Callous-Unemotional Traits and Intention to Stop Bullying: Does Students’ Perception of the Teacher Matter?

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Eerika Johander, Tiina Turunen, Claire F. Garandeau, Christina Salmivalli This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9184438/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Understanding how teachers can intervene more effectively in bullying is essential, particularly when working with students whose misbehavior is particularly challenging to address, such as those high in callous-unemotional (CU) traits. This study tested the effects of callous-unemotional (CU) traits on students’ intention to stop bullying after a teacher-delivered anti-bullying intervention, and whether this effect was moderated by their perception of the teacher. A sample of 277 seventh-graders ( M age = 12.93, SD = 0.49; 47% female) was asked to imagine having bullied a peer and being invited to a discussion with a teacher. They then watched a video depicting what the teacher would say. Higher CU traits were associated with weaker intention to stop bullying, whereas perceiving the teacher more positively was related to stronger intention to stop. A significant moderation was found: the negative association between CU traits and intention to stop was stronger when students perceived the teacher less positively. Findings suggest that building positive relationships with students whose bullying is difficult to address (e.g., high in CU traits) may help enhance the effectiveness of teachers’ targeted interventions. Bullying Targeted interventions Callous-unemotional traits Perception of teacher Student-teacher relationship Introduction School bullying violates students’ right to a safe and healthy learning environment and can have far-reaching adverse consequences on the psychosocial adjustment of those who are victimized (Ariani et al., 2025 ). Bullying is defined as intentional, repeated aggressive behavior directed towards less powerful peer (e.g., Olweus, 1993 ). By being present in students’ everyday lives and well positioned to observe peer interactions, teachers have a role to play in such behavior (Burger et al., 2022 ). Studies show that teachers’ targeted interventions (i.e., discussions with bullying perpetrators) can stop bullying, yet do not always succeed (Johander et al., 2024 ). Even with the evidence-based intervention strategies, the behavior persists in up to 26% of cases (Garandeau et al., 2014 ; Johander et al., 2021 ; Laninga-Wijnen et al., 2025 ), indicating that some perpetrators are not responsive to teacher interventions. Individual characteristics, particularly callous-unemotional (CU) traits, have been shown to be associated with a weaker intention to stop bullying, as well as higher resistance to teachers’ attempts to manage aggressive behavior in general (Allen et al., 2016 , 2018 ; [masked for review]; [masked for review]). Since certain children and adolescents show limited responsiveness to teacher interventions, it is essential to understand what teachers can do to make their intervention efforts more effective among these students in particular. One key factor may be how students perceive their teacher and the quality of their relationship with them. Indeed, students’ positive perception of their teacher (e.g., Košir et al., 2020 ; Pabian & Vandebosch, 2016 ), as well as higher-quality teacher–student relationships, have been linked to lower levels of bullying perpetration (for a meta-analysis, see ten Bokkel et al., 2023a ). Such relational quality may be especially important when addressing the bullying behavior of students with elevated CU traits, as these students are more likely to experience poorer-quality relationships with their teachers (Levine et al., 2023 ). Surprisingly, however, no study yet has examined whether the effect of CU traits on students’ responsiveness to targeted anti-bullying interventions by teachers is moderated by students’ perception of the teacher intervening in bullying. The present study addresses this question using data from a vignette study, in which participants watched a video of a teacher talking to them after they have supposedly bullied a peer. CU Traits and Effectiveness of Teachers’ Interventions in Stopping Bullying Callous-unemotional (CU) traits refer to personality characteristics that include low empathy, lack of remorse or guilt, and shallow or deficient affect (e.g., Kimonis et al., 2015 ). These traits are relatively stable from childhood to adulthood (e.g., Hemphälä et al., 2015 ; van Baardewijk et al., 2011 ), likely due to strong genetic influences (Moore et al., 2019 ). CU traits have been consistently associated with higher levels of different forms of antisocial behavior, including aggression and bullying in the school context (for review, see Levine et al., 2023 ). Despite robust evidence linking CU traits to bullying and other types of antisocial behavior, research on how these traits affect the effectiveness of teacher interventions remains scarce. The few existing studies indicate that students with elevated CU traits are less responsive to teachers’ efforts to stop aggressive and disruptive behaviors (Allen et al., 2016 , 2018 ; Hwang et al., 2021 ). Regarding bullying perpetration in particular, CU traits have been associated with weaker intention to stop bullying after exposure to teachers’ targeted intervention messages. This finding was first demonstrated in a video vignette experimental study with a normative sample of seventh-grade students [masked for review], and was later replicated in a similar video vignette study with both a normative sample of fourth- and seventh-grade students and in a subsample of bullying perpetrators [masked for review]. Consistent with findings that students with high CU traits show lower responsiveness to teachers’ attempts to manage aggressive behavior, these studies show that children and adolescents high in CU traits are less likely to respond to interventions specifically targeting bullying behavior. Moreover, no evidence was found that CU traits moderated the relative effectiveness of different intervention strategies (focusing on condemning the bullying vs. raising empathy for the victimized peer), suggesting that students with elevated CU traits tend to be less responsive to targeted interventions regardless of the strategy used [masked for review]. Does Students’ Perception of the Teacher Moderate the Association Between CU Traits and Intervention Effectiveness? Given the limited responsiveness of students with elevated CU traits to teacher interventions, as well as their higher likelihood of engaging in aggressive behaviors, including bullying, it is important to identify ways to enhance the effectiveness of teachers’ intervention efforts. To date, no moderator of the association between CU traits and responsiveness to intervention has been identified. Given that the affective quality of the teacher-student relationship (i.e., emotional bond between teacher and student) has been associated with numerous student outcomes, such as academic achievement, school belonging, school engagement, and fewer behavioral problems (Emslander et al., 2025 ; ten Bokkel et al., 2023b ), it could be a key factor. Moreover, students’ positive perception of their teacher have been linked to lower levels of bullying perpetration (e.g., Košir et al., 2020 ; Pabian & Vandebosch, 2016 ). Encouragingly, research suggests that even children and adolescents with elevated CU traits can benefit from positive relationships with their teachers. In a study of early adolescents, teachers viewed a high-quality teacher-student relationship as an important contributor to academic motivation (Allen et al., 2018 ). This was true for all students, including those high on CU traits. A study comparing children with conduct problems, elevated CU traits, both, or neither, found that conflict with teachers early in the year predicted more oppositional behaviors, peer difficulties, and classroom impairments at the end of the school year, while greater teacher-student closeness was linked to a lower risk of academic impairments for everyone, including students with elevated CU traits (Crum et al., 2016 ). As the two studies reviewed above – the only studies on this topic – relied on teacher reports of relationship quality, little is known about how students’ perception of the teacher or of their relationship with the teacher affect the association between CU traits and school adjustment. It is known, however, that students high in CU traits are at higher risk of experiencing poorer-quality relationships with their teacher, even after accounting for conduct problems and antisocial behavior (Horan et al., 2016 ; Hwang et al., 2022 ). Moreover, decreases in student-reported affiliation with teachers in the middle of the school year have predicted increases in CU traits at the end of the year (Hwang et al., 2022 ). Yet, not all studies have found CU traits to be predictive of teacher-student relationship quality (Baroncelli & Ciucci, 2020 ), suggesting that it is possible for students high in CU traits to have a positive relationship with their teachers. Moreover, in an interview study, some teachers described positive relationships with early adolescents who were high on CU traits, despite recognizing the challenges posed by these students’ behavior (Allen et al., 2018 ). Thus, even though building a good relationship with students high on CU traits may be difficult, when established, such a relationship may buffer against some of the adverse consequences associated with these traits. Current Study The present study investigates whether early adolescents’ perception of the teacher delivering an anti-bullying intervention – specifically, their perceived liking of and trusting the teacher, and perception of being liked and trusted by the teacher – moderates the effects of CU traits on their intention to stop their (hypothetical) bullying. Students watched a video of an adult talking to them after they had supposedly bullied a peer, telling them that the situation needs to change. Before viewing the video, participants completed a questionnaire about their age, gender, bullying behavior and CU traits. Immediately after viewing the video, they reported their perception of the adult delivering the message and how likely they would be to stop their bullying behavior if their teacher spoke to them in this way. First, we examine whether and how participants’ CU traits and perception of the teacher delivering the intervention message are associated with their intention to stop bullying. We hypothesize that CU traits are associated with a weaker, and a positive perception of the teacher with a stronger intention to stop bullying. Second, we examine whether the association between CU traits and intention to stop bullying is moderated by the participants’ perception of the teacher delivering the intervention message. We hypothesize that a more positive perception of the teacher will buffer against the negative effect of CU traits on intention to stop bullying, meaning that such a perception is expected to weaken the negative association between CU traits and intention to stop bullying. Method Procedure and Participants Data were collected from a convenience sample of [masked for review] schools, including three secondary schools and four combined schools (offering both primary and secondary grades). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting school lockdown in spring 2020, the data collection took place at three time points: February, May, and September-October 2020. In February and September–October, data were collected on site by the first author and trained research assistants using pen-and-paper questionnaires, as schools were operating in-person during these periods, whereas in May, data collection was conducted online due to school lockdown at that time. Schools were recruited by contacting principals, informing them about the purpose and procedures of the study, and asking them to invite all seventh-grade students in their schools to participate. The seventh grade (i.e., the first year of secondary school) was chosen because anti-bullying interventions tend to become less effective during adolescence (e.g., Salmivalli et al., 2021 ; Yeager et al., 2015 ), making it important to examine students’ responsiveness at this stage. Information about the study procedures and data protection was sent to the parents or guardians, who were asked to provide informed consent for their child’s participation. All students who returned a completed consent form were included in a token lottery (two movie tickets per classroom), regardless of whether they were permitted to participate in the study. Only students with both parental consent and personal assent participated. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Human Sciences of the University of [masked for review]. Each classroom was assigned to one of three experimental conditions – condemning the bullying behavior, attempting to raise empathy for the victim, or a combination of the two – expect for one particularly large classroom, where students were randomly assigned to the three conditions. To facilitate data collection, students from multiple classrooms within the same school who were assigned to the same condition were grouped together into a single test group. The data collection proceeded as follows: First, participants completed a questionnaire that included items on age, gender, bullying behavior, and callous-unemotional traits. Second, they watched a video in which a teacher delivered one of the three anti-bullying messages (condemning, empathy-raising, or combined message). Each group saw one of the six videos (i.e., one of the tree messages delivered by either a male teacher or a female teacher). The differential effects of the message types on students’ intention to stop bullying were not the focus of the present study, as that have been examined previously, including the potential moderating role of CU traits [masked for review]; however, because participants were exposed videos with different messages and teachers delivering them, both the intervention message and the teacher delivering the message were included as control variables in the analyses. Participants were instructed to pay close attention to the video, as it would be shown only once. Finally, after viewing the video, participants completed a second questionnaire assessing their perception of the teacher delivering the message, and indicated how likely they would be to stop bullying if they were to receive such a message in a real-life discussion. In total, 295 students from 38 classrooms divided into 22 test groups (with all online participants considered a single test group) took part in the study. Among them, 273 completed the pen-and-paper questionnaires on site, while 22 responded to the online questionnaire at home. Nine of the 22 online participants reported that they had not watched the video before proceeding to the second part of the questionnaire and were therefore excluded from further analyses. Online participants were only exposed to messages delivered by the female teacher. Additionally, among the 273 pen-and-paper participants, nine were excluded due to clearly patterned responses. The final sample consisted of 277 students (129 females, 147 males, one with missing gender information; Mage = 12.93, SD = 0.49) from 37 classrooms and 22 test groups. In a previous study using the same dataset, participants’ intention to stop bullying behavior was quite high, with a mean score of 4.15 on a scale from 0 to 5, measured immediately after hearing the messages [masked for review]. Measures Intention to stop bullying behavior. Participants’ intention to stop bullying was assessed using six items: If I had been in this situation and the teacher would have talked to me like this, (a) I would stop bullying the classmate; (b) it would be unlikely that I would bully others in the future because of what the teacher said to me; (c) I would not bully others anymore after this discussion; (d) I would probably continue bullying after this (reverse coded); (e) what the teacher said would very likely influence how I treat others in the future; and (f) the teacher’s words would have a strong impact on my behavior. The answers were given on a 6-point scale ranging from 0 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The six items were averaged to form a composite score, which showed a good reliability (McDonald’s Ω = 0.84; Hayes & Coutts, 2020). Callous-unemotional traits. Participants’ callous-unemotional traits were assessed using The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU; Frick, 2004), a 24-item self-report scale. The ICU measures three dimensions of callous-unemotional traits in youth: uncaring, callousness, and unemotionality (e.g., “ I do not feel remorseful when I do something wrong.” , “ The feelings of others are unimportant to me ”). The answers were given on a 6-point scale ranging from 0 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Mean scores were calculated for the total callous-unemotional traits scale (Ω = 0.86, excluding items 2 and 10 as recommended by Ray et al., 2016; in our data, these two items also reduced, rather than increased, the reliability). Positive perception of the teacher. Participants’ perception of teacher was assessed using four items: If I had been in this situation and the teacher would have talked to me like this, (a) I would like the teacher; (b) I would trust the teacher; (c) I would feel like the teacher likes me; (d) I would feel like the teacher trusts me. The answers were given on a 6-point scale ranging from 0 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The scores for the four items were averaged and the composite score had good reliability (Ω = .82). Control variables . Participants’ gender (0 = girl, 1 = boy), the teacher speaking in the video (0 = female, 1 = male), self-reported frequency of bullying perpetration in real life, and the message in the video were used as control variables in the analyses. The frequency of bullying perpetration was assessed using the global single item from the revised Olweus’s Bully/Victim Questionnaire (Olweus, 1996 ), which has been shown to be a valid measure of bullying behavior (Olweus & Limber, 2019 ). Before responding, participants were provided with a definition of bullying (Olweus, 1996 ). Answers to the question “How often have you bullied others at school in the last couple of months?” were given on a 5-point scale (0 = not at all, 1 = only once or twice, 2 = two or three times a month, 3 = about once a week, and 4 = several times a week). For the message variable, two dummy-coded variables (0 = participant did not receive this message, 1 = participant received this message) were used: one for the condemning message and one for the empathy-raising message. The combined message served as the reference category. Analysis Plan To investigate whether students’ perception of the teacher moderated the effects of their CU traits on their intention to stop bullying, a series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted, with intention to stop as the dependent variable. In all analyses, participants’ gender, the gender of the teacher in the video, self-reported frequency of bullying perpetration, and the message in the video were controlled for, as these factors are known to be related to students’ intention to stop bullying [masked for review]. In the first step, the main effects of CU traits and perception of the teacher were examined (Model 1). In the second step, the interaction between CU traits and perception of the teacher was added in the model (Model 2). Analyses were conducted with M plus 8.8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998 –2023). Missing data were handled using full information maximum likelihood estimation (FIML). Intraclass correlations (ICCs) were small at the school level (ICC = 0.025), somewhat larger at the classroom level (ICC = 0.029), and largest at the test-group level (ICC = 0.037). Because clustering was strongest at the test-group level, test group was specified as the clustering variable to account for situational factors in the testing sessions that might have made students’ responses within test groups more similar to each other. Differences between the test groups were accounted for with the COMPLEX option, which adjusts standard error estimates for clustering of observations (i.e., between-group variation). Significant interactions were probed by calculating simple slopes at one standard deviation below the mean, at the mean, and one standard deviation above the mean of the moderator. Results Main and Interaction Effects The correlations and descriptive statistics of the study variables are presented in Table 1 . Model 1 tests the main effect of CU traits and students’ perception of the teacher, controlling for students’ gender, the gender of the teacher in the video, self-reported frequency of bullying perpetration, and the message in the video (see Table 2 ). The model explained 42.3% of the variance in intention to stop bullying. The students’ positive perception of the teacher was associated with stronger, and CU traits with weaker intention to stop bullying. Intention to stop bullying was weaker among boys compared to girls. Moreover, students who reported bullying peers more frequently in real life reported weaker intention to stop bullying. Table 1 Correlations and Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Intention to stop bullying - 2. CU traits -0.54 *** - 3. Positive perception of teacher 0.32 *** -0.26 *** - 4. Boy (student) -0.20 *** 0.22 *** 0.24 *** - 5. Male (teacher) -0.10 0.06 0.07 -0.05 - 6. Frequency of bullying perpetration -0.40 *** 0.23 *** -0.11 0.12 * 0.05 - 7. Condemning -0.09 0.11 -0.15 * -0.11 -0.02 0.02 - 8. Empathy-raising 0.03 -0.02 0.14 * 0.04 0.02 -0.09 0.52 *** - 9. Combined 0.07 -0.09 0.01 0.07 -0.00 0.067 -0.49 *** -0.49 *** - M 4.15 1.52 2.21 0.53 0.48 0.13 0.34 0.34 0.31 SD 0.91 0.63 1.20 0.41 Min 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 Max 5.00 3.36 5.00 3.00 Percentage of missing 1.40 3.20 1.80 0.40 0.00 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 Note: N = 277. Correlations coefficients between binary variables are phi coefficients. *** p <.001. ** p <.01. * p <.05. Table 2 Hierarchical Regression for Predicting Intention to Stop Bullying Variable Model 1 Model 2 b SE 95% CI p b SE 95% CI p Boy (student) -0.28 0.09 [-0.46, -0.10] .003 -0.29 0.09 [-0.47, -0.11] .001 Male (teacher) -0.17 0.09 [-0.34, 0.01] .064 -0.16 0.09 [-0.34, 0.01] .063 Frequency of bullying perpetration -0.60 0.10 [-0.78, -0.41] .000 -0.59 0.10 [-0.78, -0.40] .000 Condemning -0.12 0.10 [-0.32, 0.08] .248 -0.11 0.10 [-0.30, 0.09] .293 Empathy-raising -0.12 0.09 [-0.30, 0.07] .207 -0.11 0.09 [-0.29, 0.06] .210 CU traits -0.54 0.09 [-0.70, -0.37] .000 -0.52 0.09 [-0.69, -0.35] .000 Positive perception of teacher 0.18 0.04 [0.11, 0.25] .000 0.17 0.03 [0.11, 0.24] .000 CU traits x Positive perception of teacher 0.09 0.05 [0.00, 0.19] .042 R 2 .423 0.05 .000 .431 0.05 .000 Note: N = 277. Reference categories are girl (student gender), female (teacher gender), and the combined message (experimental conditions). All predictors were specified at the student level. Model 2 included the same predictors as Model 1, as well as the interaction term between CU traits and students’ perception of the teacher (Table 2 ). The interaction explained an additional 0.8% of the variance in intention to stop bullying. Students’ perception of the teacher significantly moderated the effects of CU traits on intention to stop. Simple slope analysis indicated that CU traits were negatively associated with students’ intention to stop at low ( b = -0.64, SE = 0.12, CI = -0.88, -0.39, p = .000), moderate ( b = -0.52, SE = 0.09, CI = -0.69, -0.35, p = .000), and high ( b = -0.41, SE = 0.08, CI = -0.56, -0.26, p = .000) levels of positive perception of the teacher. However, the negative effect of CU traits weakened as perception of the teacher became more positive. Discussion Although teachers’ targeted interventions can be effective in stopping bullying, they do not work equally well with all students (e.g., Johander et al., 2024 ). Consequently, a better understanding of how teachers can enhance the effectiveness of their interventions among students who are more resistant to interventions, such as those high on CU traits, is essential (Garandeau et al., 2015; [masked for review]). The present study aimed to shed light on this topic by utilizing a video vignette design, in which participants watched a video of a teacher talking to them after they had supposedly bullied a peer. We examined whether participants’ CU traits and positive perception of the intervening teacher were associated with students’ intention to stop their (hypothetical) bullying behavior, and whether positive perception moderated the effects of CU traits on their intention to stop. Consistent with our expectations, CU traits negatively predicted students’ intention to stop bullying. This finding aligns with previous research showing that youth high in CU traits are more resistant to teachers’ efforts to reduce disruptive behavior in general (Allen et al., 2016 , 2018 ; Hwang et al., 2021 ), and provides further evidence that they are also less responsive to interventions targeting bullying behavior specifically (e.g., [masked for review]). According to recent research, this limited effectiveness might be related to how these students interpret the different messages conveyed by the teacher in these interventions; indeed, students higher in CU traits tend to perceive more person-blaming, less bullying-condemning, and less empathy-raising from the teacher [masked for review]. Moreover, regardless of the specific approach used, an intervention inherently conveys moral values (i.e., that bullying is wrong). However, because individuals high in CU traits often show impairments in moral reasoning (Northam et al., 2022 ), rely on moral disengagement strategies (Paciello et al., 2020 ), and experience reduced empathy and guilt (Waller et al., 2020 ), it is possible that interventions do not elicit sufficient moral or emotional motivation to change their behavior among such youth. Also consistent with our expectations, students’ positive perception of the intervening teacher predicted their intention to stop bullying. Previous research has shown that students’ positive perception of the teacher and the quality of the teacher-student relationship are linked to lower levels of bullying perpetration in general (e.g., ten Bokkel et al., 2023b ). The present study aligns with and extends these findings by suggesting that students’ positive perception of the teacher is also important for the effectiveness of interventions addressing their bullying behavior. When students perceive the teacher more positively, they may be more likely to respect the teacher’s authority and, thus, be more inclined to comply with their directive to stop bullying. They may also comply simply because they value and wish to maintain the positive relationship. Moreover, research shows that the link between positive teacher–student relationships and bullying perpetration is partially mediated by students’ anti-bullying attitudes (Wang et al., 2015 ). Thus, it is also possible that such positive perception makes students more likely to internalize or conform to the moral values conveyed, which, in turn, may increase their intention to stop bullying. The main finding of the present study is that students’ perception of the teacher moderated the effects of CU traits on students’ intention to stop bullying. The negative association was strongest when students perceived the teacher less positively and the weakest when they perceived the teacher more positively. Thus, although CU traits were negatively related to students’ intention to stop bullying, the more positively students perceived the intervening teacher, the weaker this negative association became. This finding suggests that students’ perception of the intervening teacher and the relationship with them are also important for the effectiveness of interventions targeting bullying among students with elevated CU traits. Although such students tend to be more resistant to intervention efforts, and often experience reduced guilt and empathy (Waller et al., 2020 ), a positive teacher-student relationship may serve as a protective factor against some of the adverse effects associated with these traits, as demonstrated in previous research (Allen et al., 2018 ; Crum et al., 2016 ). Thus, investing in building a positive relationship with students high in CU traits may be one way teacher can make these students more responsive to their attempts at tackling their problematic behavior. Limitations The main limitation of the present study is that the targeted interventions were hypothetical. Participants watched video vignettes depicting an adult addressing a student who had been bullying others and were asked to imagine how they would perceive the intervening teacher and respond to the intervention if they had been in that situation after bullying a peer. Therefore, the extent to which the results can be generalized to actual interventions conducted following real-life bullying incidents remains unclear and should be examined in future research. However, the fact that the effect of students’ positive perception of the teacher emerged even in a hypothetical context and an imagined relationship with the teacher suggests that students’ perception of the intervening teacher and their relationship with them may play an important role in real-life interventions as well. Second, because only 32 students in the sample reported having bullied others at school within the past few months, it was not possible to test our hypotheses in a subsample of bullying perpetrators. Moreover, the more a student reported having bullied others in real life, the weaker their intention to stop bullying was, suggesting that the results might have differed in a sample consisting solely of students who engage in high levels of bullying. Nonetheless, bullying is a group phenomenon in which many students participate to varying degrees and in different roles (Salmivalli, 2010 ). Some students may also have engaged in bullying outside the time frame specified in the bullying perpetration question (the past couple of months), and some may have underreported their involvement (Garandeau et al., 2025 ). Therefore, it is likely that our sample included students who did not report their bullying behavior. Overall, the intervention scenario represents a situation that many students in our normative sample could encounter in real life. Finally, because of the COVID-19 pandemic and the national school lockdown in [masked for review] during the spring of 2020, some data were collected online, resulting in reduced control over the study conditions. Conclusions Higher levels of CU traits are associated with adolescents’ lower intention to stop bullying following a teachers’ intervention. However, students’ perception of the intervening teacher matter for the effectiveness of the intervention: the more positively youth perceived the teacher, the weaker the negative association between CU traits and intention to stop bullying was. Thus, one way for teachers to increase the chance of having their intervention message heard, and thereby enhance its effectiveness – even among students whose bullying is generally more difficult to address, such as those high in CU traits – is by creating a positive relationship with their students. Declarations Ethics approval The procedure followed the ethical standards of [masked for review] and the [masked for review]. The data collection procedure was consistent with the [masked for review] regulations. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. The study has been evaluated and approved by the Ethics Committee for Human Sciences of the University of [masked for review]. Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all parents/legal guardians of the participants included in the study and assent was obtained from all the participants themselves. Funding Writing this article was supported by the [masked for review], funded under the flagship scheme of the Academy of Finland [masked for review], ERC Advanced Grant for the last author [masked for review], and ERC Starting Grant for the second author [masked for review]. Author Contribution E.J. conceived of the study, participated in its design, coordination and data collection, performed the statistical analyses and drafted the manuscript; T.T. was involved in statistical analyses and drafting the manuscript; C.F.G. conceived of the study, participated in the design and drafting the manuscript; C.S. conceived of the study, participated in the design and drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability The fully anonymized dataset is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Allen, J. L., Bird, E., & Chhoa, C. Y. (2018). Bad Boys and Mean Girls: Callous-Unemotional Traits, Management of Disruptive Behavior in School, the Teacher-Student Relationship and Academic Motivation. Frontiers in Education , 3 . https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00108 Allen, J. L., Morris, A., & Chhoa, C. Y. (2016). Callous-unemotional (CU) traits in adolescent boys and response to teacher reward and discipline strategies. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties , 21 (3), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2016.1165968 Ariani, T. A., Putri, A. R., Firdausi, F. A., & Aini, N. (2025). Global prevalence and psychological impact of bullying among children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders , 385 , 119446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119446 Baroncelli, A., & Ciucci, E. (2020). Bidirectional Effects Between Callous-Unemotional Traits and Student-Teacher Relationship Quality Among Middle School Students. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 48 (2), 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00595-6 Burger, C., Strohmeier, D., & Kollerová, L. (2022). Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 51 (12), 2312–2327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6 Crum, K. I., Waschbusch, D. A., & Willoughby, M. T. (2016). Callous-Unemotional Traits, Behavior Disorders, and the Student–Teacher Relationship in Elementary School Students. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders , 24 (1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426615569533 Emslander, V., Holzberger, D., Ofstad, S. B., Fischbach, A., & Scherer, R. (2025). Teacher–student relationships and student outcomes: A systematic second-order meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin , 151 (3), 365–397. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000461 Garandeau, C. F., Poskiparta, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2014). Tackling acute cases of school bullying in the KiVa anti-bullying program: A comparison of two approaches. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 42 (6), 981–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9861-1 Garandeau, C. F., Turunen, T., Trach, J., & Salmivalli, C. (2025). Admitting to bullying others or denying it: Differences in children’s psychosocial adjustment and implications for intervention. International Journal of Behavioral Development , 49 (1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254241242690 Hemphälä, M., Kosson, D., Westerman, J., & Hodgins, S. (2015). Stability and predictors of psychopathic traits from mid-adolescence through early adulthood. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology , 56 (6), 649–658. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12257 Horan, J., Brown, J., Jones, S., & Aber, J. (2016). The Influence of Conduct Problems and Callous-Unemotional Traits on Academic Development Among Youth. Journal of Youth & Adolescence , 45 (6), 1245–1260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0349-2 Hwang, S., Allen, J. L., Kokosi, T., & Bird, E. (2021). To what extent does punishment insensitivity explain the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and academic performance in secondary school students? British Journal of Educational Psychology , 91 (3), 811–826. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12394 Hwang, S., Waller, R., Hawes, D. J., & Allen, J. L. (2022). Longitudinal Associations between Callous-unemotional (CU) Traits and School-based Affiliative Relationships among South Korean Children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology , 51 (4), 556–565. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2021.1881904 Johander, E., Trach, J., Turunen, T., Garandeau, C. F., & Salmivalli, C. (2022). Intention to stop bullying following a condemning, empathy-raising, or combined message from a teacher – Do students’ empathy and callous-unemotional traits matter? Journal of Youth and Adolescence . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01613-5 Johander, E., Turunen, T., Garandeau, C. F., & Salmivalli, C. (2021). Different approaches to address bullying in KiVa schools: Adherence to guidelines, strategies implemented, and outcomes obtained. Prevention Science , 22 (3), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-020-01178-4 Johander, E., Turunen, T., Garandeau, C. F., & Salmivalli, C. (2024). Interventions That Failed: Factors Associated with the Continuation of Bullying After a Targeted Intervention. Int Journal of Bullying Prevention , 6 , 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-023-00169-7 Kimonis, E. R., Fanti, K. A., Frick, P. J., Moffitt, T. E., Essau, C., Bijttebier, P., & Marsee, M. A. (2015). Using self-reported callous-unemotional traits to cross-nationally assess the DSM-5 ‘With Limited Prosocial Emotions’ specifier. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 56 (11), 1249–1261. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12357 Košir, K., Klasinc, L., Špes, T., Pivec, T., Cankar, G., & Horvat, M. (2020). Predictors of self-reported and peer-reported victimization and bullying behavior in early adolescents: The role of school, classroom, and individual factors. European Journal of Psychology of Education , 35 (2), 381–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-019-00430-y Laninga-Wijnen, L., Huisman, M., Graf, D., & Salmivalli, C. (2025). Do Targeted Interventions Diminish Victimization? Testing the Short- and Longer-term Effectiveness of Condemning, Empathy-Raising, and Combined Approaches. Journal of Youth and Adolescence . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-025-02173-0 Levine, R. S., Smith, K., & Wagner, N. J. (2023). The Impact of Callous-Unemotional Traits on Achievement, Behaviors, and Relationships in School: A Systematic Review. Child Psychiatry & Human Development , 54 (6), 1546–1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01344-5 Moore, A. A., Blair, R. J., Hettema, J. M., & Roberson-Nay, R. (2019). The genetic underpinnings of callous-unemotional traits: A systematic research review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 100 , 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.018 Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). Mplus (Version 8.8) [Computer software] . Muthén & Muthén. Northam, J. C., Kurukulasuriya, N., Hunt, C., & Hawes, D. J. (2022). Moral reasoning, emotion understanding, and callous-unemotional traits in early-to-middle childhood. British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 40 (2), 306–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12402 Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do . Blackwell. Olweus, D. (1996). The Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. British Journal of Educational Psychology Journal of Adolescent Health . https://doi.org/10.1037/t09634-000 Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2019). The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP): New evaluations and current status. Making an Impact on School Bullying . Routledge. Pabian, S., & Vandebosch, H. (2016). Short-term longitudinal relationships between adolescents’ (cyber)bullying perpetration and bonding to school and teachers. International Journal of Behavioral Development , 40 (2), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415573639 Paciello, M., Ballarotto, G., Cerniglia, L., & Muratori, P. (2020). Does the Interplay of Callous-Unemotional Traits and Moral Disengagement Underpin Disruptive Behavior? A Systematic Review. Adolescent Health Medicine and Therapeutics , 11 , 9–20. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S151699 Salmivalli, C. (2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 15 (2), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.08.007 Salmivalli, C., Laninga-Wijnen, L., Malamut, S. T., & Garandeau, C. F. (2021). Bullying prevention in adolescence: Solutions and new challenges from the past decade. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 31 (4), 1023–1046. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12688 ten Bokkel, I. M., Roorda, D. L., Maes, M., Verschueren, K., & Colpin, H. (2023a). The Role of Affective Teacher–Student Relationships in Bullying and Peer Victimization: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis. School Psychology Review , 52 (2), 110–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2022.2029218 ten Bokkel, I. M., Roorda, D. L., Maes, M., Verschueren, K., & Colpin, H. (2023b). The Role of Affective Teacher–Student Relationships in Bullying and Peer Victimization: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis. School Psychology Review , 52 (2), 110–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2022.2029218 van Baardewijk, Y., Vermeiren, R., Stegge, H., & Doreleijers, T. (2011). Self-Reported Psychopathic Traits in Children: Their Stability and Concurrent and Prospective Association with Conduct Problems and Aggression. Journal of Psychopathology & Behavioral Assessment , 33 (2), 236–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-010-9215-4 Waller, R., Wagner, N. J., Barstead, M. G., Subar, A., Petersen, J. L., Hyde, J. S., & Hyde, L. W. (2020). A meta-analysis of the associations between callous-unemotional traits and empathy, prosociality, and guilt. Clinical Psychology Review , 75 , 101809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101809 Wang, C., Swearer, S. M., Lembeck, P., Collins, A., & Berry, B. (2015). Teachers Matter: An Examination of Student-Teacher Relationships, Attitudes Toward Bullying, and Bullying Behavior. Journal of Applied School Psychology , 31 (3), 219–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2015.1056923 Yeager, D. S., Fong, C. J., Lee, H. Y., & Espelage, D. L. (2015). Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: Theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , 37 , 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 11 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 04 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 29 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 24 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 21 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Garandeau","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Turku","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Claire","middleName":"F.","lastName":"Garandeau","suffix":""},{"id":611411301,"identity":"2db2589d-f0ce-48de-9a07-1bbc5844bc25","order_by":3,"name":"Christina Salmivalli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Turku","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christina","middleName":"","lastName":"Salmivalli","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-21 08:39:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9184438/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9184438/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106723683,"identity":"6bba8f05-0ca9-4964-9b29-83dbe3d94895","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-12 18:11:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":776100,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9184438/v1/65d38787-d35f-4bee-a7d9-a241a100db1c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eCallous-Unemotional Traits and Intention to Stop Bullying: Does Students’ Perception of the Teacher Matter?\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSchool bullying violates students\u0026rsquo; right to a safe and healthy learning environment and can have far-reaching adverse consequences on the psychosocial adjustment of those who are victimized (Ariani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Bullying is defined as intentional, repeated aggressive behavior directed towards less powerful peer (e.g., Olweus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). By being present in students\u0026rsquo; everyday lives and well positioned to observe peer interactions, teachers have a role to play in such behavior (Burger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Studies show that teachers\u0026rsquo; targeted interventions (i.e., discussions with bullying perpetrators) can stop bullying, yet do not always succeed (Johander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Even with the evidence-based intervention strategies, the behavior persists in up to 26% of cases (Garandeau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Johander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Laninga-Wijnen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), indicating that some perpetrators are not responsive to teacher interventions. Individual characteristics, particularly callous-unemotional (CU) traits, have been shown to be associated with a weaker intention to stop bullying, as well as higher resistance to teachers\u0026rsquo; attempts to manage aggressive behavior in general (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; [masked for review]; [masked for review]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince certain children and adolescents show limited responsiveness to teacher interventions, it is essential to understand what teachers can do to make their intervention efforts more effective among these students in particular. One key factor may be how students perceive their teacher and the quality of their relationship with them. Indeed, students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of their teacher (e.g., Košir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Pabian \u0026amp; Vandebosch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), as well as higher-quality teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships, have been linked to lower levels of bullying perpetration (for a meta-analysis, see ten Bokkel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e). Such relational quality may be especially important when addressing the bullying behavior of students with elevated CU traits, as these students are more likely to experience poorer-quality relationships with their teachers (Levine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Surprisingly, however, no study yet has examined whether the effect of CU traits on students\u0026rsquo; responsiveness to targeted anti-bullying interventions by teachers is moderated by students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher intervening in bullying. The present study addresses this question using data from a vignette study, in which participants watched a video of a teacher talking to them after they have supposedly bullied a peer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCU Traits and Effectiveness of Teachers’ Interventions in Stopping Bullying\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCallous-unemotional (CU) traits refer to personality characteristics that include low empathy, lack of remorse or guilt, and shallow or deficient affect (e.g., Kimonis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These traits are relatively stable from childhood to adulthood (e.g., Hemph\u0026auml;l\u0026auml; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; van Baardewijk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), likely due to strong genetic influences (Moore et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). CU traits have been consistently associated with higher levels of different forms of antisocial behavior, including aggression and bullying in the school context (for review, see Levine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite robust evidence linking CU traits to bullying and other types of antisocial behavior, research on how these traits affect the effectiveness of teacher interventions remains scarce. The few existing studies indicate that students with elevated CU traits are less responsive to teachers\u0026rsquo; efforts to stop aggressive and disruptive behaviors (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Hwang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding bullying perpetration in particular, CU traits have been associated with weaker intention to stop bullying after exposure to teachers\u0026rsquo; targeted intervention messages. This finding was first demonstrated in a video vignette experimental study with a normative sample of seventh-grade students [masked for review], and was later replicated in a similar video vignette study with both a normative sample of fourth- and seventh-grade students and in a subsample of bullying perpetrators [masked for review]. Consistent with findings that students with high CU traits show lower responsiveness to teachers\u0026rsquo; attempts to manage aggressive behavior, these studies show that children and adolescents high in CU traits are less likely to respond to interventions specifically targeting bullying behavior. Moreover, no evidence was found that CU traits moderated the relative effectiveness of different intervention strategies (focusing on condemning the bullying vs. raising empathy for the victimized peer), suggesting that students with elevated CU traits tend to be less responsive to targeted interventions regardless of the strategy used [masked for review].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDoes Students\u0026rsquo; Perception of the Teacher Moderate the Association Between CU Traits and Intervention Effectiveness?\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the limited responsiveness of students with elevated CU traits to teacher interventions, as well as their higher likelihood of engaging in aggressive behaviors, including bullying, it is important to identify ways to enhance the effectiveness of teachers\u0026rsquo; intervention efforts. To date, no moderator of the association between CU traits and responsiveness to intervention has been identified. Given that the affective quality of the teacher-student relationship (i.e., emotional bond between teacher and student) has been associated with numerous student outcomes, such as academic achievement, school belonging, school engagement, and fewer behavioral problems (Emslander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; ten Bokkel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e), it could be a key factor. Moreover, students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of their teacher have been linked to lower levels of bullying perpetration (e.g., Košir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Pabian \u0026amp; Vandebosch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncouragingly, research suggests that even children and adolescents with elevated CU traits can benefit from positive relationships with their teachers. In a study of early adolescents, teachers viewed a high-quality teacher-student relationship as an important contributor to academic motivation (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This was true for all students, including those high on CU traits. A study comparing children with conduct problems, elevated CU traits, both, or neither, found that conflict with teachers early in the year predicted more oppositional behaviors, peer difficulties, and classroom impairments at the end of the school year, while greater teacher-student closeness was linked to a lower risk of academic impairments for everyone, including students with elevated CU traits (Crum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the two studies reviewed above \u0026ndash; the only studies on this topic \u0026ndash; relied on teacher reports of relationship quality, little is known about how students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher or of their relationship with the teacher affect the association between CU traits and school adjustment. It is known, however, that students high in CU traits are at higher risk of experiencing poorer-quality relationships with their teacher, even after accounting for conduct problems and antisocial behavior (Horan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Hwang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, decreases in student-reported affiliation with teachers in the middle of the school year have predicted increases in CU traits at the end of the year (Hwang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Yet, not all studies have found CU traits to be predictive of teacher-student relationship quality (Baroncelli \u0026amp; Ciucci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that it is possible for students high in CU traits to have a positive relationship with their teachers. Moreover, in an interview study, some teachers described positive relationships with early adolescents who were high on CU traits, despite recognizing the challenges posed by these students\u0026rsquo; behavior (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, even though building a good relationship with students high on CU traits may be difficult, when established, such a relationship may buffer against some of the adverse consequences associated with these traits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCurrent Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study investigates whether early adolescents\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher delivering an anti-bullying intervention \u0026ndash; specifically, their perceived liking of and trusting the teacher, and perception of being liked and trusted by the teacher \u0026ndash; moderates the effects of CU traits on their intention to stop their (hypothetical) bullying. Students watched a video of an adult talking to them after they had supposedly bullied a peer, telling them that the situation needs to change. Before viewing the video, participants completed a questionnaire about their age, gender, bullying behavior and CU traits. Immediately after viewing the video, they reported their perception of the adult delivering the message and how likely they would be to stop their bullying behavior if their teacher spoke to them in this way.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, we examine whether and how participants\u0026rsquo; CU traits and perception of the teacher delivering the intervention message are associated with their intention to stop bullying. We hypothesize that CU traits are associated with a weaker, and a positive perception of the teacher with a stronger intention to stop bullying. Second, we examine whether the association between CU traits and intention to stop bullying is moderated by the participants\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher delivering the intervention message. We hypothesize that a more positive perception of the teacher will buffer against the negative effect of CU traits on intention to stop bullying, meaning that such a perception is expected to weaken the negative association between CU traits and intention to stop bullying.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProcedure and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected from a convenience sample of [masked for review] schools, including three secondary schools and four combined schools (offering both primary and secondary grades). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting school lockdown in spring 2020, the data collection took place at three time points: February, May, and September-October 2020. In February and September\u0026ndash;October, data were collected on site by the first author and trained research assistants using pen-and-paper questionnaires, as schools were operating in-person during these periods, whereas in May, data collection was conducted online due to school lockdown at that time. Schools were recruited by contacting principals, informing them about the purpose and procedures of the study, and asking them to invite all seventh-grade students in their schools to participate. The seventh grade (i.e., the first year of secondary school) was chosen because anti-bullying interventions tend to become less effective during adolescence (e.g., Salmivalli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Yeager et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), making it important to examine students\u0026rsquo; responsiveness at this stage. Information about the study procedures and data protection was sent to the parents or guardians, who were asked to provide informed consent for their child\u0026rsquo;s participation. All students who returned a completed consent form were included in a token lottery (two movie tickets per classroom), regardless of whether they were permitted to participate in the study. Only students with both parental consent and personal assent participated. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Human Sciences of the University of [masked for review].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach classroom was assigned to one of three experimental conditions \u0026ndash; condemning the bullying behavior, attempting to raise empathy for the victim, or a combination of the two \u0026ndash; expect for one particularly large classroom, where students were randomly assigned to the three conditions. To facilitate data collection, students from multiple classrooms within the same school who were assigned to the same condition were grouped together into a single test group. The data collection proceeded as follows: First, participants completed a questionnaire that included items on age, gender, bullying behavior, and callous-unemotional traits. Second, they watched a video in which a teacher delivered one of the three anti-bullying messages (condemning, empathy-raising, or combined message). Each group saw one of the six videos (i.e., one of the tree messages delivered by either a male teacher or a female teacher). The differential effects of the message types on students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying were not the focus of the present study, as that have been examined previously, including the potential moderating role of CU traits [masked for review]; however, because participants were exposed videos with different messages and teachers delivering them, both the intervention message and the teacher delivering the message were included as control variables in the analyses. Participants were instructed to pay close attention to the video, as it would be shown only once. Finally, after viewing the video, participants completed a second questionnaire assessing their perception of the teacher delivering the message, and indicated how likely they would be to stop bullying if they were to receive such a message in a real-life discussion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 295 students from 38 classrooms divided into 22 test groups (with all online participants considered a single test group) took part in the study. Among them, 273 completed the pen-and-paper questionnaires on site, while 22 responded to the online questionnaire at home. Nine of the 22 online participants reported that they had not watched the video before proceeding to the second part of the questionnaire and were therefore excluded from further analyses. Online participants were only exposed to messages delivered by the female teacher. Additionally, among the 273 pen-and-paper participants, nine were excluded due to clearly patterned responses. The final sample consisted of 277 students (129 females, 147 males, one with missing gender information; Mage\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.93, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49) from 37 classrooms and 22 test groups. In a previous study using the same dataset, participants\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying behavior was quite high, with a mean score of 4.15 on a scale from 0 to 5, measured immediately after hearing the messages [masked for review].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIntention to stop bullying behavior.\u003c/b\u003e Participants\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying was assessed using six items: If I had been in this situation and the teacher would have talked to me like this, \u003cem\u003e(a) I would stop bullying the classmate; (b) it would be unlikely that I would bully others in the future because of what the teacher said to me; (c) I would not bully others anymore after this discussion; (d) I would probably continue bullying after this (reverse coded); (e) what the teacher said would very likely influence how I treat others in the future; and (f) the teacher\u0026rsquo;s words would have a strong impact on my behavior.\u003c/em\u003e The answers were given on a 6-point scale ranging from 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree. The six items were averaged to form a composite score, which showed a good reliability (McDonald\u0026rsquo;s Ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.84; Hayes \u0026amp; Coutts, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCallous-unemotional traits.\u003c/b\u003e Participants\u0026rsquo; callous-unemotional traits were assessed using The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU; Frick, 2004), a 24-item self-report scale. The ICU measures three dimensions of callous-unemotional traits in youth: uncaring, callousness, and unemotionality (e.g., \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eI do not feel remorseful when I do something wrong.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThe feelings of others are unimportant to me\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;). The answers were given on a 6-point scale ranging from 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree. Mean scores were calculated for the total callous-unemotional traits scale (Ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.86, excluding items 2 and 10 as recommended by Ray et al., 2016; in our data, these two items also reduced, rather than increased, the reliability).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePositive perception of the teacher.\u003c/b\u003e Participants\u0026rsquo; perception of teacher was assessed using four items: If I had been in this situation and the teacher would have talked to me like this, \u003cem\u003e(a) I would like the teacher; (b) I would trust the teacher; (c) I would feel like the teacher likes me; (d) I would feel like the teacher trusts me.\u003c/em\u003e The answers were given on a 6-point scale ranging from 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree. The scores for the four items were averaged and the composite score had good reliability (Ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.82).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl variables\u003c/b\u003e. Participants\u0026rsquo; gender (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;girl, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;boy), the teacher speaking in the video (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;female, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;male), self-reported frequency of bullying perpetration in real life, and the message in the video were used as control variables in the analyses. The frequency of bullying perpetration was assessed using the global single item from the revised Olweus\u0026rsquo;s Bully/Victim Questionnaire (Olweus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e), which has been shown to be a valid measure of bullying behavior (Olweus \u0026amp; Limber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Before responding, participants were provided with a definition of bullying (Olweus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Answers to the question \u0026ldquo;How often have you bullied others at school in the last couple of months?\u0026rdquo; were given on a 5-point scale (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;only once or twice, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;two or three times a month, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;about once a week, and 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;several times a week). For the message variable, two dummy-coded variables (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;participant did not receive this message, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;participant received this message) were used: one for the condemning message and one for the empathy-raising message. The combined message served as the reference category.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalysis Plan\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate whether students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher moderated the effects of their CU traits on their intention to stop bullying, a series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted, with intention to stop as the dependent variable. In all analyses, participants\u0026rsquo; gender, the gender of the teacher in the video, self-reported frequency of bullying perpetration, and the message in the video were controlled for, as these factors are known to be related to students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying [masked for review]. In the first step, the main effects of CU traits and perception of the teacher were examined (Model 1). In the second step, the interaction between CU traits and perception of the teacher was added in the model (Model 2). Analyses were conducted with \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003eplus 8.8 (Muth\u0026eacute;n \u0026amp; Muth\u0026eacute;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;2023). Missing data were handled using full information maximum likelihood estimation (FIML). Intraclass correlations (ICCs) were small at the school level (ICC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025), somewhat larger at the classroom level (ICC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.029), and largest at the test-group level (ICC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.037). Because clustering was strongest at the test-group level, test group was specified as the clustering variable to account for situational factors in the testing sessions that might have made students\u0026rsquo; responses within test groups more similar to each other. Differences between the test groups were accounted for with the COMPLEX option, which adjusts standard error estimates for clustering of observations (i.e., between-group variation). Significant interactions were probed by calculating simple slopes at one standard deviation below the mean, at the mean, and one standard deviation above the mean of the moderator.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMain and Interaction Effects\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe correlations and descriptive statistics of the study variables are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Model 1 tests the main effect of CU traits and students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher, controlling for students\u0026rsquo; gender, the gender of the teacher in the video, self-reported frequency of bullying perpetration, and the message in the video (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The model explained 42.3% of the variance in intention to stop bullying. The students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of the teacher was associated with stronger, and CU traits with weaker intention to stop bullying. Intention to stop bullying was weaker among boys compared to girls. Moreover, students who reported bullying peers more frequently in real life reported weaker intention to stop bullying.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorrelations and Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Intention to stop bullying\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. CU traits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.54\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Positive perception of teacher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.26\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Boy (student)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.20\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Male (teacher)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Frequency of bullying perpetration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.40\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. Condemning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. Empathy-raising\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9. Combined\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.067\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.49\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.49\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage of missing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: N\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;277. Correlations coefficients between binary variables are phi coefficients.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e***\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001. **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01. *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHierarchical Regression for Predicting Intention to Stop Bullying\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoy (student)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.46, -0.10]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.47, -0.11]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale (teacher)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.34, 0.01]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.34, 0.01]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.063\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of bullying perpetration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.78, -0.41]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.78, -0.40]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCondemning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.32, 0.08]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.248\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.30, 0.09]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathy-raising\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.30, 0.07]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.29, 0.06]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCU traits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.70, -0.37]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-0.69, -0.35]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive perception of teacher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.11, 0.25]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.11, 0.24]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCU traits x Positive perception of teacher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.19]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.431\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: N\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;277. Reference categories are girl (student gender), female (teacher gender), and the combined message (experimental conditions). All predictors were specified at the student level.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2 included the same predictors as Model 1, as well as the interaction term between CU traits and students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The interaction explained an additional 0.8% of the variance in intention to stop bullying. Students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher significantly moderated the effects of CU traits on intention to stop. Simple slope analysis indicated that CU traits were negatively associated with students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop at low (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.64, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.12, \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e = -0.88, -0.39, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .000), moderate (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.52, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.09, \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e = -0.69, -0.35, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .000), and high (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.41, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08, \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e = -0.56, -0.26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .000) levels of positive perception of the teacher. However, the negative effect of CU traits weakened as perception of the teacher became more positive.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough teachers\u0026rsquo; targeted interventions can be effective in stopping bullying, they do not work equally well with all students (e.g., Johander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, a better understanding of how teachers can enhance the effectiveness of their interventions among students who are more resistant to interventions, such as those high on CU traits, is essential (Garandeau et al., 2015; [masked for review]). The present study aimed to shed light on this topic by utilizing a video vignette design, in which participants watched a video of a teacher talking to them after they had supposedly bullied a peer. We examined whether participants\u0026rsquo; CU traits and positive perception of the intervening teacher were associated with students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop their (hypothetical) bullying behavior, and whether positive perception moderated the effects of CU traits on their intention to stop.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with our expectations, CU traits negatively predicted students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying. This finding aligns with previous research showing that youth high in CU traits are more resistant to teachers\u0026rsquo; efforts to reduce disruptive behavior in general (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Hwang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and provides further evidence that they are also less responsive to interventions targeting bullying behavior specifically (e.g., [masked for review]). According to recent research, this limited effectiveness might be related to how these students interpret the different messages conveyed by the teacher in these interventions; indeed, students higher in CU traits tend to perceive more person-blaming, less bullying-condemning, and less empathy-raising from the teacher [masked for review]. Moreover, regardless of the specific approach used, an intervention inherently conveys moral values (i.e., that bullying is wrong). However, because individuals high in CU traits often show impairments in moral reasoning (Northam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), rely on moral disengagement strategies (Paciello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and experience reduced empathy and guilt (Waller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), it is possible that interventions do not elicit sufficient moral or emotional motivation to change their behavior among such youth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso consistent with our expectations, students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of the intervening teacher predicted their intention to stop bullying. Previous research has shown that students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of the teacher and the quality of the teacher-student relationship are linked to lower levels of bullying perpetration in general (e.g., ten Bokkel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e). The present study aligns with and extends these findings by suggesting that students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of the teacher is also important for the effectiveness of interventions addressing their bullying behavior. When students perceive the teacher more positively, they may be more likely to respect the teacher\u0026rsquo;s authority and, thus, be more inclined to comply with their directive to stop bullying. They may also comply simply because they value and wish to maintain the positive relationship. Moreover, research shows that the link between positive teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships and bullying perpetration is partially mediated by students\u0026rsquo; anti-bullying attitudes (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, it is also possible that such positive perception makes students more likely to internalize or conform to the moral values conveyed, which, in turn, may increase their intention to stop bullying.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main finding of the present study is that students\u0026rsquo; perception of the teacher moderated the effects of CU traits on students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying. The negative association was strongest when students perceived the teacher less positively and the weakest when they perceived the teacher more positively. Thus, although CU traits were negatively related to students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying, the more positively students perceived the intervening teacher, the weaker this negative association became. This finding suggests that students\u0026rsquo; perception of the intervening teacher and the relationship with them are also important for the effectiveness of interventions targeting bullying among students with elevated CU traits. Although such students tend to be more resistant to intervention efforts, and often experience reduced guilt and empathy (Waller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), a positive teacher-student relationship may serve as a protective factor against some of the adverse effects associated with these traits, as demonstrated in previous research (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Crum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, investing in building a positive relationship with students high in CU traits may be one way teacher can make these students more responsive to their attempts at tackling their problematic behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main limitation of the present study is that the targeted interventions were hypothetical. Participants watched video vignettes depicting an adult addressing a student who had been bullying others and were asked to imagine how they would perceive the intervening teacher and respond to the intervention if they had been in that situation after bullying a peer. Therefore, the extent to which the results can be generalized to actual interventions conducted following real-life bullying incidents remains unclear and should be examined in future research. However, the fact that the effect of students\u0026rsquo; positive perception of the teacher emerged even in a hypothetical context and an imagined relationship with the teacher suggests that students\u0026rsquo; perception of the intervening teacher and their relationship with them may play an important role in real-life interventions as well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, because only 32 students in the sample reported having bullied others at school within the past few months, it was not possible to test our hypotheses in a subsample of bullying perpetrators. Moreover, the more a student reported having bullied others in real life, the weaker their intention to stop bullying was, suggesting that the results might have differed in a sample consisting solely of students who engage in high levels of bullying. Nonetheless, bullying is a group phenomenon in which many students participate to varying degrees and in different roles (Salmivalli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Some students may also have engaged in bullying outside the time frame specified in the bullying perpetration question (the past couple of months), and some may have underreported their involvement (Garandeau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it is likely that our sample included students who did not report their bullying behavior. Overall, the intervention scenario represents a situation that many students in our normative sample could encounter in real life. Finally, because of the COVID-19 pandemic and the national school lockdown in [masked for review] during the spring of 2020, some data were collected online, resulting in reduced control over the study conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eHigher levels of CU traits are associated with adolescents\u0026rsquo; lower intention to stop bullying following a teachers\u0026rsquo; intervention. However, students\u0026rsquo; perception of the intervening teacher matter for the effectiveness of the intervention: the more positively youth perceived the teacher, the weaker the negative association between CU traits and intention to stop bullying was. Thus, one way for teachers to increase the chance of having their intervention message heard, and thereby enhance its effectiveness \u0026ndash; even among students whose bullying is generally more difficult to address, such as those high in CU traits \u0026ndash; is by creating a positive relationship with their students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthics approval\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe procedure followed the ethical standards of [masked for review] and the [masked for review]. The data collection procedure was consistent with the [masked for review] regulations. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. The study has been evaluated and approved by the Ethics Committee for Human Sciences of the University of [masked for review].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Informed consent was obtained from all parents/legal guardians of the participants included in the study and assent was obtained from all the participants themselves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Writing this article was supported by the [masked for review], funded under the flagship scheme of the Academy of Finland [masked for review], ERC Advanced Grant for the last author [masked for review], and ERC Starting Grant for the second author [masked for review].\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eE.J. conceived of the study, participated in its design, coordination and data collection, performed the statistical analyses and drafted the manuscript; T.T. was involved in statistical analyses and drafting the manuscript; C.F.G. conceived of the study, participated in the design and drafting the manuscript; C.S. conceived of the study, participated in the design and drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fully anonymized dataset is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllen, J. L., Bird, E., \u0026amp; Chhoa, C. Y. (2018). Bad Boys and Mean Girls: Callous-Unemotional Traits, Management of Disruptive Behavior in School, the Teacher-Student Relationship and Academic Motivation. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00108\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/feduc.2018.00108\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllen, J. L., Morris, A., \u0026amp; Chhoa, C. Y. (2016). 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Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: Theory and a three-level meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Developmental Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e37\u003c/em\u003e, 36\u0026ndash;51. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-bullying-prevention","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbp","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Bullying Prevention](https://rd.springer.com/journal/42380)","snPcode":"42380","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42380/3","title":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Bullying, Targeted interventions, Callous-unemotional traits, Perception of teacher, Student-teacher relationship","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9184438/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9184438/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding how teachers can intervene more effectively in bullying is essential, particularly when working with students whose misbehavior is particularly challenging to address, such as those high in callous-unemotional (CU) traits. This study tested the effects of callous-unemotional (CU) traits on students\u0026rsquo; intention to stop bullying after a teacher-delivered anti-bullying intervention, and whether this effect was moderated by their perception of the teacher. A sample of 277 seventh-graders (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003eage\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.93, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49; 47% female) was asked to imagine having bullied a peer and being invited to a discussion with a teacher. They then watched a video depicting what the teacher would say. Higher CU traits were associated with weaker intention to stop bullying, whereas perceiving the teacher more positively was related to stronger intention to stop. A significant moderation was found: the negative association between CU traits and intention to stop was stronger when students perceived the teacher less positively. Findings suggest that building positive relationships with students whose bullying is difficult to address (e.g., high in CU traits) may help enhance the effectiveness of teachers\u0026rsquo; targeted interventions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Callous-Unemotional Traits and Intention to Stop Bullying: Does Students’ Perception of the Teacher Matter?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-26 19:14:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9184438/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-11T08:31:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-04T22:35:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-29T16:21:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"68560623885362862633946925909007948515","date":"2026-04-29T15:14:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"312028031781960093400932162261881953876","date":"2026-04-18T09:10:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-24T13:09:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-24T06:40:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-24T06:40:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","date":"2026-03-21T08:33:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-bullying-prevention","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbp","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Bullying Prevention](https://rd.springer.com/journal/42380)","snPcode":"42380","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42380/3","title":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"13eae18b-c1dd-404d-8d00-f3c751acb40d","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 26th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-11T08:31:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-04T22:35:02+00:00","index":27,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-29T16:21:54+00:00","index":26,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-11T08:43:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-26 19:14:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9184438","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9184438","identity":"rs-9184438","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}