Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera, Chitosan, and Alum as Adsorbents in Lake Water Treatment

Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera, Chitosan, and Alum as Adsorbents in Lake Water Treatment | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera, Chitosan, and Alum as Adsorbents in Lake Water Treatment Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui, Paul Atabong Agendia, Alex Tawanda Kuvarega, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7842477/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 10 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluated the effects of Moringa oleifera (MO), chitosan, and alum as adsorbents on the physicochemical properties of water collected from Lake Florida, in Johannesburg, South Africa. The lake water was subjected to three different treatments using jar tests at concentration dosages of 25, 30, and 35 mL and settling times of 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The water treated with adsorbents significantly reduced turbidity (p < 0.05) with removal efficiencies of 99.33% for MO (30 mL, 30 min), 99.22% for chitosan (35 mL, 60 min), and 99.60% for alum (25 mL, 60 min). Dissolved oxygen increased from 2.06 ± 0.02 mg/L to 3.24 ± 0.01 mg/L with MO and chitosan and to 3.15 ± 0.01 mg/L with alum. Sulfate levels increased with MO from 65 ± 1 mg/L to 200.67 ± 0.58 mg/L, while alum caused an initial decrease to 49.67 ± 0.58 mg/L, followed by an increase to 71.33 ± 0.58 mg/L. Furthermore, total dissolved solids and conductivity increased with MO, whereas chitosan and alum caused no significant changes. However, a slight pH reduction was noted, with no significant nitrate alteration. Based on principal component analysis, the key factors driving water quality variations in the dataset were treatment type and retention time, with parameters such as pH, conductivity, and sulfate being strong indicators of treatment efficiency. Dissolved oxygen and nitrate were more dependent on treatment time. These findings provide insights into the performance of different adsorbents and their impacts on lake water quality. Moringa oleifera Chitosan Alum Lake Water Treatment Physicochemical properties Comparative Study Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Highlights • Lake water treatment with , chitosan, and alum was effective. • Performance of natural coagulants was evaluated against the synthetic coagulant. • Optimal dosages for water treatment efficiency for each coagulant were identified. • PCA biplot showed the relationships between parameters during water treatment. 1. Introduction Access to safe and clean water remains a significant problem for many countries worldwide, particularly in rural areas where conventional water treatment facilities may be limited. The quest for effective and sustainable water treatment methods has led to increased interest in natural coagulants as alternatives to traditional chemical agents. Although conventional coagulants, such as aluminium sulphate (Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ⋅18H 2 O) are frequently used as synthetic coagulants to purify water because of their rapid aggregation and formation of heavy flocs, worries about their costs and effects on the environment and human health have led to research into sustainable and natural alternatives (Mitiku 2020 ). Natural coagulants are biodegradable and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Moreover, they present low toxicity and have low levels of residual sludge, as well as being considered health-friendly (Cardoso Valverde et al. 2018 ). Among the natural coagulants, chitosan and Moringa oleifera seeds have shown promising results (Salazar Gámez et al. 2015 ; Malik 2018 ; Ngandjui Tchangoue et al. 2019 ; Saritha et al. 2019 ). Moringa oleifera seed (MOs) is obtained from a drought-resistant and salt-tolerant farm tree referred to as a “miracle tree”. It stands out as one of the most used non-toxic and biodegradable natural coagulants. Moringa oleifera which contains water-soluble cationic proteins, has been well known for a long time for its ability to remove several contaminants from water effluents because of its strong coagulation properties which are useful for water treatment (Bancessi et al. 2022 ; Al-Jadabi et al. 2023 ; Rasheed et al. 2023 ; Dandesa et al. 2023 ). Chitosan is a natural polycationic bio-sorbent derivative obtained by N-deacetylation of chitin. It is a polysaccharide composed of two types of monomeric units and has free reactive hydroxyl and amino functional groups. It is a rigid and crystalline polymer, insoluble in water at neutral pH, but due to the protonation of free amino groups, it can be dissolved in acidic conditions and has a high pollutant binding capacity (Bhatt et al. 2023 ; Chelu et al. 2023 ). It is also biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, and has an adaptable surface chemistry and a high surface area. These beneficial characteristics make chitosan a versatile ecological material, usable in water purification, biofiltration, pollutant removal, and wastewater treatment (Piekarska et al. 2023 ; Gonçalves et al. 2024 ). Insightful results have been obtained from comparisons between these natural coagulants and conventional alum treatments. Although alum is useful in reducing turbidity, studies show that it can reduce the pH of treated water, which could result in acidic conditions. Moringa oleifera seed extracts, on the other hand, provide a more ecologically friendly option by preserving the pH of the treated water (Al-Manhel et al. 2018 ). Although several studies have reported the use of natural coagulants for wastewater treatment, insufficient attention has been paid to surface water in South Africa. Further research focusing on the effectiveness of Moringa oleifera , chitosan, and alum as adsorbents specifically in the context of lake water treatment is warranted to develop optimized, eco-friendly water purification strategies. This study uses Moringa oleifera seeds, chitosan, and alum as adsorbents to assess the removal efficiency of turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS), conductivity, nitrate, and sulphate under the influencing parameters of coagulant dosage and settling time in lake water. Furthermore, principal component analysis was used to understand the correlation between the various parameters. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Surface water sampling The surface water samples were collected in the middle of November 2024 from Florida Lake water located in Johannesburg, South Africa (Coordinates 26°10′42.2″S 27°54′23.8″E). This water was collected at a depth of 10–30 cm from the top surface of the water body using clean 1L glass bottles with Teflon-lined caps and transported to the laboratory in a cooler bag. 2.2. Reagents and feed water Moringa oleifera seeds were obtained from retailers at Mokolo market (Yaounde, Cameroon). Reagent grade NaCl, chitosan (low molecular weight, Deacetylated chitin, Poly(D-glucosamine)), and alum (Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 .18H 2 O) were procured from Merck, South Africa. All aqueous solutions were prepared using ultra-pure water (resistivity of ~ 18.2 mΩ.cm and pH ~ 6.998) from a MilliQ water purification system (Molsheim, France). 2.3. Preparation of Moringa oleifera -derived coagulant, chitosan coagulant, and alum solution The seeds of Moringa oleifera were de-shelled and dried at ambient temperature before milling. The white kernels were powdered using a milling machine (POWTEQ-BM6Pro, rotation 150 rpm and time 20 minutes). Milled seed fragments were separated into fine powder using a sieve of 600 µm size range which is within the range recommended to achieve better coagulation efficiency (Landázuri et al. 2018 ). The powder was then stored in a sterile capped bottle. The optimum dosage was set as reported in the literature and on the preliminary tests (Nhut et al. 2021 ; Murali et al. 2022 ). The coagulant extract of Moringa oleifera was made by adding 2.5 g of the powdered MO seeds to 250 mL of an aqueous solution containing 10 mM NaCl and stirring using a magnetic stirrer for 15 minutes. The mixture was then filtered using a sterile syringe filter with a pore size of 0.45-µm to remove seed fragments (Ghebremichael et al. 2005 ; Murali et al. 2022 ). Two additional coagulants, chitosan and alum, were also evaluated by preparing solutions with various dosages and under the same conditions for comparison. The chitosan solution was prepared by dissolving 0.8g of chitosan powder in 5 mL of 1% acetic acid. The mixture was stirred using a magnetic stirrer for 15 minutes, topped up to 100 mL with DI water, and then stirred again for two hours. The obtained solution was then filtered to remove suspended particles. Air bubbles were eliminated by keeping the solution at room temperature for 2 hours (El-Hefian et al. 2010 ; Abraham et al. 2016 ; Zuhannisa et al. 2017). Aluminium sulphate (alum) [Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 .18H 2 O] was used in this study as the inorganic coagulant, and it was prepared by dissolving 0.4g in 1 L of ultra-pure water. The solution was stirred for five minutes using a magnetic stirrer for complete dissolution (Murali et al. 2022 ). The coagulant dosage volumes adopted were 25 mL, 30 mL, and 35 mL for the treatment of 1 L of lake water for each type of coagulant. 2.4. Experimental jar test procedure The standard three-step process of coagulation, tapered flocculation, and sedimentation was followed while using the programmable jar test apparatus (CAT REF W1-A, Serial number 38356-001, VELP Scientifica) and six 2L jars (beakers). The concentrations (dosages), different times, and rotational speeds of the stirring paddle were determined as optimal based on the literature (Ngandjui Tchangoue et al. 2019 ; Desta and Bote 2021 ; Murali et al. 2022 ; Silva 2023 ) and on preliminary tests. After settling, the treated lake water samples were collected in each jar for analysis. The tests were carried out at room temperature and in triplicate following the procedure below: Mixing the lake water in beakers at 150 rpm for 3 minutes (rapid speed) while adding coagulant. Reducing the mixing to 50 rpm and continue the slow mix for 30 min while adding the flocculant. Turning off the mixer and allowing settling to occur for 30 min, 60 min, and 90 min. After settling, extracting the supernatant and keeping the water for further analysis. These parameters were kept the same for jar tests with Moringa oleifera-based coagulants, chitosan, and alum: the coagulant dosage volumes used were the only significant difference between these tests. 2.5. Water analysis and statistical analysis Fresh lake water and coagulated samples were analysed for their pH, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), conductivity, and TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) using the multiparameter HANNA HI9829. On the other hand, the turbidity was determined using a Turbidity Meter TB400 (EXTECH Instruments). Nitrate (NO 3 − ) and sulfate (SO 4 2− ) were measured using a Spectroquant Pharo 300 M. The monitoring of organic content was done by measuring UV absorption, using a UV spectrometer (Shimadzu, UV-1800) at a wavelength between 200 nm and 450 nm. The effect of various parameters on coagulation performance was analyzed using a multiparametric ANOVA test to assess statistical significance, with the significance level set at α = 0.05. Pairwise comparisons between treatments were conducted using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test to determine significant differences (the letters in the boxplot represent the results of statistical comparisons used to determine significant differences between the means of the different treatments). Furthermore, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to reduce dimensionality, extract key trends, and highlight correlations among the effects of natural coagulants on water quality parameters, revealing distinct groupings and interdependencies. All statistical analyses and data visualizations were performed using OriginPro 2024 software (OriginPro Corporation, New York, NY, USA). 3. Results and discussion 3.1 Effects of treatments on the turbidity The effects of the different treatments on turbidity were compared with the initial turbidity of the fresh lake water (Lw), which was 37.33 ± 1.08 NTU. The treatments tested were alum (A), chitosan (C), and Moringa oleifera (M) at various coagulant dosage volumes of 25 mL (1), 30 mL (2), and 35 mL (3), and applied at 30, 60, and 90 minutes (Fig. 1 ). There is a significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 with different levels of significance (letters from a to i) between the adsorbents and the time of decantation. However, there is no significant difference between the treatment with alum after 30 minutes and chitosan after 60 minutes, while using 25 mL (Fig. 1 a), and the treatment with chitosan after 90 minutes and M. oleifera after 30 minutes, while using 35 mL (Fig. 1 c) because they are sharing the same letters (f and c respectively). At the volume of 25 mL (Fig. 1 a), alum (A1) treated water had the lowest turbidity (0.15 ± 0.02 NTU), followed by chitosan (C1) treated water (1.08 ± 0.01 NTU) after 60 minutes. Moringa oleifera (M1) treated water exhibited the highest turbidity (2.29 ± 0.01 NTU) after 30 minutes, suggesting that it was less effective in reducing turbidity compared to alum and chitosan. With a volume of 30 mL (Fig. 1 b), the turbidity of alum (A2) treated water decreased to 0.18 ± 0.01 NTU after 60 minutes, showing the most significant reduction resulting in the clearest water. On the other hand, M. oleifera (M2) treated water exhibited its most important performance after 30 minutes with a turbidity of 0.25 ± 0.01 NTU. Chitosan (C2) treated water followed by turbidity at 0.59 ± 0.01 NTU after 60 minutes. At the volume of 35 mL (Fig. 1 c), the turbidity of alum (A3) treated water was still the best with a slight decrease to 0.21 ± 0.01 NTU, followed by chitosan (C3) which showed its best performance with a significant decrease to 0.29 ± 0.01 NTU after 60 minutes. In contrast, M. oleifera -treated water exhibited a turbidity of 0.93 ± 0.01 NTU after 30 minutes, indicating a further decrease in its effectiveness at clearing the water. In conclusion, it was observed that alum, chitosan, and Moringa oleifera reduced the turbidity of the initial lake water. These adsorbents can destabilise and aggregate suspended particles, which causes them to settle out of the water and reduce its turbidity. The lowest turbidity values were 0.15 NTU for alum (A1) after 60 minutes, 0.25 NTU for M. oleifera (M2) after 30 minutes, and 0.29 NTU for chitosan (C3) after 60 minutes. They are below the 5 NTU limit recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water, and the reduction is greater than 99%. Alum treatment proved to be the most effective in reducing turbidity, consistently maintaining low turbidity levels across all time points. However, the natural coagulant Moringa oleifera showed initial effectiveness but became less efficient as time progressed, with turbidity increasing significantly by 60 and 90 minutes. Chitosan had a moderate effect, initially reducing turbidity but failing to achieve as low a level as alum by the end of the experiment. These findings suggest that alum is the most effective treatment for reducing turbidity, while M. oleifera can be used at a certain concentration and with a specific settling time to reach a good percentage of turbidity reduction. These results are like those of Murali et al. (Murali et al. 2022 ) and Silva and Oliveira (Silva and Oliveira 2024 ), where Moringa oleifera best dosage was also 30 mL. Moreover, they are in line with other researchers who have figured out that MO can remove 90% − 100% turbidity from wastewater (Eman et al. 2014 ; Salazar Gámez et al. 2015 ; Gutierrez Herrera et al. 2024 ). 3.2 Effects of treatments on the residual organics The lake water was treated with different coagulants (alum, chitosan, and Moringa oleifera ) at different dosages, 25 mL (1), 30 mL (2), and 35 mL (3), and over varying reaction times (30, 60, and 90 minutes). Figure 2 shows that the treatment time and the type of coagulant affect the water treatment efficiency. In Fig. 2 , we observed a progressive increase in absorbance while treating lake water with Moringa oleifera from 2.43 to 2.48 absorbance units (a, b, c), from 2.72 to 2.80 (d, e, f), and from 2.98 to 3.06 (g, h, i). In general, Fig. 2 showed an increase in absorbance with increasing the dosage of chitosan and MO, and a slight decrease with alum. These observations can be justified by the fact that chitosan and Moringa oleifera are biodegradable polymers that are closely related to organics (Al-Manhel et al. 2018 ; Al-Jadabi et al. 2023 ). In Fig. 2 , we observed that M. oleifera (blue line) had the maximum absorbance among the coagulants, indicating that UV-absorbing molecules are not entirely removed, while the lower absorbance values of alum (red) and chitosan (green) indicate their effectiveness in reducing dissolved organic matter and other pollutants. These findings are similar to other studies evaluating coagulants in water treatment, where it was shown that Moringa oleifera may be less efficient than alum and chitosan in removing dissolved organic carbon and UV-absorbing compounds (Ndabigengesere et al. 1995 ; Sánchez-Martín et al. 2010 ). It was also observed that across all results, absorbance decreases progressively with time (from 30 to 90 minutes), supporting the idea that longer reaction times enhance coagulation and pollutant removal efficiency. After 90 minutes, the differences become more pronounced, with alum and chitosan achieving the best UV absorption reductions. 3.3 Influence of pH using different treatments The effects of different treatments involving alum (A), chitosan (C), and Moringa oleifera (M) on the pH of lake water (Lw) were assessed over different periods and dosage volumes (from 30 minutes to 90 minutes, and from 25 mL to 35 mL), with the control water (lake water) having an initial pH of 7.12 ± 0.01. It was observed that the pH values were less than the initial one, and that there is a significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 with different levels of significance (letters from a to h) between the adsorbents and the time of decantation (Fig. 3 ). However, there is no significant difference between the treatment with alum after 60 and 90 minutes for the three different volumes (Figs. 3 a, 3 b, and 3 c) and with M. oleifera after the same time, but only with volume 30 mL (Fig. 3 b) and 35 mL (Fig. 3 c). The treatment with M. oleifera at the dosage volume of 25 mL showed the closest value to the initial one, with a pH of 6.94 ± 0.01 (Fig. 3 a), which was higher than the other treatments. At 90 minutes, chitosan at the dosage volume of 35 mL showed the lowest pH with a value of 6.38 ± 0.01 (Fig. 3 c). Overall, the results indicate that M. oleifera maintained the highest pH among all treatments, although it decreased over time. The values were within the range of 6.5–9.5 as recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water while treating with alum and Moringa oleifera at different volumes (Fig. 3 ), but below the range after the treatment with chitosan at the volume of 35 mL (Fig. 3 c). Alum had a more stable pH, with minimal fluctuation, while chitosan caused the greatest decrease in pH, particularly over time. The data suggest that M. oleifera was the most effective treatment for maintaining a higher pH, while chitosan had the most pronounced acidifying effect. Alum was able to maintain moderate pH values throughout the experiment, making it suitable for applications where pH stability is necessary. These data corroborate the findings of various authors who report that M. oleifera does not have a significant effect on pH variation after a short time, while the pH of water decreases with increasing chitosan concentration (Al-Manhel et al. 2018 ; Gutierrez Herrera et al. 2024 ). 3.4 Influence of DO using different treatments During all the treatments, the dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the lake water (Lw) increased (Fig. 4 ) from 2.06 ± 0.02 mg/L to a maximum of 3.24 ± 0.01 mg/L while treated with chitosan at a dosage volume of 25 mL (Fig. 4 a) and a volume of 35 mL with M. oleifera (Fig. 4 c), both after 90 minutes. The lowest DO level of M. oleifera treatment is shown in Fig. 4 a with a value of 2.66 ± 0.01 mg/L after 30 minutes, and the chitosan in Fig. 4 c with a value of 2.63 ± 0.01 mg/L after 30 minutes. The dissolved oxygen levels were lower than the minimum value of 5 mg/L required by the World Health Organization for drinking water. A significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 with different levels of significance (letters from a to g) between the adsorbents and the time of decantation was observed but no significance between the treatment with alum and M. oleifera after 90 minutes at dosages of 25 mL and 30 mL, and between alum and chitosan after 60 minutes at the same dosages (Figs. 4 a, and 4 b). Overall, the M. oleifera and chitosan treatments exhibited the most consistent improvement in DO, particularly at the later stages of the experiment. The M. oleifera treatment showed gradual improvement over time, but remained lower than alum and chitosan. The alum treatment showed a moderate but steady increase in DO, suggesting a mild positive effect. These findings suggest that while all treatments had some effect on DO levels, alum was the most effective in increasing oxygen concentration in the water in the beginning, but M. oleifera and chitosan took over that performance after 90 minutes. These results show that the increase was proportional to the dosage used and the settling time (Eman et al. 2014 ). 3.5 Influence of conductivity using different treatments The baseline conductivity of the lake water (Lw) was 277 µS/m, providing a reference for comparing the effects of the different treatments over time (30, 60, and 90 minutes) at variable dosage volumes and with different levels (letters from a to i) of significance (Fig. 5 ). At 30 minutes and the dosage volume of 25 mL, the M. oleifera treatment (Fig. 5 a) had the highest conductivity at 329.67 ± 0.58 µS/cm, which was significantly higher than all other treatments (p < 0.05). The lowest conductivity under the baseline was observed when using alum at the dosage volume of 35 mL (Fig. 5 c), with a value of 264.33 ± 0.58 µS/cm at 90 minutes. All the obtained values were below 1000 µ S/cm, which is the recommended limit of the World Health Organization for drinking water. Overall, the results indicate that M. oleifera had the most significant impact on increasing EC, with values consistently higher than the control and the other treatments at all time intervals. Chitosan also caused a moderate increase in EC, but its effect was less pronounced than M. oleifera . In contrast, alum had the least effect on EC, maintaining values below and closer to the control. This suggests that M. oleifera is the most effective treatment for increasing EC, while alum has the least impact on conductivity, with values consistently lower than the control. These findings can be explained by the minerals found in M. oleifera seeds, which dissolve in water and increase water conductivity. Moreover, the saline extraction (NaCl) of the seeds of M. oleifera may carry an electrical charge and result in the dispersion of some mineral ions and inorganic compounds in water, which might enhance the water ionic conductivity by reaction between charged metals (Shan et al. 2017 ; Varsani et al. 2022 ). These results are similar to (Al-Manhel et al. 2018 ) who showed that the electrical conductivity of water decreased with increasing chitosan concentrations. In the same line, this observation is in agreement with the findings of (Shan et al. 2017 ) who reported an increase in conductivity of wastewater with increasing concentration of M. oleifera seeds, which may be attributed to the increase in cationic polyelectrolyte in M. oleifera seeds. However, the current findings contradict (Vunain et al. 2019 ), which showed that conductivity values decreased as M. oleifera coagulant concentrations increased. 3.6 Influence of TDS using different treatments The effects of the different treatments on TDS over time (30, 60, and 90 min) and at different dosage volumes gave some significant differences (letters from a to g) compared to the TDS value 137 ± 2 mg/L of the lake water (Fig. 6 ). It was observed that there is only a significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 during the treatment with M. oleifera over time and at volumes of 25 mL (Fig. 6 a) and 35 mL (Fig. 6 c). The results showed that M. oleifera significantly increased TDS levels throughout the experiment to 163.33 ± 0.58 mg/L after 30 minutes (Fig. 6 a), likely due to the release of dissolved organic and inorganic compounds. Alum treatment had a minimal effect with a value of 132.33 ± 0.58 mg/L, keeping TDS close to the control value, with slight fluctuations over time (Fig. 6 c). Overall, the results suggest that M. oleifera treatment consistently led to the highest TDS values across all time points, indicating that it contributed the most to the increase in TDS. In contrast, the alum and chitosan treatments showed minimal changes in TDS, with values remaining relatively stable and not significantly differing from each other. These findings indicate that M. oleifera is the most effective treatment for increasing TDS, while alum and chitosan have less impact on the TDS levels in the water. The values of TDS before and after treatment were below the limit of 1000 mg/L recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water. However, these results were not in agreement with the findings of some authors who stated that total dissolved solids were reduced after the treatment with M. oleifera seeds (Varsani et al. 2022 ; Kenea et al. 2023 ). This may have been due to the pre-treatment step used in the experiment during the preparation of the M. oleifera solution with NaCl. This is made possible by the ions from the dissolved particles in the water samples, which give the water its electrical conductivity. Additionally, salt is one of the components of TDS, and conductivity is proportional to salinity. As a result, the levels of conductivity and TDS were increased after the treatment (Shan et al. 2017 ). This observation is consistent with the results of Shan et al. ( 2017 ), who found that the TDS content of water increased as the concentration of M. oleifera seed increased. According to (Kitheka et al. 2022 ), there is a strong positive correlation between the concentration of M. oleifera seed coagulant and TDS, and the TDS of water significantly increases as the concentration of M. oleifera seed powder increases. 3.7 Influence of sulfate and nitrate using different treatments The effects of different treatments on sulfate and nitrate concentrations were evaluated over 30, 60, and 90 minutes and different dosage volumes (25 mL, 30 mL, and 35 mL), with the lake water (Lw) serving as the control. The initial sulfate concentration in the water was 65 ± 1 mg/L, and the nitrate 3.26 ± 0.06 mg/L, providing a baseline for comparison (Fig. 7 ). The letters a to d, and a to g show the results of statistical comparisons on nitrate and sulfate, respectively. We only observed the significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 during the treatment with M. oleifera on sulfate over time at volumes of 25 mL (Fig. 7 a) and 35 mL (Fig. 7 c). After 90 minutes, the M. oleifera treatment, caused a substantial increase in sulfate levels, reaching 200.67 ± 0.58 mg/L (Fig. 7 c), which was significantly higher than the baseline (p < 0.05) while the lowest sulfate concentration was during the alum treatment with a value of 49.67 ± 0.58 mg/L (Fig. 7 a), showing a slight decrease from the baseline value, but this reduction was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). All the results were below the 250 mg/L limit recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water. Overall, the results indicate that M. oleifera significantly increased sulfate concentration over time, with the highest recorded value at 90 minutes. In contrast, alum consistently reduced sulfate levels, maintaining the lowest values throughout the study. Chitosan exhibited minimal impact, with values fluctuating slightly around the initial concentration. These findings suggest that M. oleifera treatment may introduce or release sulfate into the water, whereas alum is more effective in reducing sulfate levels. This can be explained by the chemical composition of M. oleifera seed powder made using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) technique scan, where the chemical oxide SO 3 was found to be the main component (Mohseni-Bandpei et al. 2018 ; Rasheed et al. 2023 ). During the treatment process, M. oleifera seed powder containing SO 3 could produce sulfate through oxidation processes, which could justify the substantial increase in sulfate levels. The results of the present study are also in agreement with the findings of Herrera et al. (Gutierrez Herrera et al. 2024 ) who reported that treatment of wastewater with M. oleifera increased the concentration of SO 4 2− . The higher concentration in nitrate levels at the volumes of 30 and 35 mL were observed with M. oleifera and chitosan at 3.37 ± 0.06 mg/L (Figs. 7 e, and 7 f), and the lowest at 3.20 ± 0.00 mg/L with alum at the dosage volume of 35 mL (Fig. 7 f) and chitosan at dosage volumes of 25 mL and 30 mL (Figs. 7 d, and 7 e). The values were below the 50 mg/L limit recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water. We also observed that the treatments had minimal effects on the nitrate concentration in the water compared to sulfate. Most treatments with chitosan and M. oleifera had no significant effect at 30 and 60 minutes, maintaining the control level of 3.30 ± 0.00 mg/L, while alum caused a slight decrease, but this difference was not significant across time points. By 90 minutes, most treatments caused only slight increases in nitrate concentrations, with no treatment demonstrating a substantial impact on the nitrate levels compared to the control. This suggests that the treatments had little to no effect on the nitrate concentration in the lake water (Ndabigengesere and Subba Narasiah 1998 ). In agreement with these findings, a slight elevation in nitrate concentration was also observed in water treated by plant-based coagulants like M. oleifera because of their natural content of nitrogen/nitrate (Taiwo et al. 2020 ). This low level of nitrate during all treatment is good, knowing the bad effects of high nitrate levels in drinking water, like health concerns and water quality problems (Chetty and Prasad 2016 ; Bishayee et al. 2022 ). 4. Principal Component Analysis The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) conducted on the water quality parameters and treatment methods revealed in Fig. 8 that the first principal component (PC1) has the highest value of 4.64149 (53.1%), explaining the largest portion of variance in the dataset. The second principal component (PC2) follows with an eigenvalue of 2.27243 (19.5%), indicating that these two components together account for a significant proportion of the variability observed. This PCA biplot compares the effect of alum, chitosan, and Moringa oleifera in water treatment, and it suggests that the primary differences in water quality are influenced by specific parameters and treatment methods. In terms of variable contributions, PC1 is strongly influenced by sulfate (SO₄² − ), conductivity (Cond), total dissolved solids (TDS), and pH, which have high positive loadings. These parameters exhibit similar behavior under different treatments, indicating that they are key indicators of treatment efficiency. Treatments also show strong contributions to PC1, suggesting that different coagulants such as alum, chitosan, and Moringa oleifera have distinct effects on water quality. On the other hand, PC2 is primarily influenced by retention time (RT) with a value of 2.27243, dissolved oxygen (DO) at 0.70542, and nitrate (NO ₃ − ) at 0.00564, indicating that these parameters are more sensitive to the duration of treatment rather than the treatment type. Furthermore, parameters such as pH (1.15726), conductivity (0.12591), and TDS (0.07436) cluster together in PC1, suggesting that they are highly correlated and respond similarly to the treatment processes. Turbidity (0.0141) has moderate loadings on both PC1 and PC2, indicating that its variability is influenced by both treatment type and retention time. Meanwhile, dissolved oxygen (DO) and retention time (RT) are closely associated in PC2, implying that oxygen levels in treated water depend significantly on how long the treatment process is applied. Examining the clustering of treatments, alum and chitosan appear to have similar effects on water quality, as they are positioned near each other in the PCA space, while Moringa oleifera demonstrates a distinct behavior. This differentiation highlights that the effectiveness of these coagulants varies in terms of altering water quality parameters. The results also suggest that water quality improvements are primarily driven by the type of treatment used, as reflected in PC1, while retention time plays a secondary role in influencing parameters like dissolved oxygen and nitrate levels, which are captured in PC2. Overall, the PCA results show that treatment type and retention time are the main factors influencing variations in water quality in the dataset. Indicators of treatment effectiveness include pH, conductivity, and sulphate, whereas dissolved oxygen and nitrate are more reliant on treatment duration. These results offer insightful information on the effectiveness of various treatment techniques and how they affect the quality of the water. 5. Conclusion This study evaluated the use of Moringa oleifera seeds, chitosan, and alum for the treatment of lake water. All the treatments reduced the turbidity by a percentage greater than 95% at a certain dosage and after a specific settling time. In addition, M. oleifera seed-derived coagulants did not significantly change the pH of the treated water, unlike chitosan and alum, which showed a reduction in pH. Moreover, the Moringa oleifera and chitosan treatments exhibited the most consistent improvement in DO, while the alum treatment showed a moderate but steady increase in DO. Besides, it was noted that Moringa oleifera exhibited the most significant impact on increasing conductivity, followed by chitosan, whereas alum had the least impact on conductivity. M. oleifera also significantly increased sulfate concentration over time, but chitosan exhibited minimal impact, and alum was more effective in reducing sulfate levels. On the other hand, all the treatments had minimal effects on the nitrate concentration in the water. This study is the first one where Moringa oleifera seeds and chitosan are used to explore their potential in treating lake water in Johannesburg, providing a comparative evaluation of the efficacy of the different adsorbents. Moringa oleifera , being a cheap and readily available natural resource, is a sustainable option for use as an adsorbent in water treatment applications. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding This work was financially supported by the Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability (iNanoWS), University of South Africa (UNISA). Authors’ Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design, and the original draft was written by [Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui]. Data curation, formal analysis, software, and visualization were performed by [Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui] and [Paul Atabong Agendia]. Methodology and validation were done by [Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui], [Paul Atabong Agendia], and [Alex Tawanda Kuvarega]. Project administration, resources, and supervision were managed by [Volodymyr Tarabara], [Alex Tawanda Kuvarega] and [Titus Alfred Makudali Msagati]. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Availability of data and material The data supporting this article have been included as part of the Supplementary Information. 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Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, p 020128 Statements & Declarations Supplementary Files GA.png A1306090.xlsx A2306090.xlsx A3306090.xlsx C1306090.xlsx C2306090.xlsx C3306090.xlsx CoverletterESPRReviewReportEditorV1.pdf LakewatertreatmentSI.xlsx M1306090.xlsx M2306090.xlsx M3306090.xlsx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 10 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revision 08 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 11 Nov, 2025 Editor invited by journal 27 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 24 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 22 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":174985,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments (a-25 mL, b-30 mL, and c-35 mL) on the turbidity at different coagulant dosage volumes and time of decantation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/6870deb2401f16021b623cd2.png"},{"id":96466789,"identity":"9d515683-95cf-4cc2-867a-abb57d06d929","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-21 11:24:44","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":296376,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments at the dosage volume of 25 mL(a,b,c), 30 mL(d,e,f), and 35 mL(g,h,i) on organics\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/573ef76d24af126b1b641dd9.png"},{"id":96603568,"identity":"53ae7fcf-ce6f-4952-a6a4-0edc9cec8a04","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:10:16","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":192880,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments (a-25 mL, b-30 mL, and c-35 mL) on the pH at different coagulant dosage volumes and time of decantation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/66b6f3bf0c7ee6da87576faf.png"},{"id":96466790,"identity":"acfacdfe-09ce-439c-8fe3-69bd2285eb22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-21 11:24:44","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95197,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments (a-25 mL, b-30 mL, and c-35 mL) on the DO at different coagulant dosage volumes and time of decantation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/810b04066d5f301da5e914c3.png"},{"id":96603213,"identity":"fe444da6-24fe-4f65-950f-e9cd1f3ee4c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:07:32","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":177491,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments (a-25 mL, b-30 mL, and c-35 mL) on the conductivity at different coagulant dosage volumes and time of decantation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/73469f110579865dcfe2132d.png"},{"id":96603263,"identity":"1d125a9e-e20e-41d7-b8a9-075b2ba752f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:07:51","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":186174,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments (a-25 mL, b-30 mL, and c-35 mL) on the TDS at different coagulant dosage volumes and time of decantation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/75f17dd936d73b355cf9a46b.png"},{"id":96466831,"identity":"2d851572-008b-4511-86dd-21f92cf7d318","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-21 11:24:55","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":374716,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different treatments (a,d-25 mL, b,e-30 mL, and c,f-35 mL) on the sulfate and nitrate at different coagulant dosage volumes and time of decantation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/74ec126cfa3040df6043b736.png"},{"id":96466791,"identity":"285c1b5f-11d4-48e9-9672-db568fbccf3a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-21 11:24:44","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":165209,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePCA of parameters during different treatments\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/f8f05c3df3bae41c6480f560.png"},{"id":102785390,"identity":"f1d8f527-b26a-4d6a-8b25-e18719a3f515","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 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11:24:44","extension":"xlsx","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":77233,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"M1306090.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/ca9c5d91710a6dcbe75e5cf4.xlsx"},{"id":96603440,"identity":"5908e135-142e-4c62-bae1-18e22c548e92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:09:17","extension":"xlsx","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":77830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"M2306090.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/0a8b61f7fdc18eb3e5bd6bcf.xlsx"},{"id":96466807,"identity":"9d8e04a0-436f-43c2-bb8d-2019f2a780ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-21 11:24:44","extension":"xlsx","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":77893,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"M3306090.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7842477/v1/02e8654fd222fd1c92cf7823.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera, Chitosan, and Alum as Adsorbents in Lake Water Treatment","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Lake water treatment with , chitosan, and alum was effective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Performance of natural coagulants was evaluated against the synthetic coagulant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Optimal dosages for water treatment efficiency for each coagulant were identified.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; PCA biplot showed the relationships between parameters during water treatment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAccess to safe and clean water remains a significant problem for many countries worldwide, particularly in rural areas where conventional water treatment facilities may be limited. The quest for effective and sustainable water treatment methods has led to increased interest in natural coagulants as alternatives to traditional chemical agents. Although conventional coagulants, such as aluminium sulphate (Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e(SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026sdot;18H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) are frequently used as synthetic coagulants to purify water because of their rapid aggregation and formation of heavy flocs, worries about their costs and effects on the environment and human health have led to research into sustainable and natural alternatives (Mitiku \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Natural coagulants are biodegradable and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Moreover, they present low toxicity and have low levels of residual sludge, as well as being considered health-friendly (Cardoso Valverde et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Among the natural coagulants, chitosan and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds have shown promising results (Salazar G\u0026aacute;mez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Malik \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ngandjui Tchangoue et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Saritha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed (MOs) is obtained from a drought-resistant and salt-tolerant farm tree referred to as a \u0026ldquo;miracle tree\u0026rdquo;. It stands out as one of the most used non-toxic and biodegradable natural coagulants. \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e which contains water-soluble cationic proteins, has been well known for a long time for its ability to remove several contaminants from water effluents because of its strong coagulation properties which are useful for water treatment (Bancessi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Jadabi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Rasheed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Dandesa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Chitosan is a natural polycationic bio-sorbent derivative obtained by N-deacetylation of chitin. It is a polysaccharide composed of two types of monomeric units and has free reactive hydroxyl and amino functional groups. It is a rigid and crystalline polymer, insoluble in water at neutral pH, but due to the protonation of free amino groups, it can be dissolved in acidic conditions and has a high pollutant binding capacity (Bhatt et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Chelu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It is also biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, and has an adaptable surface chemistry and a high surface area. These beneficial characteristics make chitosan a versatile ecological material, usable in water purification, biofiltration, pollutant removal, and wastewater treatment (Piekarska et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Gon\u0026ccedil;alves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Insightful results have been obtained from comparisons between these natural coagulants and conventional alum treatments. Although alum is useful in reducing turbidity, studies show that it can reduce the pH of treated water, which could result in acidic conditions. \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed extracts, on the other hand, provide a more ecologically friendly option by preserving the pH of the treated water (Al-Manhel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough several studies have reported the use of natural coagulants for wastewater treatment, insufficient attention has been paid to surface water in South Africa. Further research focusing on the effectiveness of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e, chitosan, and alum as adsorbents specifically in the context of lake water treatment is warranted to develop optimized, eco-friendly water purification strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study uses \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds, chitosan, and alum as adsorbents to assess the removal efficiency of turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS), conductivity, nitrate, and sulphate under the influencing parameters of coagulant dosage and settling time in lake water. Furthermore, principal component analysis was used to understand the correlation between the various parameters.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Surface water sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface water samples were collected in the middle of November 2024 from Florida Lake water located in Johannesburg, South Africa (Coordinates 26\u0026deg;10\u0026prime;42.2\u0026Prime;S 27\u0026deg;54\u0026prime;23.8\u0026Prime;E). This water was collected at a depth of 10\u0026ndash;30 cm from the top surface of the water body using clean 1L glass bottles with Teflon-lined caps and transported to the laboratory in a cooler bag.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Reagents and feed water\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds were obtained from retailers at Mokolo market (Yaounde, Cameroon). Reagent grade NaCl, chitosan (low molecular weight, Deacetylated chitin, Poly(D-glucosamine)), and alum (Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e(SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.18H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) were procured from Merck, South Africa. All aqueous solutions were prepared using ultra-pure water (resistivity of ~\u0026thinsp;18.2 mΩ.cm and pH\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;6.998) from a MilliQ water purification system (Molsheim, France).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Preparation of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e-derived coagulant, chitosan coagulant, and alum solution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe seeds of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e were de-shelled and dried at ambient temperature before milling. The white kernels were powdered using a milling machine (POWTEQ-BM6Pro, rotation 150 rpm and time 20 minutes). Milled seed fragments were separated into fine powder using a sieve of 600 \u0026micro;m size range which is within the range recommended to achieve better coagulation efficiency (Land\u0026aacute;zuri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The powder was then stored in a sterile capped bottle. The optimum dosage was set as reported in the literature and on the preliminary tests (Nhut et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Murali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe coagulant extract of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e was made by adding 2.5 g of the powdered MO seeds to 250 mL of an aqueous solution containing 10 mM NaCl and stirring using a magnetic stirrer for 15 minutes. The mixture was then filtered using a sterile syringe filter with a pore size of 0.45-\u0026micro;m to remove seed fragments (Ghebremichael et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Murali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo additional coagulants, chitosan and alum, were also evaluated by preparing solutions with various dosages and under the same conditions for comparison. The chitosan solution was prepared by dissolving 0.8g of chitosan powder in 5 mL of 1% acetic acid. The mixture was stirred using a magnetic stirrer for 15 minutes, topped up to 100 mL with DI water, and then stirred again for two hours. The obtained solution was then filtered to remove suspended particles. Air bubbles were eliminated by keeping the solution at room temperature for 2 hours (El-Hefian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Abraham et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Zuhannisa et al. 2017). Aluminium sulphate (alum) [Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e(SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.18H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO] was used in this study as the inorganic coagulant, and it was prepared by dissolving 0.4g in 1 L of ultra-pure water. The solution was stirred for five minutes using a magnetic stirrer for complete dissolution (Murali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe coagulant dosage volumes adopted were 25 mL, 30 mL, and 35 mL for the treatment of 1 L of lake water for each type of coagulant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Experimental jar test procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe standard three-step process of coagulation, tapered flocculation, and sedimentation was followed while using the programmable jar test apparatus (CAT REF W1-A, Serial number 38356-001, VELP Scientifica) and six 2L jars (beakers). The concentrations (dosages), different times, and rotational speeds of the stirring paddle were determined as optimal based on the literature (Ngandjui Tchangoue et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Desta and Bote \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Murali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Silva \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and on preliminary tests. After settling, the treated lake water samples were collected in each jar for analysis. The tests were carried out at room temperature and in triplicate following the procedure below:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixing the lake water in beakers at 150 rpm for 3 minutes (rapid speed) while adding coagulant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eReducing the mixing to 50 rpm and continue the slow mix for 30 min while adding the flocculant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurning off the mixer and allowing settling to occur for 30 min, 60 min, and 90 min.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter settling, extracting the supernatant and keeping the water for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese parameters were kept the same for jar tests with Moringa oleifera-based coagulants, chitosan, and alum: the coagulant dosage volumes used were the only significant difference between these tests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Water analysis and statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh lake water and coagulated samples were analysed for their pH, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), conductivity, and TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) using the multiparameter HANNA HI9829. On the other hand, the turbidity was determined using a Turbidity Meter TB400 (EXTECH Instruments). Nitrate (NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) and sulfate (SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) were measured using a Spectroquant Pharo 300 M. The monitoring of organic content was done by measuring UV absorption, using a UV spectrometer (Shimadzu, UV-1800) at a wavelength between 200 nm and 450 nm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of various parameters on coagulation performance was analyzed using a multiparametric ANOVA test to assess statistical significance, with the significance level set at α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05. Pairwise comparisons between treatments were conducted using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test to determine significant differences (the letters in the boxplot represent the results of statistical comparisons used to determine significant differences between the means of the different treatments). Furthermore, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to reduce dimensionality, extract key trends, and highlight correlations among the effects of natural coagulants on water quality parameters, revealing distinct groupings and interdependencies. All statistical analyses and data visualizations were performed using OriginPro 2024 software (OriginPro Corporation, New York, NY, USA).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Effects of treatments on the turbidity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of the different treatments on turbidity were compared with the initial turbidity of the fresh lake water (Lw), which was 37.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08 NTU. The treatments tested were alum (A), chitosan (C), and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (M) at various coagulant dosage volumes of 25 mL (1), 30 mL (2), and 35 mL (3), and applied at 30, 60, and 90 minutes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is a significant difference at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 with different levels of significance (letters from a to i) between the adsorbents and the time of decantation. However, there is no significant difference between the treatment with alum after 30 minutes and chitosan after 60 minutes, while using 25 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea), and the treatment with chitosan after 90 minutes and \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e after 30 minutes, while using 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec) because they are sharing the same letters (f and c respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the volume of 25 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea), alum (A1) treated water had the lowest turbidity (0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 NTU), followed by chitosan (C1) treated water (1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU) after 60 minutes. \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (M1) treated water exhibited the highest turbidity (2.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU) after 30 minutes, suggesting that it was less effective in reducing turbidity compared to alum and chitosan.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith a volume of 30 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb), the turbidity of alum (A2) treated water decreased to 0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU after 60 minutes, showing the most significant reduction resulting in the clearest water. On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (M2) treated water exhibited its most important performance after 30 minutes with a turbidity of 0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU. Chitosan (C2) treated water followed by turbidity at 0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU after 60 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the volume of 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec), the turbidity of alum (A3) treated water was still the best with a slight decrease to 0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU, followed by chitosan (C3) which showed its best performance with a significant decrease to 0.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU after 60 minutes. In contrast, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e-treated water exhibited a turbidity of 0.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 NTU after 30 minutes, indicating a further decrease in its effectiveness at clearing the water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, it was observed that alum, chitosan, and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e reduced the turbidity of the initial lake water. These adsorbents can destabilise and aggregate suspended particles, which causes them to settle out of the water and reduce its turbidity. The lowest turbidity values were 0.15 NTU for alum (A1) after 60 minutes, 0.25 NTU for \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (M2) after 30 minutes, and 0.29 NTU for chitosan (C3) after 60 minutes. They are below the 5 NTU limit recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water, and the reduction is greater than 99%. Alum treatment proved to be the most effective in reducing turbidity, consistently maintaining low turbidity levels across all time points. However, the natural coagulant \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e showed initial effectiveness but became less efficient as time progressed, with turbidity increasing significantly by 60 and 90 minutes. Chitosan had a moderate effect, initially reducing turbidity but failing to achieve as low a level as alum by the end of the experiment. These findings suggest that alum is the most effective treatment for reducing turbidity, while \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e can be used at a certain concentration and with a specific settling time to reach a good percentage of turbidity reduction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese results are like those of Murali et al. (Murali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Silva and Oliveira (Silva and Oliveira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), where \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e best dosage was also 30 mL. Moreover, they are in line with other researchers who have figured out that MO can remove 90% \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;100% turbidity from wastewater (Eman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Salazar G\u0026aacute;mez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Gutierrez Herrera et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Effects of treatments on the residual organics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe lake water was treated with different coagulants (alum, chitosan, and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e) at different dosages, 25 mL (1), 30 mL (2), and 35 mL (3), and over varying reaction times (30, 60, and 90 minutes). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows that the treatment time and the type of coagulant affect the water treatment efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, we observed a progressive increase in absorbance while treating lake water with \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e from 2.43 to 2.48 absorbance units (a, b, c), from 2.72 to 2.80 (d, e, f), and from 2.98 to 3.06 (g, h, i).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn general, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e showed an increase in absorbance with increasing the dosage of chitosan and MO, and a slight decrease with alum. These observations can be justified by the fact that chitosan and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e are biodegradable polymers that are closely related to organics (Al-Manhel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Jadabi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, we observed that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (blue line) had the maximum absorbance among the coagulants, indicating that UV-absorbing molecules are not entirely removed, while the lower absorbance values of alum (red) and chitosan (green) indicate their effectiveness in reducing dissolved organic matter and other pollutants. These findings are similar to other studies evaluating coagulants in water treatment, where it was shown that \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e may be less efficient than alum and chitosan in removing dissolved organic carbon and UV-absorbing compounds (Ndabigengesere et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; S\u0026aacute;nchez-Mart\u0026iacute;n et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). It was also observed that across all results, absorbance decreases progressively with time (from 30 to 90 minutes), supporting the idea that longer reaction times enhance coagulation and pollutant removal efficiency. After 90 minutes, the differences become more pronounced, with alum and chitosan achieving the best UV absorption reductions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Influence of pH using different treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of different treatments involving alum (A), chitosan (C), and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (M) on the pH of lake water (Lw) were assessed over different periods and dosage volumes (from 30 minutes to 90 minutes, and from 25 mL to 35 mL), with the control water (lake water) having an initial pH of 7.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was observed that the pH values were less than the initial one, and that there is a significant difference at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 with different levels of significance (letters from a to h) between the adsorbents and the time of decantation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is no significant difference between the treatment with alum after 60 and 90 minutes for the three different volumes (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec) and with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e after the same time, but only with volume 30 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb) and 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe treatment with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e at the dosage volume of 25 mL showed the closest value to the initial one, with a pH of 6.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea), which was higher than the other treatments. At 90 minutes, chitosan at the dosage volume of 35 mL showed the lowest pH with a value of 6.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the results indicate that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e maintained the highest pH among all treatments, although it decreased over time. The values were within the range of 6.5\u0026ndash;9.5 as recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water while treating with alum and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e at different volumes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), but below the range after the treatment with chitosan at the volume of 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec). Alum had a more stable pH, with minimal fluctuation, while chitosan caused the greatest decrease in pH, particularly over time. The data suggest that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e was the most effective treatment for maintaining a higher pH, while chitosan had the most pronounced acidifying effect. Alum was able to maintain moderate pH values throughout the experiment, making it suitable for applications where pH stability is necessary.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese data corroborate the findings of various authors who report that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e does not have a significant effect on pH variation after a short time, while the pH of water decreases with increasing chitosan concentration (Al-Manhel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Gutierrez Herrera et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Influence of DO using different treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring all the treatments, the dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the lake water (Lw) increased (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) from 2.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 mg/L to a maximum of 3.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 mg/L while treated with chitosan at a dosage volume of 25 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea) and a volume of 35 mL with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec), both after 90 minutes. The lowest DO level of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e treatment is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea with a value of 2.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 mg/L after 30 minutes, and the chitosan in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec with a value of 2.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 mg/L after 30 minutes. The dissolved oxygen levels were lower than the minimum value of 5 mg/L required by the World Health Organization for drinking water. A significant difference at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 with different levels of significance (letters from a to g) between the adsorbents and the time of decantation was observed but no significance between the treatment with alum and \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e after 90 minutes at dosages of 25 mL and 30 mL, and between alum and chitosan after 60 minutes at the same dosages (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e and chitosan treatments exhibited the most consistent improvement in DO, particularly at the later stages of the experiment. The \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e treatment showed gradual improvement over time, but remained lower than alum and chitosan. The alum treatment showed a moderate but steady increase in DO, suggesting a mild positive effect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest that while all treatments had some effect on DO levels, alum was the most effective in increasing oxygen concentration in the water in the beginning, but \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e and chitosan took over that performance after 90 minutes. These results show that the increase was proportional to the dosage used and the settling time (Eman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Influence of conductivity using different treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe baseline conductivity of the lake water (Lw) was 277 \u0026micro;S/m, providing a reference for comparing the effects of the different treatments over time (30, 60, and 90 minutes) at variable dosage volumes and with different levels (letters from a to i) of significance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). At 30 minutes and the dosage volume of 25 mL, the \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e treatment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea) had the highest conductivity at 329.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 \u0026micro;S/cm, which was significantly higher than all other treatments (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The lowest conductivity under the baseline was observed when using alum at the dosage volume of 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec), with a value of 264.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 \u0026micro;S/cm at 90 minutes. All the obtained values were below 1000 \u003cem\u003e\u0026micro;\u003c/em\u003eS/cm, which is the recommended limit of the World Health Organization for drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the results indicate that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e had the most significant impact on increasing EC, with values consistently higher than the control and the other treatments at all time intervals. Chitosan also caused a moderate increase in EC, but its effect was less pronounced than \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e. In contrast, alum had the least effect on EC, maintaining values below and closer to the control. This suggests that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e is the most effective treatment for increasing EC, while alum has the least impact on conductivity, with values consistently lower than the control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings can be explained by the minerals found in \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds, which dissolve in water and increase water conductivity. Moreover, the saline extraction (NaCl) of the seeds of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e may carry an electrical charge and result in the dispersion of some mineral ions and inorganic compounds in water, which might enhance the water ionic conductivity by reaction between charged metals (Shan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Varsani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese results are similar to (Al-Manhel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) who showed that the electrical conductivity of water decreased with increasing chitosan concentrations. In the same line, this observation is in agreement with the findings of (Shan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) who reported an increase in conductivity of wastewater with increasing concentration of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds, which may be attributed to the increase in cationic polyelectrolyte in \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds. However, the current findings contradict (Vunain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which showed that conductivity values decreased as \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e coagulant concentrations increased.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6 Influence of TDS using different treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of the different treatments on TDS over time (30, 60, and 90 min) and at different dosage volumes gave some significant differences (letters from a to g) compared to the TDS value 137\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2 mg/L of the lake water (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). It was observed that there is only a significant difference at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 during the treatment with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e over time and at volumes of 25 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea) and 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results showed that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e significantly increased TDS levels throughout the experiment to 163.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 mg/L after 30 minutes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea), likely due to the release of dissolved organic and inorganic compounds. Alum treatment had a minimal effect with a value of 132.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 mg/L, keeping TDS close to the control value, with slight fluctuations over time (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the results suggest that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e treatment consistently led to the highest TDS values across all time points, indicating that it contributed the most to the increase in TDS. In contrast, the alum and chitosan treatments showed minimal changes in TDS, with values remaining relatively stable and not significantly differing from each other. These findings indicate that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e is the most effective treatment for increasing TDS, while alum and chitosan have less impact on the TDS levels in the water. The values of TDS before and after treatment were below the limit of 1000 mg/L recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, these results were not in agreement with the findings of some authors who stated that total dissolved solids were reduced after the treatment with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds (Varsani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kenea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This may have been due to the pre-treatment step used in the experiment during the preparation of the \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e solution with NaCl. This is made possible by the ions from the dissolved particles in the water samples, which give the water its electrical conductivity. Additionally, salt is one of the components of TDS, and conductivity is proportional to salinity. As a result, the levels of conductivity and TDS were increased after the treatment (Shan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This observation is consistent with the results of Shan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), who found that the TDS content of water increased as the concentration of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed increased. According to (Kitheka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), there is a strong positive correlation between the concentration of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed coagulant and TDS, and the TDS of water significantly increases as the concentration of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed powder increases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.7 Influence of sulfate and nitrate using different treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of different treatments on sulfate and nitrate concentrations were evaluated over 30, 60, and 90 minutes and different dosage volumes (25 mL, 30 mL, and 35 mL), with the lake water (Lw) serving as the control. The initial sulfate concentration in the water was 65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 mg/L, and the nitrate 3.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 mg/L, providing a baseline for comparison (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The letters a to d, and a to g show the results of statistical comparisons on nitrate and sulfate, respectively. We only observed the significant difference at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 during the treatment with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e on sulfate over time at volumes of 25 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea) and 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter 90 minutes, the \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e treatment, caused a substantial increase in sulfate levels, reaching 200.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 mg/L (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ec), which was significantly higher than the baseline (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) while the lowest sulfate concentration was during the alum treatment with a value of 49.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 mg/L (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea), showing a slight decrease from the baseline value, but this reduction was not statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). All the results were below the 250 mg/L limit recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the results indicate that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e significantly increased sulfate concentration over time, with the highest recorded value at 90 minutes. In contrast, alum consistently reduced sulfate levels, maintaining the lowest values throughout the study. Chitosan exhibited minimal impact, with values fluctuating slightly around the initial concentration. These findings suggest that \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e treatment may introduce or release sulfate into the water, whereas alum is more effective in reducing sulfate levels. This can be explained by the chemical composition of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed powder made using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) technique scan, where the chemical oxide SO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was found to be the main component (Mohseni-Bandpei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Rasheed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). During the treatment process, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed powder containing SO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e could produce sulfate through oxidation processes, which could justify the substantial increase in sulfate levels. The results of the present study are also in agreement with the findings of Herrera et al. (Gutierrez Herrera et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) who reported that treatment of wastewater with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e increased the concentration of SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher concentration in nitrate levels at the volumes of 30 and 35 mL were observed with \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e and chitosan at 3.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 mg/L (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ee, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ef), and the lowest at 3.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 mg/L with alum at the dosage volume of 35 mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ef) and chitosan at dosage volumes of 25 mL and 30 mL (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ed, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ee). The values were below the 50 mg/L limit recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe also observed that the treatments had minimal effects on the nitrate concentration in the water compared to sulfate. Most treatments with chitosan and \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e had no significant effect at 30 and 60 minutes, maintaining the control level of 3.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 mg/L, while alum caused a slight decrease, but this difference was not significant across time points. By 90 minutes, most treatments caused only slight increases in nitrate concentrations, with no treatment demonstrating a substantial impact on the nitrate levels compared to the control. This suggests that the treatments had little to no effect on the nitrate concentration in the lake water (Ndabigengesere and Subba Narasiah \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). In agreement with these findings, a slight elevation in nitrate concentration was also observed in water treated by plant-based coagulants like \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e because of their natural content of nitrogen/nitrate (Taiwo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This low level of nitrate during all treatment is good, knowing the bad effects of high nitrate levels in drinking water, like health concerns and water quality problems (Chetty and Prasad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bishayee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Principal Component Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Principal Component Analysis (PCA) conducted on the water quality parameters and treatment methods revealed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e that the first principal component (PC1) has the highest value of 4.64149 (53.1%), explaining the largest portion of variance in the dataset. The second principal component (PC2) follows with an eigenvalue of 2.27243 (19.5%), indicating that these two components together account for a significant proportion of the variability observed. This PCA biplot compares the effect of alum, chitosan, and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e in water treatment, and it suggests that the primary differences in water quality are influenced by specific parameters and treatment methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of variable contributions, PC1 is strongly influenced by sulfate (SO₄\u0026sup2;\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e), conductivity (Cond), total dissolved solids (TDS), and pH, which have high positive loadings. These parameters exhibit similar behavior under different treatments, indicating that they are key indicators of treatment efficiency. Treatments also show strong contributions to PC1, suggesting that different coagulants such as alum, chitosan, and \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e have distinct effects on water quality. On the other hand, PC2 is primarily influenced by retention time (RT) with a value of 2.27243, dissolved oxygen (DO) at 0.70542, and nitrate (NO\u003csub\u003e₃\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) at 0.00564, indicating that these parameters are more sensitive to the duration of treatment rather than the treatment type.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, parameters such as pH (1.15726), conductivity (0.12591), and TDS (0.07436) cluster together in PC1, suggesting that they are highly correlated and respond similarly to the treatment processes. Turbidity (0.0141) has moderate loadings on both PC1 and PC2, indicating that its variability is influenced by both treatment type and retention time. Meanwhile, dissolved oxygen (DO) and retention time (RT) are closely associated in PC2, implying that oxygen levels in treated water depend significantly on how long the treatment process is applied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExamining the clustering of treatments, alum and chitosan appear to have similar effects on water quality, as they are positioned near each other in the PCA space, while \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e demonstrates a distinct behavior. This differentiation highlights that the effectiveness of these coagulants varies in terms of altering water quality parameters. The results also suggest that water quality improvements are primarily driven by the type of treatment used, as reflected in PC1, while retention time plays a secondary role in influencing parameters like dissolved oxygen and nitrate levels, which are captured in PC2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the PCA results show that treatment type and retention time are the main factors influencing variations in water quality in the dataset. Indicators of treatment effectiveness include pH, conductivity, and sulphate, whereas dissolved oxygen and nitrate are more reliant on treatment duration. These results offer insightful information on the effectiveness of various treatment techniques and how they affect the quality of the water.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the use of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds, chitosan, and alum for the treatment of lake water. All the treatments reduced the turbidity by a percentage greater than 95% at a certain dosage and after a specific settling time. In addition, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seed-derived coagulants did not significantly change the pH of the treated water, unlike chitosan and alum, which showed a reduction in pH. Moreover, the \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e and chitosan treatments exhibited the most consistent improvement in DO, while the alum treatment showed a moderate but steady increase in DO. Besides, it was noted that \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the most significant impact on increasing conductivity, followed by chitosan, whereas alum had the least impact on conductivity. \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e also significantly increased sulfate concentration over time, but chitosan exhibited minimal impact, and alum was more effective in reducing sulfate levels. On the other hand, all the treatments had minimal effects on the nitrate concentration in the water. This study is the first one where \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e seeds and chitosan are used to explore their potential in treating lake water in Johannesburg, providing a comparative evaluation of the efficacy of the different adsorbents. \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e, being a cheap and readily available natural resource, is a sustainable option for use as an adsorbent in water treatment applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work was financially supported by the Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability (iNanoWS), University of South Africa (UNISA).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design, and the original draft was written by [Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui]. Data curation, formal analysis, software, and visualization were performed by [Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui] and [Paul Atabong Agendia]. Methodology and validation were done by [Yvan Anderson Tchangoue Ngandjui], [Paul Atabong Agendia], and [Alex Tawanda Kuvarega]. Project administration, resources, and supervision were managed by [Volodymyr Tarabara], [Alex Tawanda Kuvarega] and [Titus Alfred Makudali Msagati]. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting this article have been included as part of the Supplementary Information.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbraham A, Soloman PA, Rejini VO (2016) Preparation of Chitosan-Polyvinyl Alcohol Blends and Studies on Thermal and Mechanical Properties. 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J Environ Chem Eng 7:103118. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103118\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jece.2019.103118\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZuhannisa, Nugraheni PS, Budhijanto W, Kusumastuti Y (2017) Preparation and characterization modified chitosan by polyelectrolyte complexation. Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, p 020128\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStatements \u0026amp; Declarations\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Moringa oleifera, Chitosan, Alum, Lake Water Treatment, Physicochemical properties, Comparative Study","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7842477/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7842477/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"This study evaluated the effects of Moringa oleifera (MO), chitosan, and alum as adsorbents on the physicochemical properties of water collected from Lake Florida, in Johannesburg, South Africa. The lake water was subjected to three different treatments using jar tests at concentration dosages of 25, 30, and 35 mL and settling times of 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The water treated with adsorbents significantly reduced turbidity (p \u0026lt; 0.05) with removal efficiencies of 99.33% for MO (30 mL, 30 min), 99.22% for chitosan (35 mL, 60 min), and 99.60% for alum (25 mL, 60 min). Dissolved oxygen increased from 2.06 ± 0.02 mg/L to 3.24 ± 0.01 mg/L with MO and chitosan and to 3.15 ± 0.01 mg/L with alum. Sulfate levels increased with MO from 65 ± 1 mg/L to 200.67 ± 0.58 mg/L, while alum caused an initial decrease to 49.67 ± 0.58 mg/L, followed by an increase to 71.33 ± 0.58 mg/L. Furthermore, total dissolved solids and conductivity increased with MO, whereas chitosan and alum caused no significant changes. However, a slight pH reduction was noted, with no significant nitrate alteration. Based on principal component analysis, the key factors driving water quality variations in the dataset were treatment type and retention time, with parameters such as pH, conductivity, and sulfate being strong indicators of treatment efficiency. Dissolved oxygen and nitrate were more dependent on treatment time. These findings provide insights into the performance of different adsorbents and their impacts on lake water quality.","manuscriptTitle":"Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera, Chitosan, and Alum as Adsorbents in Lake Water Treatment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-21 11:24:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7842477/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-12-08T10:00:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-11-11T16:10:11+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-11T14:03:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-10-27T11:29:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-24T05:04:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-10-22T12:27:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3235c42a-db54-45ff-ada2-320ccb552148","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T16:02:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7842477","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-026-37492-7","journal":{"identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-10 15:57:58","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 10th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-21 11:24:39","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11356-026-37492-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-026-37492-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7842477","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7842477","identity":"rs-7842477","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}