet was identified (e.g., dog, cat, or other). Relationship with the animal : Participants were asked to describe their perception of their relationship with their pet (e.g., as a companion, guide, protector, etc.). Sleeping habits of the pet : Participants were asked whether their pet sleeps with them or in a different location. Pet's daytime location : Information was collected on where the pet spends most of its day. 6. Interactions with the pet: Frequency of petting the animal. Frequency of walking the pet. Frequency of playing with the pet. 7. Training and activities: Frequency of training the pet in obedience or for competitions. Frequency of taking the pet along during outdoor activities. These questions provided a comprehensive view of the participants' cohabitation and interactions with their pets, offering valuable context for interpreting results related to the levels of anxiety, depression, and stress measured by the STAI and DASS-21 instruments. Procedure This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada, with a favorable report registered under the number 3126/CEIH/2023, ensuring that all procedures complied with ethical standards for research involving human participants. Data collection began with contacting various faculties to request their collaboration in the study. A detailed explanation of the purpose and procedures of the research was provided to the academic authorities of each faculty to secure their participation. Once institutional approval was obtained, the research team proceeded with administering the psychometric instruments and additional questions related to pet ownership. Data were collected during class sessions, after obtaining informed consent from the students, ensuring that participation was completely voluntary and anonymous. Participants completed two primary scales: the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). Additionally, supplementary questions were included to assess their relationship and interactions with pets. The questionnaires were administered digitally using a Google® form under the direct supervision of the researchers. The surveys were preceded by a brief introduction explaining the purpose of the study and providing clear instructions on how to respond to each section. Participants were informed that they could choose not to answer any question or withdraw from the study at any time without any repercussions. The estimated time to complete all questionnaires was approximately 20 to 25 minutes, including the time needed to respond to the STAI and DASS-21 items, as well as the pet-related questions. During the completion of the surveys, the researchers were present to address any doubts and ensure participants clearly understood the questions, particularly those concerning their interactions and cohabitation with pets. Confidentiality and anonymity of responses were guaranteed for all participants. Completed questionnaires were collected anonymously and securely stored for subsequent analysis. Once collected, the data were digitized and stored in a secure database. Statistical analyses were performed to explore the relationships between pet ownership and levels of anxiety, depression, and stress, using appropriate analytical tools for this purpose. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated, and internal consistency indices were assessed using Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega, both of which demonstrated adequate reliability values with scores above .70 [43, 9]. Subsequently, convergent validity was analyzed by correlating the subscales of the STAI and DASS-21 to confirm that they measured related constructs as expected. Finally, various mean difference analyses were conducted using Student's t-tests and ANOVA to compare levels of stress, anxiety, and depression across different groups (e.g., pet owners vs. non-pet owners, different pet species, etc.). For this study, only results showing significant differences are presented due to space constraints. A significance level of p < .05 was applied for all statistical tests, which were performed using IBM SPSS v.29 software. Results Descriptive statistics Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlations between the two factors of the STAI and the three factors of the DASS-21. The average value for all analyzed variables was above the midpoint of their respective measurement scales. Reliability analyses indicated values exceeding .70 for each dimension, with scores ranging from .845 to .996. The multiple correlation analysis revealed significant positive correlations among the five constructs (r = .61 to .82, p < .001), supporting the convergent validity of the scales. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics, Reliability, and Correlational Analysis (Convergent Validity) Factors M DT α ω 1 2 3 4 5 1. F. State anxiety 1.24 .551 .930 .996 - .816 *** .643 *** .613 *** .661 *** 2. F. Trait anxiety 1.30 .554 .909 .995 - .717 *** .644 *** .654 *** 3. Depression .88 .694 .899 .984 - .743 *** .728 *** 4. Anxiety .88 .679 .868 .979 - .772 *** 5. Stress 1.20 .638 .854 .976 - *** p < .001 Categorization of participants by anxiety and stress levels To determine the levels of anxiety and stress among participants, a classification scheme based on the mean and standard deviation was applied, following the procedure described in Guillén-Riquelme's thesis [44] to establish cutoff points. The levels were defined as follows: Low Level: Scores below the mean minus one standard deviation. Medium Level: Scores between the mean minus one standard deviation and the mean plus one standard deviation. High Level: Scores above the mean plus one standard deviation. The distribution of participants across anxiety and stress levels is presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Distribution of the sample by categories of state anxiety, trait anxiety, and stress Category State anxiety Trait anxiety Stress General anxiety Low 187 175 158 241 Medium 734 736 752 744 Hight 176 186 187 112 The results indicate that the majority of participants fall within the medium level of anxiety and stress, suggesting a centralized distribution in the baseline study. General anxiety levels, calculated based on the mode of state and trait anxiety levels, confirm this trend, with a significant proportion of participants categorized at the medium level. One-way ANOVA Table 3 presents the results of the one-way ANOVA, including the sum of squares, degrees of freedom (df), mean square, F statistic, and significance value (Sig.). Table 3 One-way ANOVA results Variable Source of variation Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. State anxiety Between groups 1.976 2 0.988 3.082 0.047 Within groups 132.406 413 0.321 Total 134.382 415 Trait anxiety Between groups 0.939 2 0.469 1.525 0.219 Within groups 127.118 413 0.308 Total 128.057 415 Depression Between groups 1.136 2 0.568 1.165 0.313 Within groups 201.401 413 0.488 Total 202.537 415 Anxiety Between groups 2.880 2 1.440 2.941 0.054 Within groups 202.267 413 0.490 Total 205.147 415 Stress Between groups 2.727 2 1.363 3.170 0.043 Within groups 177.640 413 0.430 Total 180.367 415 The results indicate significant differences between pet types for State Anxiety ( p = 0.047) and Stress ( p = 0.043). No significant differences were found for Trait Anxiety, Depression, or Anxiety ( general ). Post-hoc analyses are required to determine which specific pet types show significant differences for State Anxiety and Stress. Post-hoc analysis Since the ANOVA revealed significant differences between pet types for State Anxiety and Stress, post-hoc analyses were conducted to identify the specific groups with significant differences. The Bonferroni post-hoc test was used due to unequal group sizes. Table 4 Multiple Comparisons for State Anxiety (Bonferroni Test) (I) Pet type (J) Pet type Mean difference (I-J) Stabdard error Sig. 95% CI (Lower-limit) Dog Cat -0.0666 0.07252 1.000 -0.2289 Other -0.1994* 0.08052 0.045 -0.3959 Cat Dog 0.0666 0.07252 1.000 -0.0957 Other -0.1328 0.10004 0.549 -0.3678 Other Dog 0.1994* 0.08052 0.045 0.0030 Cat 0.1328 0.10004 0.549 -0.1022 * p < 0.05. CI = Confidence Interval. The results (Table 4 ) indicate a significant difference in State Anxiety between dogs and other types of pets ( p = 0.045), with "other types of pets" exhibiting higher scores. No significant differences were found between dogs and cats or between cats and other types of pets. For Stress, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was applied to assess differences in Stress between pet types. The results are presented in Table 5 . Table 5 Multiple comparisons for Stress (Bonferroni Test) (I) Pet type (J) Pet type Mean difference (I-J) Stabdard error Sig. 95% CI (Lower-limit) Dog Cat -0.1539 0.08512 0.204 -0.3490 Oher -0.1937* 0.09455 0.041 -0.3815 Cat Dog 0.1539 0.08512 0.204 -0.0412 Othet -0.0398 0.11738 1.000 -0.3235 Other Dog 0.1937* 0.09455 0.041 0.0058 Cat 0.0398 0.11738 1.000 -0.2439 * p < 0.05. CI = Confidence Interval. The results indicate a significant difference in Stress between dogs and other types of pets ( p = 0.041), with "other types of pets" showing higher scores. No significant differences were found between dogs and cats or between cats and other types of pets. The post-hoc analysis revealed that the significant differences in State Anxiety and Stress are specifically between dogs and other types of pets, with "other types of pets" consistently exhibiting higher scores in both variables Pre-intervention analysis of results from the sample The results presented in Table 6 compare the means between two groups on variables related to psychological states, including depression, anxiety, stress, state anxiety, and trait anxiety. For future research, these groups will be defined as the experimental group (University of Granada, exposed to dog-assisted therapy sessions) and the control group (University of Extremadura, not exposed to dog-assisted therapy sessions). This setup will enable a more in-depth and comprehensive analysis of differences following the intervention. The absence of significant differences in the pre-intervention measures indicates that both groups share a comparable baseline before the implementation of the intervention. Table 6 Comparison of Means and t-Test for psychological variables between experimental and control groups Variable Group (N) Mean (SD) Experimental Mean (SD) Control F (Levene) Sig. (Levene) t (df) Sig. (2-tailed) Mean difference Std. error of difference 95% CI (Lower-Upper) Depression Experimental (270) / Control (827) 0.87 (0.72) 0.88 (0.69) 0.358 0,55 -0.279 (1095) 0.78 -0,014 0,049 -0.109–0.081 Anxiety Experimental (270) / Control (827) 0.82 (0.67) 0.89 (0.68) 0.44 0,507 -1.555 (1095) 0.12 -0,074 0,048 -0.167–0.019 Stress Experimental (270) / Control (827) 1.162 (0.64) 1.21 (0.64) 0.002 0,962 -0.984 (1095) 0.33 -0,044 0,044 -0.132–0.044 State anxiety Experimental (270) / Control (827) 1.25 (0.54) 1.23 (0.55) 0.082 0,775 0.515 (1095) 0.61 0,020 0,039 -0.056–0.096 Trait anxiety Experimental (270) / Control (827) 1.31 (0.53) 1.30 (0.56) 0.392 0,531 0.432 (1095) 0.67 0,017 0,039 -0.060–0.093 Discussion Firstly, and in general terms, we can assert that recent examples clearly indicate that the topics addressed in this study—academic stress and the use of dogs on campuses for assistance activities—are undeniably within the scope of interest for higher education policies and research on educational institutions from multiple perspectives. These topics are widely discussed in high-impact journals in educational, psychological, and medical research. For example, studies such as those by Haggerty and Mueller [45] have examined stress reduction programs in higher education using dog-assisted therapy. Similarly, McDonald, McDonald, and Roberts [46] investigated the effects of exposure to dogs prior to exams, while Rothkopf and Schworm [47] explored students' perceptions of well-being during dog-assisted interventions. In the Spanish context, the work of Peña, García, and Camilli [48] on the CompluDog project at the Complutense University has demonstrated how dog-assisted therapy can improve students' quality of life. Regarding the results of our research, the baseline for self-perceived stress reveals levels of stress and anxiety among university students that are consistent with findings from previous studies, both nationally and internationally. These results differentiate university students from clinical populations when applying instruments such as the DASS-21 or STAI. For instance, a cross-sectional study involving 520 students in Mexico found that 36.9% experienced some degree of depression, 19.9% anxiety, and 19.8% stress [49]. Another study conducted in Mexico confirmed the psychometric properties of the DASS-21 among health sciences students, presenting stress groups similar to those identified in our research [50]. Additionally, a meta-analysis of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) found it to be a sensitive tool for measuring anxiety levels and reliable in clinical populations, with significant differences observed between anxious patients and the general population, including university students [51]. It can be stated that there is solid evidence suggesting that university students' stress levels—outside the periods leading up to final exams—align with the distribution observed in the general population. However, when comparing different countries, it is important to consider that variations in semester breaks and final exam schedules may affect these comparisons. The relationship between stress and pet ownership—specifically with dogs in this case—is not homogeneous. While no significant differences were found in anxiety levels among students who regularly live with dogs, except in comparisons between those living with dogs and those living with other pets, some studies conducted post-pandemic present contrasting findings. These studies suggest that stress levels are lower among individuals living with dogs. For instance, studies conducted in Ecuador after the pandemic reveal significantly lower stress levels linked to empathy among students living with dogs, using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14) with a sample size one-third smaller than that of this study [52]. Similarly, using the same instrument and within the same geographical context, a study with a sample of 100 students (50 dog owners and 50 non-owners) found positive effects on self-perceived stress levels [53]. In the Spanish context, with a sample size half of that used in this study and a decade before the pandemic, research such as that by Fonseca Pedrero [54], employing the DASS-21 indicated lower stress levels in students living with pets. Contrary to what post-pandemic studies suggest, one of our previous investigations comparing stress and anxiety levels in students from Costa Rica and Spain during the COVID-19 lockdown [3] using the same instruments applied in this study, yielded similar results, finding no significant differences between dog owners and those who do not live with dogs. Similarly, Guidry's study at McNeese State University during the pandemic found no significant differences in stress levels—measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the Pet Attitude Scale – Modified (PAS-M)—between individuals who regularly interacted with dogs and those who did not [55]. The explanations for these differing results may be varied and require deeper investigation in the coming years. On one hand, the effects of the pandemic, which confined people with dogs and imposed strict limitations on walking them, may have contributed to increased anxiety or stress levels that persist among many owners. Additionally, the responsibility of caring for an animal and the obligation to take it for daily walks multiple times might counterbalance the anxiety- and stress-reducing effects. On the other hand, the stress- and anxiety-reducing effect may depend on engaging in joint activities with dogs, such as walking or exercising, as well as individual personality traits [56]. Lastly, broader studies using common scales like the DASS-21 and STAI, which also consider personal, familial, social, and cultural variables, may need to be conducted in the future. Furthermore, these contrasting results may suggest that the impact of dogs on student stress becomes more evident during the implementation of dog-assisted activities close to final exam periods, which will be the focus of further research under the Stress Less. Take my Paws program. Conclusions Once the analysis of the results was completed, the conclusions can be presented along with the limitations and implications for future research. Firstly, in general terms, the data analysis of stress and anxiety places the sample in a normal distribution, with a significant proportion of values in the medium level. This indicates that the studied population does not exhibit elevated levels of these measures, thereby enabling the observation of the effects of dog-assisted activities and their potential comparison with the general population and other anti-stress programs that could be applied. Secondly, regular cohabitation with pets cannot be associated with lower levels of state anxiety and stress compared to those who do not have this interaction. However, significant differences were found between those who own dogs and those who own other types of pets. This suggests that the development of dog-assisted activity programs on university campuses could benefit the entire student population, including those who already own or live with dogs or other pets. Finally, since no significant differences were found in stress, anxiety, and depression levels between the student groups from the University of Extremadura (control group) and the University of Granada (experimental group), it can be concluded that future research may compare the results of other assessments, such as physiological tests, gestural patterns, biographical profiles, and more. Additionally, given the diversity of the two samples (geographical, administrative, academic plans, etc.), it is possible to speculate—subject to confirmation in future studies—that the Spanish university population is homogeneous and comparable in terms of academic stress, anxiety, and depression levels. Regarding the study's limitations, the following can be outlined: Although the sample size is sufficient, there is a gender bias, with a significantly higher proportion of women compared to men due to the selected fields of study. This prevents analyses to determine whether significant differences exist. Future research should aim to include a broader range of disciplines with a balanced representation of men and women or a greater male presence. The project's limitation to the participating universities may restrict the generalizability of the conclusions presented. Future studies could include a larger number of universities from different Spanish regions or even from various countries to provide a broader perspective on the issues examined. Declarations Acknowledgments We would like to express our gratitude to the following entities for their collaboration in the development of the Stress-Less. Take my Paws program: the Library of the Faculty of Education Sciences at the University of Granada, the Clinical Analysis Unit at the San Cecilio Clinical Hospital in Granada, the Research Center for Well-Being and Social Inclusion (CIBIS) at the University of Almería, the Laboratory for Cognition, Health, Training, and Interaction among Humans, Animals, and Machines (SEJ-658), the Granada Veterinary Clinical Campus, Belcando Dog Food, Club Canino Ciudad de Almería, Hachiko Canine Training, and Ernesto Olmedo Veterinary Products. Funding The authors of this article received funding for the development of the project "Effects of the application of a dog-assisted activities program (DAA) on the levels of academic stress in university students." Acronym: LWS ( Learning Without Stress ). DAAP (Ref. PID2021-128774OB-100), funded by MICIU/AEI /10.13039/501100011033 and FEDER / EU. Author contributions (CRediT) Emilio Jesús Lizarte: Conceptualization; Investigation; Methodology, Review and Editing. María Jesús Lirola: Methodology, Statistical Analysis; Original Draft. Meriem K. Gijón: Investigation; Review and Editing. María del Carmen Galván: Investigation; Original Draft. José Gijón: Conceptualization; Funding Acquisition; Project Administration; Original Draft; Review and Approval of the Final Version of the Work. Data availability Data are available for consultation upon request to the corresponding author. Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada, with a favorable report registered under the number 3126/CEIH/2023, ensuring that all procedures complied with ethical standards for research involving human participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. References Meeks K, Peak AS, Dreihaus A. Depression, anxiety, and stress among students, faculty, and staff. J Am Coll Health. 2023;71(2):348–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1891913 Jain G, Singhai M. Academic stress amongst students: A review of literature. Prestige E-Journal of Management and Research. 2017;4(2):58–67. https://www.pimrindore.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/5.ACADEMIC-STRESS-AMONGST-STUDENTS-A-REVIEW-OF-LITERATURE.pdf Gijón J, Galván MC, Khaled M, Lizarte EJ. Levels of stress, anxiety, and depression in university students from Spain and Costa Rica during periods of confinement and virtual learning. 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New York: Toutledge; 2020:16. Bekker OA, Mallavarapu S. Pet attachment and the social support that pets provide to college students. The Kennesaw Journal of Undergraduate Research. 2019;6(1). Henrich K. Supporting student wellbeing and holistic success: A public services approach. Int Inf Libr Rev. 2020;52(3):235–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10572317.2020.1785171 Lizarte EJ, Khaled M, Galván MC, Gijón J. Challenge-obstacle stressors and cyberloafing among higher vocational education students: the moderating role of smartphone addiction and Maladaptive. Front Psychol. 2024;15:1358634. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1358634 Peña G. Intervenciones asistidas con perros en la universidad complutense de madrid : Un proyecto piloto. En: 4as Jornadas de Investigación PhDay Educación. 2018. p. 400–7. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14352/19713 Martos-Montes R, Ordóñez-Pérez D, Ruiz-Maatallah J, Martínez-Cobos M. Psychophysiological effects of human-dog interaction in university students exposed to a stress-induced situation using the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Human-animal interaction bulletin. 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/hai.2020.0010 Lobato Rincón LL, Rivera Martín B, Medina Sánchez MÁ, Villafaina S, Merellano-Navarro E, Collado-Mateo D. Effects of dog-assisted education on physical and communicative skills in children with severe and multiple disabilities: A pilot study. Animals (Basel). 2021;11(6):1741. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11061741 Spielberger CD, Gonzalez-Reigosa F, Martinez-Urrutia A, Natalicio LF, Natalicio DS. The state-trait anxiety inventory. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia/Interamerican journal of psychology. 1971;5. https://doi.org/10.30849/rip/ijp.v5i3%20&%204.620 Seisdedos N. STAI: Cuestionario de Ansiedad Estado-Rasgo. 1982. Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behav Res Ther. 1995;33(3):335–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-u Bados A, Solanas A, Andrés R. Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS). Psicothema. 2005;17(4):679–83. https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/PST/article/view/8331 Nunnally JC, Bernstein IJ. Teoría psicométrica. McGraw-Hill Latinomericana; 1995.´ Guillén-Riquelme, A. (2014). Validación de la adaptación española del State-Trait Anxiety Inventory en diferentes muestras españolas. Haggerty JM, Mueller MK. Animal-assisted stress reduction programs in higher education. Innov High Educ. 2017;42(5–6):379–89. Disponible en: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10755-017-9392-0 McDonald S, McDonald E, Roberts A. Effects of novel dog exposure on college students' stress prior to examination. North American Journal of Psychology. 2017;19(2):477. Rothkopf C, Schworm S. Exploring dog-assisted interventions in higher education: Students’ attitudes and perceived effects on well-being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021;18(9):4492. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094492 Peña G. Intervenciones asistidas con perros en la universidad complutense de madrid : Un proyecto piloto. En: 4as Jornadas de Investigación PhDay Educación. 2018. p. 400–7. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14352/19713 Tijerina González LZ, Guevara E, Gómez Nava M, Cisneros Estala MA, Rodríguez García KY, Ramos Peña EG. Depression, anxiety and stress in new students entering higher education. 2018. https://doi.org/10.29105/respyn17.4-5 Salinas-Muñoz J, Segovia J, Campos-Uscanga Y, Vg A-N, Contreras-Alarcón G, De L, et al. Características psicométricas de la escala de depresión, ansiedad y estrés (DASS-21) en estudiantes universitarios. Investigación en Educación Médica. 2024;13(50):68–78. https://doi.org/10.22201/fm.20075057e.2024.50.23549 Guillot-Valdés M, Guillén-Riquelme A, Buela-Casal G. A meta-analysis of the generalization of the reliability of state/trait depression inventory scores. Psicothema. 2020;4(32):476–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2020.106 Guzmán Pérez EV, Valencia MC. Estrés Percibido y Empatía en Estudiantes Universitarios que tienen Mascotas. Prometeo conoc cient. 2024;4(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.55204/pcc.v4i1.e66 Albán P, Macías A, Jácome J, Fonseca C. Estudio comparativo entre la tenencia o no de mascotas en los niveles de estrés de los estudiantes de 17–19 años de una institución educativa de quito en el periodo 2022–2023: Comparative study between pet ownership or not in the stress levels of students aged 17–19 years of an educational institution in quito in the period 2022–2023. LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades. 2023;4(1):2760–72. Fonseca-Pedrero E, Paino M, Lemos-Giráldez S, Muñiz J. Propiedades psicométricas de la depression anxiety and stress scales-21 (DASS-21) en umversitarios españoles. Ansiedad y estrés. 2010. Guidry C. Pets and students: Does interaction with pets correlate with stress levels? 2020. González Ramírez MT, Hernández R. Diferencias en estrés percibido, salud mental y física de acuerdo al tipo de relación humano-perro. Revista Colombiana de Psicología. 2011;20(1):75–86. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 06 Jan, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 02 Jan, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 02 Jan, 2025 First submitted to journal 21 Dec, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5691042","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":398083437,"identity":"04c138ad-7f48-4e8d-b926-e0ea8638ee2d","order_by":0,"name":"Emilio Jesús Lizarte Simón","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdsYGMM1PvBZmsBYDBskG4rWASQMGgwPE6uBnZm7+8HPPHznjG+nXPjBU1BHWItnM2GDY88zA2OxGTvEMhjOHCWsxOMzYkMBzwCBx242cZAbGNiKcZw/UcvDPAYP6zTNAWv4R4TADZsbGZqAtCQYS6YcZGBuYCWuROMzYzCxzwNhwxpk3zAwJx4jwC397++OPbw7IyfO3pz9m+FBDhMOQAI8BQwJJGoBJ5wGJGkbBKBgFo2CkAAAxxjdutrKCLQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emilio","middleName":"Jesús Lizarte","lastName":"Simón","suffix":""},{"id":398083439,"identity":"d1404ef3-521b-4e4d-95cc-1be45cf1c76e","order_by":1,"name":"María Jesús Lirola Manzano","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Almería","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"María","middleName":"Jesús Lirola","lastName":"Manzano","suffix":""},{"id":398083440,"identity":"15b0b054-ffd5-437d-b3f2-26df5ae570b6","order_by":2,"name":"Meriem K. Gijón","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meriem","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Gijón","suffix":""},{"id":398083441,"identity":"d5a75a95-4d13-4a97-bed7-42a5b9cc30ea","order_by":3,"name":"María Carmen Galván","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"María","middleName":"Carmen","lastName":"Galván","suffix":""},{"id":398083442,"identity":"0552e11b-e938-4d65-b504-0d9b7e5b598d","order_by":4,"name":"José Gijón Puerta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"José","middleName":"Gijón","lastName":"Puerta","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-21 18:53:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5691042/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5691042/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":76834042,"identity":"d7b6b4f9-9e77-4fd2-830e-69f775bd00f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-21 08:54:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1072048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5691042/v1/f3f22cfc-3cf6-47a6-8660-3a86b7f46604.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Academic stress in university students: self-perceived levels and modulation in the relationship with pets","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe increase in academic stress is becoming recognized as a significant health challenge for society at large. Universities are not exempt from this issue. Both academics [1] and university students [2] experience heightened levels of anxiety and stress, particularly during exam periods, when academic stress manifests most intensely. This stress can be linked to pre-existing educational needs or may lead to conditions associated with depression and other mental health problems [3\u0026ndash;5].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExaminations and tests are a longstanding tradition in higher education. With predetermined times, locations, and formats, students are aware of when they will be \"tested\" and prepare in the way they find most appropriate [6]. However, a certain degree of uncertainty varying depending on the type of student, their dedication to studying, and the presence of various emotional factors [7] often leads to elevated stress levels and the onset of anxiety symptoms [8]. Ultimately, an exam or evaluative test represents an asymmetrical relationship for the student, assessing not only their knowledge but also their social performance [8\u0026ndash;11]. This dynamic influences not only their grades but also their self-perception [10, 11].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the university context, recent research conducted in Europe, the United States, and Canada, as well as in other parts of the world, such as Australia [12, 13]; Malaysia [14] or Pakist\u0026aacute;n [15], has confirmed a general phenomenon: during exam periods, not only do psychological distress and stress levels rise among students, but this often has a measurable impact on their mental health [16].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress, anxiety, and depression, as factors influencing early dropout decisions, highlight the significant social and economic impact of elevated stress levels both internationally and within Spain [17\u0026ndash;20]. As a result, student health and well-being have been incorporated into the agendas of university policies [21, 22], Various programs have been implemented to reduce student stress and exam anxiety [23, 24]. The literature provides examples of diverse approaches to tackling academic stress. Psychological interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), the creation of specific spaces for relaxation and meditation, and the provision of areas for eating or cooperative work while studying have been established. These initiatives often involve adapting existing university architecture and infrastructure or designing new learning spaces to support these efforts [18].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotwithstanding, one of the most prominent innovations currently gaining attention in the literature and media is the use of domestic animals, particularly dogs, on university campuses for interaction with students [25]. This approach parallels the therapeutic use of animals in other areas, such as providing care to patients in hospitals or at home, supporting older adults, and assisting individuals with physical or intellectual disabilities [26\u0026ndash;28]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe idea of using simple interactions with dogs as therapy in various aspects of human life is supported by decades of research across multiple disciplines. It is important to recognize that the relationship between humans and dogs has a long shared history\u0026mdash;at least fifteen thousand years in Europe, twelve thousand years in the Far East, and ten thousand years in the Americas, according to the latest archaeological findings [29, 30]. This shared history has fostered countless interactions, joint endeavors, and processes of selection and coevolution, resulting in the development of various breeds with diverse purposes and functionalities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrently, the presence of dogs as pets\u0026mdash;particularly in urban environments\u0026mdash;has become widespread, and their role in providing emotional support to the people they live with has grown in importance within our increasingly technologized society. Recent studies [31] highlight the influence of genetics on the tendency to own dogs and point to their significant impact on improving the health of individuals who live with these animals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous universities have implemented initiatives aimed at reducing student stress through dog-assisted activities. Notable examples of these innovations can be found at institutions such as Yale and Harvard, which offer relaxation rooms with dogs where students can visit and unwind by interacting with the animals [32]. Among the universities that have made significant progress in this innovative approach, Kennesaw State University in Georgia stands out with its \u003cem\u003eAnimal on Campus\u003c/em\u003e program [33] as does Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, which describes itself as \u0026ldquo;The pet-friendliest campus on the planet.\u0026rdquo; Similarly, McGill University Library\u0026rsquo;s initiative [34] which integrates learning environments with the library, has served as a primary model for our pilot innovation project at the Faculty of Education Sciences at the University of Granada. Our program, titled \u003cem\u003eStressLess. Take my Paws\u003c/em\u003e, was launched in 2018 and is designed to reduce exam-related stress through student-dog interaction. The program includes at least three relaxation sessions with trained dogs and their handlers during the weeks leading up to exams, with one session scheduled within 24 hours of a final exam. The interaction takes place in a seated or reclining position on the floor, where groups of two to four dogs and five to seven students come together. Students gently pet the dogs while engaging in conversations with the trainers about the dogs' behavior and their training work. This structured yet informal setting fosters relaxation and helps students manage the stress associated with high-pressure academic periods [35, 4].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Spain, these types of programs have yet to become widespread. Among the pioneering initiatives is the \u003cem\u003eCompludog\u003c/em\u003e project at the Complutense University of Madrid, supported by the Affinity Foundation [36]. Another notable example is a study conducted at the University of Ja\u0026eacute;n, which examined the psychological effects of inducing stress in students and the role of dogs in alleviating these effects during the process [37].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most advanced reference in Spain is the \u003cem\u003eAnimal-Assisted Intervention Office\u003c/em\u003e at Rey Juan Carlos University. This office coordinates all animal-assisted activities carried out by the university, both on campus and through outreach initiatives in hospitals, educational centers, and programs for the elderly [38].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs part of the project \u003cem\u003e\"Effects of the application of a dog-assisted activities program (DAA) on the levels of academic stress in university students. Acronym LWS (Learning Without Stress). DAAP\"\u003c/em\u003e (Ref. PID2021-128774OB-100), which aims to analyze the potential impact of the \u003cem\u003eStress Less. Take my Paws\u003c/em\u003e program on academic stress, the objective of this research was to establish baseline stress levels in a sample of undergraduate students from the Universities of Granada and Extremadura. Additionally, the study sought to gather evidence on the potential influence of pet ownership or cohabitation on students' stress and anxiety levels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample for this study consisted of a total of 1,097 valid participants, with 56% from the University of Granada and 44% from the University of Extremadura. The gender distribution was as follows: 238 men (21.7%) and 859 women (78.3%), aligning with the typical gender proportions for fields related to education and psychology. Participant ages ranged from 18 to 61 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.23; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.30). In terms of residence, participants hailed from various Spanish cities, with Badajoz (20.9%) and Granada (28.9%) being the most representative. Regarding educational level, 98.8% of participants were pursuing higher education, primarily in undergraduate programs in Education and Psychology. Specifically, 94.2% were enrolled in bachelor\u0026rsquo;s programs, 4.1% in master\u0026rsquo;s programs, and 0.2% in doctoral studies. A small percentage were combining their studies with work (1.0%) or were retired (0.1%). Additionally, 37.9% of the participants lived with pets, predominantly dogs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSTAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cb\u003eState-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)\u003c/b\u003e developed by Spielberger et al., 1971 [39] and validated in Spain by Seisdedos (1982) [40] was used. This instrument consists of 40 items, divided into two subscales of 20 items each: each:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eState Anxiety (State)\u003c/b\u003e: This subscale measures the level of anxiety an individual feels at a specific moment, reflecting a temporary emotional response to stressful situations. Ten of the items are reverse-scored. An example of an item is, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I feel calm.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTrait Anxiety (Trait)\u003c/b\u003e: This subscale evaluates the general tendency of an individual to perceive situations as threatening, reflecting a stable personality characteristic. Seven of the items are reverse-scored. An example of an item is, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I worry too much about things that really aren\u0026rsquo;t important.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems from the \u003cb\u003eState Anxiety\u003c/b\u003e subscale are presented with the instruction: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Please indicate how you feel right now,\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e while items from the \u003cb\u003eTrait Anxiety\u003c/b\u003e subscale are introduced with: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Please indicate how you generally feel.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e Responses are recorded using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\u003cem\u003eNot at all\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003eVery much\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reported reliability of the STAI is high, with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of .909 for the Trait Anxiety subscale and .930 for the State Anxiety subscale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDASS-21: Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) was used, developed by Lovibond and Lovibond [41] and adapted to the Spanish context by Bados et al. [42]. This instrument consists of 21 items, evenly distributed across three subscales:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDepression\u003c/b\u003e: This subscale evaluates symptoms of depression, such as the inability to experience pleasure in typically enjoyable activities. An example item is, \u003cem\u003e\"I couldn\u0026rsquo;t seem to experience any positive feeling at all.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnxiety\u003c/b\u003e: This subscale measures symptoms of anxiety, including physical and emotional responses to stress. An example item is, \u003cem\u003e\"I felt I was having difficulty breathing.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStress\u003c/b\u003e: This subscale assesses symptoms related to tension and the inability to relax. An example item is, \u003cem\u003e\"I felt agitated and worried.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe items are introduced with the instruction: \u003cem\u003e\"Please read each statement and select the response that best describes how you have felt over the past week.\"\u003c/em\u003e Responses are recorded on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (\u003cem\u003eDid not apply to me at all\u003c/em\u003e) to 3 (\u003cem\u003eApplied to me very much or most of the time\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reported reliability of the DASS-21 is high, with Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values of .899 for the depression subscale, .868 for the anxiety subscale, and .854 for the stress subscale.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eQuestions on pet ownership and interaction\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to the aforementioned instruments, a series of questions were included to better understand participants' relationships and cohabitation with their pets. These questions explored various aspects of their lives with companion animals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePet ownership\u003c/b\u003e: Participants were asked whether they currently live with a pet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSpecies\u003c/b\u003e: The species of the pet was identified (e.g., dog, cat, or other).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRelationship with the animal\u003c/b\u003e: Participants were asked to describe their perception of their relationship with their pet (e.g., as a companion, guide, protector, etc.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSleeping habits of the pet\u003c/b\u003e: Participants were asked whether their pet sleeps with them or in a different location.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePet's daytime location\u003c/b\u003e: Information was collected on where the pet spends most of its day.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6. Interactions with the pet:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of petting the animal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of walking the pet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of playing with the pet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e7. Training and activities:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of training the pet in obedience or for competitions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of taking the pet along during outdoor activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese questions provided a comprehensive view of the participants' cohabitation and interactions with their pets, offering valuable context for interpreting results related to the levels of anxiety, depression, and stress measured by the STAI and DASS-21 instruments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada, with a favorable report registered under the number 3126/CEIH/2023, ensuring that all procedures complied with ethical standards for research involving human participants. Data collection began with contacting various faculties to request their collaboration in the study. A detailed explanation of the purpose and procedures of the research was provided to the academic authorities of each faculty to secure their participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce institutional approval was obtained, the research team proceeded with administering the psychometric instruments and additional questions related to pet ownership. Data were collected during class sessions, after obtaining informed consent from the students, ensuring that participation was completely voluntary and anonymous. Participants completed two primary scales: the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). Additionally, supplementary questions were included to assess their relationship and interactions with pets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaires were administered digitally using a Google\u0026reg; form under the direct supervision of the researchers. The surveys were preceded by a brief introduction explaining the purpose of the study and providing clear instructions on how to respond to each section. Participants were informed that they could choose not to answer any question or withdraw from the study at any time without any repercussions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe estimated time to complete all questionnaires was approximately 20 to 25 minutes, including the time needed to respond to the STAI and DASS-21 items, as well as the pet-related questions. During the completion of the surveys, the researchers were present to address any doubts and ensure participants clearly understood the questions, particularly those concerning their interactions and cohabitation with pets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfidentiality and anonymity of responses were guaranteed for all participants. Completed questionnaires were collected anonymously and securely stored for subsequent analysis. Once collected, the data were digitized and stored in a secure database. Statistical analyses were performed to explore the relationships between pet ownership and levels of anxiety, depression, and stress, using appropriate analytical tools for this purpose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were calculated, and internal consistency indices were assessed using Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega, both of which demonstrated adequate reliability values with scores above .70 [43, 9]. Subsequently, convergent validity was analyzed by correlating the subscales of the STAI and DASS-21 to confirm that they measured related constructs as expected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, various mean difference analyses were conducted using Student's t-tests and ANOVA to compare levels of stress, anxiety, and depression across different groups (e.g., pet owners vs. non-pet owners, different pet species, etc.). For this study, only results showing significant differences are presented due to space constraints. A significance level of \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05 was applied for all statistical tests, which were performed using IBM SPSS v.29 software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive statistics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the means, standard deviations, and correlations between the two factors of the STAI and the three factors of the DASS-21. The average value for all analyzed variables was above the midpoint of their respective measurement scales. Reliability analyses indicated values exceeding .70 for each dimension, with scores ranging from .845 to .996.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe multiple correlation analysis revealed significant positive correlations among the five constructs (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.61 to .82, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), supporting the convergent validity of the scales.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics, Reliability, and Correlational Analysis (Convergent Validity)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eα\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eω\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. F. State anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.551\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.930\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.816\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.643\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.613\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.661\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. F. Trait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.995\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.717\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.644\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.654\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.694\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.899\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.984\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.743\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.728\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.679\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.772\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Stress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.638\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.854\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCategorization of participants by anxiety and stress levels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the levels of anxiety and stress among participants, a classification scheme based on the mean and standard deviation was applied, following the procedure described in Guill\u0026eacute;n-Riquelme's thesis [44] to establish cutoff points. The levels were defined as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow Level: Scores below the mean minus one standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium Level: Scores between the mean minus one standard deviation and the mean plus one standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh Level: Scores above the mean plus one standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of participants across anxiety and stress levels is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDistribution of the sample by categories of state anxiety, trait anxiety, and stress\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e241\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e734\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e736\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e752\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e744\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results indicate that the majority of participants fall within the medium level of anxiety and stress, suggesting a centralized distribution in the baseline study. General anxiety levels, calculated based on the mode of state and trait anxiety levels, confirm this trend, with a significant proportion of participants categorized at the medium level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOne-way ANOVA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of the one-way ANOVA, including the sum of squares, degrees of freedom (df), mean square, F statistic, and significance value (Sig.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOne-way ANOVA results\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource of variation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSum of squares\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.988\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132.406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134.382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.469\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.525\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.308\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.136\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.568\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e201.401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.488\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202.537\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.880\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.440\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.941\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205.147\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.727\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.363\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177.640\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.430\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180.367\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results indicate significant differences between pet types for State Anxiety (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.047) and Stress (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.043). No significant differences were found for Trait Anxiety, Depression, or Anxiety (\u003cem\u003egeneral\u003c/em\u003e). Post-hoc analyses are required to determine which specific pet types show significant differences for State Anxiety and Stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePost-hoc analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince the ANOVA revealed significant differences between pet types for State Anxiety and Stress, post-hoc analyses were conducted to identify the specific groups with significant differences. The Bonferroni post-hoc test was used due to unequal group sizes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultiple Comparisons for State Anxiety (Bonferroni Test)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(I) Pet type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(J) Pet type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean difference (I-J)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStabdard error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI (Lower-limit)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.2289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1994*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.3959\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0957\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.549\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.3678\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1994*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.549\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Confidence Interval.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) indicate a significant difference in State Anxiety between dogs and other types of pets (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045), with \"other types of pets\" exhibiting higher scores. No significant differences were found between dogs and cats or between cats and other types of pets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor Stress, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was applied to assess differences in Stress between pet types. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultiple comparisons for Stress (Bonferroni Test)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(I) Pet type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(J) Pet type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean difference (I-J)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStabdard error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI (Lower-limit)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1539\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.3490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1937*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.3815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1539\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0412\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0398\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11738\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.3235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1937*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0398\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11738\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.2439\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Confidence Interval.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results indicate a significant difference in Stress between dogs and other types of pets (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.041), with \"other types of pets\" showing higher scores. No significant differences were found between dogs and cats or between cats and other types of pets. The post-hoc analysis revealed that the significant differences in State Anxiety and Stress are specifically between dogs and other types of pets, with \"other types of pets\" consistently exhibiting higher scores in both variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePre-intervention analysis of results from the sample\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e compare the means between two groups on variables related to psychological states, including depression, anxiety, stress, state anxiety, and trait anxiety. For future research, these groups will be defined as the experimental group (University of Granada, exposed to dog-assisted therapy sessions) and the control group (University of Extremadura, not exposed to dog-assisted therapy sessions). This setup will enable a more in-depth and comprehensive analysis of differences following the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe absence of significant differences in the pre-intervention measures indicates that both groups share a comparable baseline before the implementation of the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eComparison of Means and t-Test for psychological variables between experimental and control groups\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean (SD) Experimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean (SD) Control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF (Levene)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig. (Levene)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (df)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig. (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean difference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. error of difference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Lower-Upper)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental (270) / Control (827)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87 (0.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88 (0.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.358\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.279 (1095)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0,014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.109\u0026ndash;0.081\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental (270) / Control (827)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82 (0.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89 (0.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,507\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.555 (1095)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0,074\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.167\u0026ndash;0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental (270) / Control (827)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.162 (0.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21 (0.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,962\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.984 (1095)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0,044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.132\u0026ndash;0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental (270) / Control (827)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25 (0.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23 (0.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.515 (1095)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.056\u0026ndash;0.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental (270) / Control (827)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31 (0.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30 (0.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.392\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,531\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.432 (1095)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.060\u0026ndash;0.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFirstly, and in general terms, we can assert that recent examples clearly indicate that the topics addressed in this study\u0026mdash;academic stress and the use of dogs on campuses for assistance activities\u0026mdash;are undeniably within the scope of interest for higher education policies and research on educational institutions from multiple perspectives. These topics are widely discussed in high-impact journals in educational, psychological, and medical research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor example, studies such as those by Haggerty and Mueller [45] have examined stress reduction programs in higher education using dog-assisted therapy. Similarly, McDonald, McDonald, and Roberts [46] investigated the effects of exposure to dogs prior to exams, while Rothkopf and Schworm [47] explored students' perceptions of well-being during dog-assisted interventions. In the Spanish context, the work of Pe\u0026ntilde;a, Garc\u0026iacute;a, and Camilli [48] on the \u003cem\u003eCompluDog\u003c/em\u003e project at the Complutense University has demonstrated how dog-assisted therapy can improve students' quality of life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the results of our research, the baseline for self-perceived stress reveals levels of stress and anxiety among university students that are consistent with findings from previous studies, both nationally and internationally. These results differentiate university students from clinical populations when applying instruments such as the DASS-21 or STAI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor instance, a cross-sectional study involving 520 students in Mexico found that 36.9% experienced some degree of depression, 19.9% anxiety, and 19.8% stress [49]. Another study conducted in Mexico confirmed the psychometric properties of the DASS-21 among health sciences students, presenting stress groups similar to those identified in our research [50]. Additionally, a meta-analysis of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) found it to be a sensitive tool for measuring anxiety levels and reliable in clinical populations, with significant differences observed between anxious patients and the general population, including university students [51].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt can be stated that there is solid evidence suggesting that university students' stress levels\u0026mdash;outside the periods leading up to final exams\u0026mdash;align with the distribution observed in the general population. However, when comparing different countries, it is important to consider that variations in semester breaks and final exam schedules may affect these comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relationship between stress and pet ownership\u0026mdash;specifically with dogs in this case\u0026mdash;is not homogeneous. While no significant differences were found in anxiety levels among students who regularly live with dogs, except in comparisons between those living with dogs and those living with other pets, some studies conducted post-pandemic present contrasting findings. These studies suggest that stress levels are lower among individuals living with dogs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor instance, studies conducted in Ecuador after the pandemic reveal significantly lower stress levels linked to empathy among students living with dogs, using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14) with a sample size one-third smaller than that of this study [52]. Similarly, using the same instrument and within the same geographical context, a study with a sample of 100 students (50 dog owners and 50 non-owners) found positive effects on self-perceived stress levels [53]. In the Spanish context, with a sample size half of that used in this study and a decade before the pandemic, research such as that by Fonseca Pedrero [54], employing the DASS-21 indicated lower stress levels in students living with pets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to what post-pandemic studies suggest, one of our previous investigations comparing stress and anxiety levels in students from Costa Rica and Spain during the COVID-19 lockdown [3] using the same instruments applied in this study, yielded similar results, finding no significant differences between dog owners and those who do not live with dogs. Similarly, Guidry's study at McNeese State University during the pandemic found no significant differences in stress levels\u0026mdash;measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the Pet Attitude Scale \u0026ndash; Modified (PAS-M)\u0026mdash;between individuals who regularly interacted with dogs and those who did not [55].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe explanations for these differing results may be varied and require deeper investigation in the coming years. On one hand, the effects of the pandemic, which confined people with dogs and imposed strict limitations on walking them, may have contributed to increased anxiety or stress levels that persist among many owners. Additionally, the responsibility of caring for an animal and the obligation to take it for daily walks multiple times might counterbalance the anxiety- and stress-reducing effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the stress- and anxiety-reducing effect may depend on engaging in joint activities with dogs, such as walking or exercising, as well as individual personality traits [56]. Lastly, broader studies using common scales like the DASS-21 and STAI, which also consider personal, familial, social, and cultural variables, may need to be conducted in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, these contrasting results may suggest that the impact of dogs on student stress becomes more evident during the implementation of dog-assisted activities close to final exam periods, which will be the focus of further research under the \u003cem\u003eStress Less. Take my Paws\u003c/em\u003e program.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eOnce the analysis of the results was completed, the conclusions can be presented along with the limitations and implications for future research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, in general terms, the data analysis of stress and anxiety places the sample in a normal distribution, with a significant proportion of values in the medium level. This indicates that the studied population does not exhibit elevated levels of these measures, thereby enabling the observation of the effects of dog-assisted activities and their potential comparison with the general population and other anti-stress programs that could be applied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, regular cohabitation with pets cannot be associated with lower levels of state anxiety and stress compared to those who do not have this interaction. However, significant differences were found between those who own dogs and those who own other types of pets. This suggests that the development of dog-assisted activity programs on university campuses could benefit the entire student population, including those who already own or live with dogs or other pets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, since no significant differences were found in stress, anxiety, and depression levels between the student groups from the University of Extremadura (control group) and the University of Granada (experimental group), it can be concluded that future research may compare the results of other assessments, such as physiological tests, gestural patterns, biographical profiles, and more. Additionally, given the diversity of the two samples (geographical, administrative, academic plans, etc.), it is possible to speculate\u0026mdash;subject to confirmation in future studies\u0026mdash;that the Spanish university population is homogeneous and comparable in terms of academic stress, anxiety, and depression levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the study's limitations, the following can be outlined:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the sample size is sufficient, there is a gender bias, with a significantly higher proportion of women compared to men due to the selected fields of study. This prevents analyses to determine whether significant differences exist. Future research should aim to include a broader range of disciplines with a balanced representation of men and women or a greater male presence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe project's limitation to the participating universities may restrict the generalizability of the conclusions presented. Future studies could include a larger number of universities from different Spanish regions or even from various countries to provide a broader perspective on the issues examined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to express our gratitude to the following entities for their collaboration in the development of the \u003cem\u003eStress-Less. Take my Paws\u003c/em\u003e program: the Library of the Faculty of Education Sciences at the University of Granada, the Clinical Analysis Unit at the San Cecilio Clinical Hospital in Granada, the Research Center for Well-Being and Social Inclusion (CIBIS) at the University of Almer\u0026iacute;a, the Laboratory for Cognition, Health, Training, and Interaction among Humans, Animals, and Machines (SEJ-658), the Granada Veterinary Clinical Campus, Belcando Dog Food, Club Canino Ciudad de Almer\u0026iacute;a, Hachiko Canine Training, and Ernesto Olmedo Veterinary Products.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this article received funding for the development of the project \u003cem\u003e\u0026quot;Effects of the application of a dog-assisted activities program (DAA) on the levels of academic stress in university students.\u0026quot;\u003c/em\u003e Acronym: LWS (\u003cem\u003eLearning Without Stress\u003c/em\u003e). DAAP (Ref. PID2021-128774OB-100), funded by MICIU/AEI /10.13039/501100011033 and FEDER / EU.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions (CRediT)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmilio Jes\u0026uacute;s Lizarte:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Investigation; Methodology, Review and Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMar\u0026iacute;a Jes\u0026uacute;s Lirola:\u0026nbsp;Methodology, Statistical Analysis; Original Draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeriem K. Gij\u0026oacute;n:\u0026nbsp;Investigation; Review and Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMar\u0026iacute;a del Carmen Galv\u0026aacute;n:\u0026nbsp;Investigation; Original Draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJos\u0026eacute; Gij\u0026oacute;n:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Funding Acquisition; Project Administration; Original Draft; Review and Approval of the Final Version of the Work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData are available for consultation upon request to the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada, with a favorable report registered under the number 3126/CEIH/2023, ensuring that all procedures complied with ethical standards for research involving human participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeeks K, Peak AS, Dreihaus A. Depression, anxiety, and stress among students, faculty, and staff. J Am Coll Health. 2023;71(2):348\u0026ndash;54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1891913\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJain G, Singhai M. Academic stress amongst students: A review of literature. 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Estudio comparativo entre la tenencia o no de mascotas en los niveles de estr\u0026eacute;s de los estudiantes de 17\u0026ndash;19 a\u0026ntilde;os de una instituci\u0026oacute;n educativa de quito en el periodo 2022\u0026ndash;2023: Comparative study between pet ownership or not in the stress levels of students aged 17\u0026ndash;19 years of an educational institution in quito in the period 2022\u0026ndash;2023. LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades. 2023;4(1):2760\u0026ndash;72.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFonseca-Pedrero E, Paino M, Lemos-Gir\u0026aacute;ldez S, Mu\u0026ntilde;iz J. Propiedades psicom\u0026eacute;tricas de la depression anxiety and stress scales-21 (DASS-21) en umversitarios espa\u0026ntilde;oles. Ansiedad y estr\u0026eacute;s. 2010.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuidry C. Pets and students: Does interaction with pets correlate with stress levels? 2020.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGonz\u0026aacute;lez Ram\u0026iacute;rez MT, Hern\u0026aacute;ndez R. Diferencias en estr\u0026eacute;s percibido, salud mental y f\u0026iacute;sica de acuerdo al tipo de relaci\u0026oacute;n humano-perro. Revista Colombiana de Psicolog\u0026iacute;a. 2011;20(1):75\u0026ndash;86.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Academic stress, Dog-assisted therapy, STAI, DASS-21, Self-perceived stress","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5691042/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5691042/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIntroduction: Academic stress and its reduction, often associated with early dropout rates, has become a key issue on the agenda of international higher education policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurpose: The research presented here addresses this problem through the analysis of the Stress Less. Take my Paws project, a dog-assisted therapy initiative implemented at the University of Granada. Specifically, the study aims to establish baseline academic stress levels in samples from the University of Extremadura (serving as the control group) and the University of Granada (where the Stress Less. Take my Paws program will be applied).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethod: With a total sample size of N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1097 (827 in the control group and 270 in the intervention group), the study administered the STAI (Trait and State Anxiety Inventory), DASS-21, and additional questions about participants' relationships with pet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results indicate: a) the reliability of the applied tests for anxiety, stress, and depression; b) a normal distribution of scores in both the control and intervention groups (pre-intervention) and the absence of significant differences between the two groups regarding stress levels, anxiety, and depressive symptoms; and c) no significant differences between individuals who regularly interact with dogs and those who do not (significant differences were found between dog owners and owners of other types of pets).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConclusi\u0026oacute;n: The relevance of these findings is discussed, highlighting the homogeneity between the control and intervention groups, which will enable various studies on the impact of the Stress Less. Take my Paws program.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Academic stress in university students: self-perceived levels and modulation in the relationship with pets","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-21 08:46:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5691042/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-01-06T06:52:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-01-02T09:29:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-01-02T09:27:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2024-12-21T18:42:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fb1bd87d-49e2-4eb4-88e9-5005b11b3ba5","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-21T08:46:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-21 08:46:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5691042","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5691042","identity":"rs-5691042","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}