The Role of Cow Dung in Modulating Soil Water Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis Different Soil Types

The Role of Cow Dung in Modulating Soil Water Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis Different Soil Types | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Role of Cow Dung in Modulating Soil Water Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis Different Soil Types Gaurav Jadav, Sandhya Dodia, Pradhumansinh Kher, Jignesh Tank, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266673/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Water scarcity is a critical worldwide problem that is worsened by causes such as increasing population, climate change, and unsustainable agriculture methods. The depletion of water resources in several areas presents a substantial risk to the security of food, the advancement of the economy, and the sustainability of the environment. Tackle water shortage, it is necessary to implement inventive solutions in several sectors, particularly agriculture since it is responsible for most water use worldwide. This study investigates the impact of cow dung amendment on soil water dynamics across twelve different soil types. The Relative Water Content (RWC), Gravimetric Water Content (GWC), field capacity (FC), and porosity were tested for different soil types at different levels of cow dung addition expressed as a percentage of the total weight (D1(0%), D2(5%), D31(10%), D4(15%), and D5(30%)). Results show significant variations in soil water characteristics among different soil types and dung concentrations. Higher levels of cow dung led to increased RWC, GWC, and porosity with notable shifts in FC. The findings provide insights into the complex interactions between soil properties and organic amendments, offering valuable implications for sustainable soil management practices and agricultural productivity optimization. Soil water dynamics Cow dung Soil Water Index Soil Water Management Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Introduction The global water problem, worsened by issues such as excessive extraction, pollution, and climate change, poses substantial challenges to ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being on a global scale(Cosgrove and Loucks 2015 ). An essential component of tackling the water problem entails investigating sustainable agriculture techniques that not only guarantee water security but also help reduce its effects(Qadir et al. 2007 ). Organic soil additives, such as cow dung, have garnered interest due to their ability to enhance soil moisture retention and decrease water use in agricultural activities (Table 1 ), therefore mitigating the challenges posed by water shortages(Hamid et al. 2020 ).Comprehending the complex correlation between the utilization of cow dung and the alleviation of water scarcity need a comprehensive knowledge to guide efficient soil management approaches. Organic soil additives show potential for improving soil moisture levels and reducing the consequences of the water crisis. However, their influence on water use is complex and has several aspects. The process of breaking down organic waste, such as cow dung, may influence the movement of water in the soil and the pace at which it absorbed, which in turn affects the ability of the soil to retain water and the amount of water that runs off(Grasserová et al. 2020 ). The possibility of higher organic content in the soil due to decomposition offers chances to improve water retention capacity, hence decreasing the need for irrigation. It is crucial to strike a delicate equilibrium between water consumption efficiency and the potential danger of nutrient leaching to maximize the effectiveness of water resource management(Hajkowicz and Collins 2007 ). Table 1 Soil effects with and without cow manure Effects on Soil With Cow Dung Without Cow Dung Reference Structure Enhances aggregation and water infiltration. May lacks improvement in soil structure. (Adekiya et al. 2016 ) Fertility Increases with added nutrients and organic matter. Nutrient levels may not be as enriched. (Zaman et al. 2017 ) Microbial Activity Enhances microbial diversity and nutrient cycling. Microbial activity may not be as robust. (Manna and Hazra 1996 ) pH Regulation Helps regulate pH levels for optimal plant growth. pH levels may not be as balanced. (Zhai et al. 2015 ) Organic Matter Adds organic matter, improving soil structure. Organic matter content may not increase as much. (Gashaw 2016 ) In addition to its direct impacts on agricultural productivity, the water crisis has far-reaching consequences for food security, economic stability, and social well-being. With a growing global population and increasing demand for food production, the pressure on water resources continues to intensify(Ibisch et al. 2016 ). In many regions, water scarcity is already a reality, leading to conflicts over water rights, compromised ecosystem health, and diminished access to safe drinking water(Liu et al. 2017 ). Moreover, climate change exacerbates the water crisis by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of droughts, and melting glaciers, which serve as vital water sources for millions of people. As a significant user of freshwater resources, the agriculture sector has an essential effect on both increasing and alleviating the water problem(Zhang and Oki 2023 ). Traditional agricultural methods, which include the excessive use of water, chemical substances, and the cultivation of a single crop, lead to the deterioration of soil quality, contamination of water sources, and the depletion of underground water reservoirs(Gavrilescu 2021 ; Patel et al. 2020 ). On the other hand, sustainable agricultural approaches, such as organic farming and agroecology, provide effective solutions for preserving water resources, promoting soil health, and increasing water usage (Migliorini and Wezel 2017 ). We will use laboratory experiments and data analysis to determine the impact of cow dung application on the Soil Water Index (SWI), a comprehensive metric considering soil water dynamics. Additionally, we will explore how this impact might help address the water issue. It examines the intricate relationships between cow dung application, soil water dynamics, and agricultural water usage. Our study aimed to thoroughly evaluate the impact of incorporating cow dung into the soil on various soil properties and the SWI across different soil types. This research provides useful insights into the benefits and difficulties of using organic soil amendments to tackle water constraints in agricultural settings. Materials and Methods Basic soil samples standing for clay, silt, and sand were collected from local sources from soil repositories. The soil samples were air-dried, sieved to remove debris, and homogenized to ensure uniformity. A wide variety of soil types were replicated by combining clay, silt, and sand in twelve distinct blends, each with its own unique proportions. Fresh cow dung was collected from local dairy farms and air-dried to remove excess moisture. The dried cow dung was finely ground and sieved to achieve a uniform particle size distribution. Cow dung was included into each soil mixture with varying percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 30% by weight, and were designated as D1 to D5. Each soil blend with the respective cow dung treatments was thoroughly mixed in containers to ensure even distribution of the amendment. Multiple replicates were prepared for each treatment combination to account for variability. The containers (Fig. 1 ) were placed in a controlled environment to simulate natural conditions and minimize external influences. Data analysis was conducted using appropriate statistical methods to determine significant differences in soil properties and SWI among treatments. Soil Water Index (SWI) The dynamics of soil moisture have a crucial role in agricultural production, ecosystem health, and hydrological processes(Rasheed et al. 2022 ). Gaining knowledge about the variables that impact the capacity of soil to retain water is essential for maintaining soil sustainably and preserving the environment(Bittelli 2011 ). Organic additions, including cow dung, have gained attention for their ability to modify soil characteristics and moisture dynamics(Huang et al. 2016 ). Cow dung has traditionally been used as a soil amendment in agriculture owing to its rich organic matter content and nutritional composition(Gupta et al. 2016 ). Soil Water Index (SWI) serves as a comprehensive metric that integrates various key soil properti1es to provide a holistic assessment of soil health and functionality. It encapsulates critical parameters such as RWC, GWC, FC, and porosity, offering insights into soil water dynamics and structural integrity. SWI serves as a valuable tool for evaluating soil quality, resilience, and suitability for agricultural and environmental purposes. 1. RWC : RWC is a measure of the amount of water present in the soil compared to its maximum water holding capacity $$\:RWC=\:\frac{CWC}{WHC\left(max\right)}$$ Where, Current water content (CWC), and Water holding capacity (WHC) 2. Gravimetric Water Content : GWC represents the ratio of the weight of water in the soil to the dry weight of the soil sample. GWC = m wet - m dry Where, m wet (Mass of the wet sample), and m dry (Mass of the dry sample) 3. Field Capacity : FC is the maximum amount of water that soil can retain against the force of gravity after excess water has drained away. It represents the soil's ability to hold water for plant uptake. $$\:FC=\frac{V1-V2}{W}*BULK\:DENSITY\:$$ Where, V 1 = Initial water volume V 2 = Residual water volume W = Weight of soil 4. Porosity : Porosity is a measure of the voids within a soil sample. It indicates the soil's ability to hold water and air, which is crucial for root growth and nutrient exchange. $$\:\text{P}\text{o}\text{r}\text{o}\text{s}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}\:=\:\frac{GWC}{WHC*BULK\:DENSITY\:}$$ Understanding and monitoring soil parameters such as RWC, GWC, FC, and porosity is crucial for sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation. These parameters provide valuable insights into soil health, water dynamics, and structural integrity, influencing crop productivity, ecosystem resilience, and water resource management. RWC indicates the immediate water availability for plant uptake and irrigation scheduling, while GWC quantifies soil moisture content, essential for nutrient availability and soil structure. FC determines the soil ability to retain water against gravity, guiding irrigation practices and groundwater recharge. Porosity, on the other hand, influences soil aeration, drainage, and root penetration, critical for plant growth and microbial activity. Farmers and land managers can maximise water efficiency, limit soil erosion and deterioration, and promote sustainable land use methods that promote food security and environmental sustainability by understanding and managing these factors. Results and discussion The optical microscope image analysis (Fig. 2) of soil samples amended with cow dung revealed significant microstructural changes in both sandy and clay soils. In sandy soil, the addition of cow dung particles reduced the presence of large macropores, filling void spaces and enhancing water retention capacity. The microstructure showed a balance between macro and micropores, improving water availability while maintaining aeration(Que et al. 2023 ). In clay soil, cow dung functioned as an organic binder, promoting particle aggregation and enhancing soil structure. This increased the formation of soil aggregates, which improved aeration and water movement while maintaining the inherent water-holding capacity of clay. Figure 2 Optical microscope Images Showing the Interaction of Cow Dung with Sand (A) and Clay (B) Soil Particles, Highlighting Macro and Micropores The RWC in soil is a crucial parameter that directly affects plant growth, soil health, and various environmental processes(González and González-Vilar 2001 ). It refers to the amount of water present in the soil compared to its maximum water holding capacity. This metric provides valuable insights into soil moisture levels, which are essential for plant hydration and nutrient uptake(Batool et al. 2020 ). Additionally, RWC influences soil structure and stability, affecting erosion susceptibility and land use planning(Wei et al. 2023 ). Understanding this parameter helps farmers optimize irrigation schedules, preventing both water scarcity and waterlogging, which can damage crops and degrade soil quality(Topp 2003 ). Moreover, RWC influences microbial activity in the soil, affecting nutrient cycling and overall ecosystem functioning. Thus, sustainable agriculture and environmental management need soil water monitoring and management. As shown in Fig. 3 , the addition of cow dung enhances water retention A significant impact was detected across all kinds of soil at the 10% cow dung concentration (D3). Particularly high-water-content soils, such Sandy Clay Loam and Loam, indicate that 10% cow dung is optimal for improving water retention. compared to Clay, which regularly exhibits reduced water content, nonetheless derives advantages from the use of cow dung. Soils like Silt and Loamy Sand demonstrate substantial increases, especially at higher dung levels. The highest water retention is recorded in Loamy Sand at 5% cow dung, indicating its superior capacity for water absorption when augmented with organic matter. These findings underscore the potential of cow dung as an effective soil amendment for improving water-holding capacity, which is crucial for agricultural sustainability and productivity. The reality that different soil types have varying impacts shows how important it is to adjust cow dung treatments based on soil conditions for best outcomes. This study provides valuable insights into the role of organic amendments in soil water management, emphasizing that a 10% cow dung addition may serve as an optimal level for most soil types. Across the experiments (D1 to D5), there are variations in RWC for each soil type. For instance, in some experiments, certain soil types may show higher or lower water content values due to differences in irrigation regimes or precipitation patterns. The ANOVA analysis of RWC provides valuable insights into the complex correlation between soil types and moisture dynamics. Our research has shown a large amount of variation in water retention across the different soil types studied, as indicated by a computed F-statistic of 2.6036 and a corresponding p-value of 0.011. This diversity not only underscores the intricate connections between soil composition and moisture levels but also underscores the significance of customised management tactics in agricultural and environmental settings. A linear regression model (Fig. 4 ) was used to examine the connection between RWC and cow dung on soil water retention across soil types. We can identify the unique impacts of cow manure on soil water retention by looking at the intercept and slope values for each soil type. Soil types with positive slopes, for example, suggest that applying cow dung increases soil moisture, which might lead to better agricultural yields and healthier soil. However, when it comes soils with a negative slope, the use of cow dung may exacerbate soil drying. Therefore, it is crucial to exercise caution while managing cow manure to prevent excessive moisture loss. The gravimetric measurement of water content is essential for comprehending the dynamics of soil moisture, as it offers valuable information about the water that is accessible to plants for their development and other biological activities(Bittelli 2011 ; Mukhlisin et al. 2021 ). The GWC is affected by many variables, including soil texture, structure, organic matter concentration, and environmental circumstances such as precipitation and evaporation rates. Monitoring and maintaining the GWC are crucial for soil and water conservation, irrigation management, and crop production. This ensures that the soil moisture levels are ideal for plant health and productivity. The provided Fig. 5 illustrates the GWC in different soil types with varied proportions of cow dung application. This data offers vital information on how organic amendment affects soil moisture levels. In Clay soil, there is a progressive rise in GWC as the proportion of cow dung goes from D1 to D5. This suggests that the addition of cow dung improves the ability of this soil type to retain moisture. In contrast, the effect of applying cow dung on water content in Sandy Loam soil is not as significant. There is only a slight increase in GWC seen at various doses of dung. Notably, Sandy Clay Loam and Sandy Clay soils also show a similar pattern of increased water content as dung concentrations rise. This indicates that both soil types may have a greater ability to keep moisture when organic amendments are applied. In contrast, Sand and Loamy Sand soils exhibit less variation in water content across various dung concentrations, suggesting that these soil types may possess inferior water retention ability irrespective of organic input. The Sandy Clay Loam and Sandy Clay soils both show a similar pattern of increased water content as dung concentrations increase, indicating that both soil types may have a greater ability to retain moisture when organic amendments are applied. In contrast, Sand and Loamy Sand soils show reduced fluctuations in water content across varying dung concentrations, suggesting that these soil types may possess diminished water retention capacity irrespective of organic input. The linear regression analysis (Fig. 6 ) shows discernible correlations between cow dung levels and GWC across different soil types. In clay soil, a 1% increase in cow dung levels is linked to a 0.546% increase in gravimetric water content. This increase starts from an estimated 64.74% when cow dung is not present. In contrast, sandy loam soil shows a more pronounced increase in water content. For every 1% increase in cow dung levels, there is a corresponding rise of 1.156% points in water content. This increase starts at a baseline of 41.49% when there is no cow dung present. Sandy clay and sandy clay loam show considerable reactions, whereas sand and loamy sand show more modest increments. Loam, silt loam, and silty clay responded more to cow dung, with silt loam showing the largest rise of 0.720% points for every 1% increase in cow dung. Silt and silty clay soils show substantial increases in water content when cow dung levels rise. These findings show how cow dung affects soil water flow, which affects agricultural operations and soil management strategies tailored to different soil types. Figure 7 illustrates the correlation between cow dung levels and field capacity (FC) across various soil types, revealing a consistent decline in FC as cow dung levels increase. For instance, clay soil decreases from 1.4 at 0% cow dung to approximately 1.2 at 30%, while sandy loam falls from 1.5 to 1.2 in the same range. Similar trends are observed in other soil types, with sandy clay, loamy sand, and loam also experiencing notable reductions. These findings suggest that higher quantities of cow dung may negatively impact the soil's ability to retain moisture, primarily due to changes in soil structure and porosity. Increased cow dung can lead to larger soil aggregates, enhancing macropore formation and reducing water retention. Furthermore, elevated microbial activity and potential soil compaction exacerbate this diminished capacity. Results from one-way ANOVA (figure 8) indicate significant variations in FC among different soil types amended with cow dung, suggesting that cow dung levels can effectively modify soil water retention capacity and serve as a potential tool for agricultural soil management. The statistical metrics analysis conducted on the porosity of soil samples with varying percentages of cow dung content reveals a significant difference in porosity among the groups. The investigation revealed a quadratic correlation (Fig. 10 ) between porosity and the addition of cow dung, suggesting that the impact of cow dung on soil porosity changes in a non-linear manner as the application rates increase. Conclusion The addition of cow dung to soil may have a substantial influence on the SWI, which combines many important soil parameters to provide a comprehensive evaluation of soil health and performance. Incorporating cow dung into the soil improves Soil Productivity Index by augmenting the organic matter content, building soil structure, encouraging nitrogen cycling, increasing water holding capacity, and stimulating microbial activity. Cow dung, with its abundant organic matter, enhances soil fertility and structure, resulting in improved nutrient availability, water retention, and aeration. This, in turn, promotes plant development and increases crop output. Furthermore, cow dung acts as a nutrition source for soil microbes, boosting their activity and speeding up the breakdown of organic matter. Hence, this enhances the Soil Plant Interface by promoting the efficient circulation of nutrients and the creation of soil organic carbon. Soil with cow dung added to it is healthier and more productive, which improves SWI and encourages long-term approaches to soil management. Declarations Funding The authors declare that there is no funding for this research. Author Contribution Authorship contribution distributionConceptualization: Gaurav Jadav, Sandhya DodiaMethodology: Pradhumansinh Kher, Jignesh TankData Collection: Gaurav Jadav, Sandhya Dodia, Jignesh TankAnalysis: J H Markna, V D Bhatt, D K Dhurav,Writing – Original Draft: Gaurav Jadav, J H MarknaWriting – Review & Editing: Sandhya Dodia, D K Dhurav, Bharat KatariaSupervision: Bharat Kataria ,V D Bhatt Data Availability The data supporting the findings of this study will be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Adekiya A, Ojeniyi S, Owonifari O. Effect of cow dung on soil physical properties, growth and yield of maize (Zea mays) in a tropical Alfisol. Sci. Agric. 2016;15(2):374–9. Batool T, Ali S, Seleiman MF, Naveed NH, Ali A, Ahmed K, et al. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria alleviates drought stress in potato in response to suppressive oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes activities. Sci. Rep. 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Effect of initial pH on anaerobic co-digestion of kitchen waste and cow manure. Waste Manag. Elsevier; 2015;38:126–31. Zhang C-Y, Oki T. Water pricing reform for sustainable water resources management in China’s agricultural sector. Agric. Water Manag. Elsevier; 2023;275:108045. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5266673","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":367300328,"identity":"80cf54cd-d885-4f7b-b75a-4a5a3b2fceb1","order_by":0,"name":"Gaurav Jadav","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gujarat Technological University Ahmedabad","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gaurav","middleName":"","lastName":"Jadav","suffix":""},{"id":367300329,"identity":"ebec27f3-f0e8-45c6-91db-49432e9221a5","order_by":1,"name":"Sandhya Dodia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gujarat Technological University Ahmedabad","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sandhya","middleName":"","lastName":"Dodia","suffix":""},{"id":367300330,"identity":"228b91d1-80a4-4eb2-b24d-a769f0089377","order_by":2,"name":"Pradhumansinh Kher","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gujarat Technological University Ahmedabad","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pradhumansinh","middleName":"","lastName":"Kher","suffix":""},{"id":367300331,"identity":"de1d62f9-3e6a-4b0d-be0f-1196db3d5059","order_by":3,"name":"Jignesh Tank","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Saurashtra University Rajkot","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jignesh","middleName":"","lastName":"Tank","suffix":""},{"id":367300332,"identity":"f1e730eb-e434-4c8d-94ab-5af609eae482","order_by":4,"name":"D K Dhurav","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Natubhai V. 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07:53:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266673/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266673/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":67092472,"identity":"cb44638f-09e8-476a-a394-aaf41a8a4bb7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 06:59:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":405540,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental setup for all soil texture added with cow dung (D1, D2, D3, D4, D5)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/6bd9d86d0f3386c6e3f1aef6.png"},{"id":67092470,"identity":"096f7d4c-6a7f-4e79-8a33-28ea9769976e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 06:59:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":438967,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical microscope Images Showing the Interaction of Cow Dung with Sand (A) and Clay (B) Soil Particles, Highlighting Macro and Micropores\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/a183b644db4bdae1b3f2e575.png"},{"id":67092968,"identity":"11cef573-e686-4040-867c-8a6f60fd1407","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 07:07:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":78142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRWC with different percentages of cow dung\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/3a9be320362281fb6d2c5aff.png"},{"id":67092467,"identity":"3e816572-d906-4dfb-aebb-0892f1d4405a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 06:59:35","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":177092,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003elinear regression analysis of RWC vs amount of cow dung added various soil.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/af812d70c73e6179ea47b84b.png"},{"id":67092967,"identity":"12f156a6-62b4-41ca-897c-10c12e1cf042","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 07:07:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75656,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGWC with different percentages of cow dung\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/dc04a085a39630735247e200.png"},{"id":67092970,"identity":"14fb4b78-87a6-4ec2-89f1-9138cc5809fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 07:07:35","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180461,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003elinear regression analysis of GWC vs amount of cow dung added various soil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/ba4c836378f9bc04ffaafc30.png"},{"id":67092476,"identity":"d8fad73b-91a6-47d3-85c2-aa62aca3766d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 06:59:35","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":80267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFC with different percentages of cow dung for different soil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/1b8575406ec68c64d58d4453.png"},{"id":67092969,"identity":"a74320bb-3a92-4acf-9a4c-873410085dc6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 07:07:35","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131400,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003elinear regression analysis of FC vs amount of cow dung added various soil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/bc1cf2737438b823f5fe9b49.png"},{"id":67092475,"identity":"da5e3078-33e7-4c0e-9855-01144bf949fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 06:59:35","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67968,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePorosity with different percentages of cow dung for different soil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/6727422bdbb9eef29e2acf39.png"},{"id":67094211,"identity":"7a3150cd-c8d9-4add-8b9d-66651c8b0755","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-21 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":137624,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003elinear regression analysis of Porosity vs amount of cow dung added various soil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/81b07e6e596b77ac55e0df24.png"},{"id":71035126,"identity":"8c690461-5c76-4655-83af-fe117ae7ec8e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-10 12:39:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2172953,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266673/v1/6c80578a-a2f5-4bef-8bd1-e6758f6358d2.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Role of Cow Dung in Modulating Soil Water Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis Different Soil Types","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe global water problem, worsened by issues such as excessive extraction, pollution, and climate change, poses substantial challenges to ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being on a global scale(Cosgrove and Loucks \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). An essential component of tackling the water problem entails investigating sustainable agriculture techniques that not only guarantee water security but also help reduce its effects(Qadir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Organic soil additives, such as cow dung, have garnered interest due to their ability to enhance soil moisture retention and decrease water use in agricultural activities (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), therefore mitigating the challenges posed by water shortages(Hamid et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).Comprehending the complex correlation between the utilization of cow dung and the alleviation of water scarcity need a comprehensive knowledge to guide efficient soil management approaches. Organic soil additives show potential for improving soil moisture levels and reducing the consequences of the water crisis. However, their influence on water use is complex and has several aspects. The process of breaking down organic waste, such as cow dung, may influence the movement of water in the soil and the pace at which it absorbed, which in turn affects the ability of the soil to retain water and the amount of water that runs off(Grasserov\u0026aacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The possibility of higher organic content in the soil due to decomposition offers chances to improve water retention capacity, hence decreasing the need for irrigation. It is crucial to strike a delicate equilibrium between water consumption efficiency and the potential danger of nutrient leaching to maximize the effectiveness of water resource management(Hajkowicz and Collins \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil effects with and without cow manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects on Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith Cow Dung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithout Cow Dung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStructure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhances aggregation and water infiltration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay lacks improvement in soil structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adekiya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreases with added nutrients and organic matter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNutrient levels may not be as enriched.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Zaman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrobial Activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhances microbial diversity and nutrient cycling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrobial activity may not be as robust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Manna and Hazra \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH Regulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelps regulate pH levels for optimal plant growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH levels may not be as balanced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Zhai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic Matter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdds organic matter, improving soil structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter content may not increase as much.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Gashaw \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to its direct impacts on agricultural productivity, the water crisis has far-reaching consequences for food security, economic stability, and social well-being. With a growing global population and increasing demand for food production, the pressure on water resources continues to intensify(Ibisch et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In many regions, water scarcity is already a reality, leading to conflicts over water rights, compromised ecosystem health, and diminished access to safe drinking water(Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, climate change exacerbates the water crisis by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of droughts, and melting glaciers, which serve as vital water sources for millions of people. As a significant user of freshwater resources, the agriculture sector has an essential effect on both increasing and alleviating the water problem(Zhang and Oki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Traditional agricultural methods, which include the excessive use of water, chemical substances, and the cultivation of a single crop, lead to the deterioration of soil quality, contamination of water sources, and the depletion of underground water reservoirs(Gavrilescu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Patel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, sustainable agricultural approaches, such as organic farming and agroecology, provide effective solutions for preserving water resources, promoting soil health, and increasing water usage (Migliorini and Wezel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe will use laboratory experiments and data analysis to determine the impact of cow dung application on the Soil Water Index (SWI), a comprehensive metric considering soil water dynamics. Additionally, we will explore how this impact might help address the water issue. It examines the intricate relationships between cow dung application, soil water dynamics, and agricultural water usage. Our study aimed to thoroughly evaluate the impact of incorporating cow dung into the soil on various soil properties and the SWI across different soil types. This research provides useful insights into the benefits and difficulties of using organic soil amendments to tackle water constraints in agricultural settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eBasic soil samples standing for clay, silt, and sand were collected from local sources from soil repositories. The soil samples were air-dried, sieved to remove debris, and homogenized to ensure uniformity. A wide variety of soil types were replicated by combining clay, silt, and sand in twelve distinct blends, each with its own unique proportions. Fresh cow dung was collected from local dairy farms and air-dried to remove excess moisture. The dried cow dung was finely ground and sieved to achieve a uniform particle size distribution. Cow dung was included into each soil mixture with varying percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 30% by weight, and were designated as D1 to D5. Each soil blend with the respective cow dung treatments was thoroughly mixed in containers to ensure even distribution of the amendment. Multiple replicates were prepared for each treatment combination to account for variability. The containers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) were placed in a controlled environment to simulate natural conditions and minimize external influences. Data analysis was conducted using appropriate statistical methods to determine significant differences in soil properties and SWI among treatments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Water Index (SWI)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dynamics of soil moisture have a crucial role in agricultural production, ecosystem health, and hydrological processes(Rasheed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Gaining knowledge about the variables that impact the capacity of soil to retain water is essential for maintaining soil sustainably and preserving the environment(Bittelli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Organic additions, including cow dung, have gained attention for their ability to modify soil characteristics and moisture dynamics(Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Cow dung has traditionally been used as a soil amendment in agriculture owing to its rich organic matter content and nutritional composition(Gupta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Soil Water Index (SWI) serves as a comprehensive metric that integrates various key soil properti1es to provide a holistic assessment of soil health and functionality. It encapsulates critical parameters such as RWC, GWC, FC, and porosity, offering insights into soil water dynamics and structural integrity. SWI serves as a valuable tool for evaluating soil quality, resilience, and suitability for agricultural and environmental purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e1. RWC\u003c/b\u003e: RWC is a measure of the amount of water present in the soil compared to its maximum water holding capacity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:RWC=\\:\\frac{CWC}{WHC\\left(max\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere, Current water content (CWC), and Water holding capacity (WHC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cb\u003e2. Gravimetric Water Content\u003c/b\u003e: GWC represents the ratio of the weight of water in the soil to the dry weight of the soil sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;m\u003csub\u003ewet\u003c/sub\u003e - m\u003csub\u003edry\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere, m\u003csub\u003ewet\u003c/sub\u003e (Mass of the wet sample), and m\u003csub\u003edry\u003c/sub\u003e (Mass of the dry sample)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3. Field Capacity\u003c/b\u003e: FC is the maximum amount of water that soil can retain against the force of gravity after excess water has drained away. It represents the soil's ability to hold water for plant uptake.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:FC=\\frac{V1-V2}{W}*BULK\\:DENSITY\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere, V\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Initial water volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Residual water volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Weight of soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e4. Porosity\u003c/b\u003e: Porosity is a measure of the voids within a soil sample. It indicates the soil's ability to hold water and air, which is crucial for root growth and nutrient exchange.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{P}\\text{o}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}\\:=\\:\\frac{GWC}{WHC*BULK\\:DENSITY\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding and monitoring soil parameters such as RWC, GWC, FC, and porosity is crucial for sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation. These parameters provide valuable insights into soil health, water dynamics, and structural integrity, influencing crop productivity, ecosystem resilience, and water resource management. RWC indicates the immediate water availability for plant uptake and irrigation scheduling, while GWC quantifies soil moisture content, essential for nutrient availability and soil structure. FC determines the soil ability to retain water against gravity, guiding irrigation practices and groundwater recharge. Porosity, on the other hand, influences soil aeration, drainage, and root penetration, critical for plant growth and microbial activity. Farmers and land managers can maximise water efficiency, limit soil erosion and deterioration, and promote sustainable land use methods that promote food security and environmental sustainability by understanding and managing these factors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":" \u003cp\u003eThe optical microscope image analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2) of soil samples amended with cow dung revealed significant microstructural changes in both sandy and clay soils. In sandy soil, the addition of cow dung particles reduced the presence of large macropores, filling void spaces and enhancing water retention capacity. The microstructure showed a balance between macro and micropores, improving water availability while maintaining aeration(Que et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In clay soil, cow dung functioned as an organic binder, promoting particle aggregation and enhancing soil structure. This increased the formation of soil aggregates, which improved aeration and water movement while maintaining the inherent water-holding capacity of clay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e Optical microscope Images Showing the Interaction of Cow Dung with Sand (A) and Clay (B) Soil Particles, Highlighting Macro and Micropores\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe RWC in soil is a crucial parameter that directly affects plant growth, soil health, and various environmental processes(Gonz\u0026aacute;lez and Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Vilar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). It refers to the amount of water present in the soil compared to its maximum water holding capacity. This metric provides valuable insights into soil moisture levels, which are essential for plant hydration and nutrient uptake(Batool et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, RWC influences soil structure and stability, affecting erosion susceptibility and land use planning(Wei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding this parameter helps farmers optimize irrigation schedules, preventing both water scarcity and waterlogging, which can damage crops and degrade soil quality(Topp \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, RWC influences microbial activity in the soil, affecting nutrient cycling and overall ecosystem functioning. Thus, sustainable agriculture and environmental management need soil water monitoring and management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the addition of cow dung enhances water retention A significant impact was detected across all kinds of soil at the 10% cow dung concentration (D3). Particularly high-water-content soils, such Sandy Clay Loam and Loam, indicate that 10% cow dung is optimal for improving water retention. compared to Clay, which regularly exhibits reduced water content, nonetheless derives advantages from the use of cow dung. Soils like Silt and Loamy Sand demonstrate substantial increases, especially at higher dung levels. The highest water retention is recorded in Loamy Sand at 5% cow dung, indicating its superior capacity for water absorption when augmented with organic matter. These findings underscore the potential of cow dung as an effective soil amendment for improving water-holding capacity, which is crucial for agricultural sustainability and productivity. The reality that different soil types have varying impacts shows how important it is to adjust cow dung treatments based on soil conditions for best outcomes. This study provides valuable insights into the role of organic amendments in soil water management, emphasizing that a 10% cow dung addition may serve as an optimal level for most soil types.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the experiments (D1 to D5), there are variations in RWC for each soil type. For instance, in some experiments, certain soil types may show higher or lower water content values due to differences in irrigation regimes or precipitation patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA analysis of RWC provides valuable insights into the complex correlation between soil types and moisture dynamics. Our research has shown a large amount of variation in water retention across the different soil types studied, as indicated by a computed F-statistic of 2.6036 and a corresponding p-value of 0.011. This diversity not only underscores the intricate connections between soil composition and moisture levels but also underscores the significance of customised management tactics in agricultural and environmental settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA linear regression model (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) was used to examine the connection between RWC and cow dung on soil water retention across soil types. We can identify the unique impacts of cow manure on soil water retention by looking at the intercept and slope values for each soil type. Soil types with positive slopes, for example, suggest that applying cow dung increases soil moisture, which might lead to better agricultural yields and healthier soil. However, when it comes soils with a negative slope, the use of cow dung may exacerbate soil drying. Therefore, it is crucial to exercise caution while managing cow manure to prevent excessive moisture loss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe gravimetric measurement of water content is essential for comprehending the dynamics of soil moisture, as it offers valuable information about the water that is accessible to plants for their development and other biological activities(Bittelli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Mukhlisin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The GWC is affected by many variables, including soil texture, structure, organic matter concentration, and environmental circumstances such as precipitation and evaporation rates. Monitoring and maintaining the GWC are crucial for soil and water conservation, irrigation management, and crop production. This ensures that the soil moisture levels are ideal for plant health and productivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe provided Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the GWC in different soil types with varied proportions of cow dung application. This data offers vital information on how organic amendment affects soil moisture levels. In Clay soil, there is a progressive rise in GWC as the proportion of cow dung goes from D1 to D5. This suggests that the addition of cow dung improves the ability of this soil type to retain moisture. In contrast, the effect of applying cow dung on water content in Sandy Loam soil is not as significant. There is only a slight increase in GWC seen at various doses of dung. Notably, Sandy Clay Loam and Sandy Clay soils also show a similar pattern of increased water content as dung concentrations rise. This indicates that both soil types may have a greater ability to keep moisture when organic amendments are applied. In contrast, Sand and Loamy Sand soils exhibit less variation in water content across various dung concentrations, suggesting that these soil types may possess inferior water retention ability irrespective of organic input. The Sandy Clay Loam and Sandy Clay soils both show a similar pattern of increased water content as dung concentrations increase, indicating that both soil types may have a greater ability to retain moisture when organic amendments are applied. In contrast, Sand and Loamy Sand soils show reduced fluctuations in water content across varying dung concentrations, suggesting that these soil types may possess diminished water retention capacity irrespective of organic input.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe linear regression analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) shows discernible correlations between cow dung levels and GWC across different soil types. In clay soil, a 1% increase in cow dung levels is linked to a 0.546% increase in gravimetric water content. This increase starts from an estimated 64.74% when cow dung is not present. In contrast, sandy loam soil shows a more pronounced increase in water content. For every 1% increase in cow dung levels, there is a corresponding rise of 1.156% points in water content. This increase starts at a baseline of 41.49% when there is no cow dung present. Sandy clay and sandy clay loam show considerable reactions, whereas sand and loamy sand show more modest increments. Loam, silt loam, and silty clay responded more to cow dung, with silt loam showing the largest rise of 0.720% points for every 1% increase in cow dung. Silt and silty clay soils show substantial increases in water content when cow dung levels rise. These findings show how cow dung affects soil water flow, which affects agricultural operations and soil management strategies tailored to different soil types.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 7 illustrates the correlation between cow dung levels and field capacity (FC) across various soil types, revealing a consistent decline in FC as cow dung levels increase. For instance, clay soil decreases from 1.4 at 0% cow dung to approximately 1.2 at 30%, while sandy loam falls from 1.5 to 1.2 in the same range. Similar trends are observed in other soil types, with sandy clay, loamy sand, and loam also experiencing notable reductions. These findings suggest that higher quantities of cow dung may negatively impact the soil\u0026apos;s ability to retain moisture, primarily due to changes in soil structure and porosity. Increased cow dung can lead to larger soil aggregates, enhancing macropore formation and reducing water retention. Furthermore, elevated microbial activity and potential soil compaction exacerbate this diminished capacity. Results from one-way ANOVA (figure 8) indicate significant variations in FC among different soil types amended with cow dung, suggesting that cow dung levels can effectively modify soil water retention capacity and serve as a potential tool for agricultural soil management.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe statistical metrics analysis conducted on the porosity of soil samples with varying percentages of cow dung content reveals a significant difference in porosity among the groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe investigation revealed a quadratic correlation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) between porosity and the addition of cow dung, suggesting that the impact of cow dung on soil porosity changes in a non-linear manner as the application rates increase.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe addition of cow dung to soil may have a substantial influence on the SWI, which combines many important soil parameters to provide a comprehensive evaluation of soil health and performance. Incorporating cow dung into the soil improves Soil Productivity Index by augmenting the organic matter content, building soil structure, encouraging nitrogen cycling, increasing water holding capacity, and stimulating microbial activity. Cow dung, with its abundant organic matter, enhances soil fertility and structure, resulting in improved nutrient availability, water retention, and aeration. This, in turn, promotes plant development and increases crop output. Furthermore, cow dung acts as a nutrition source for soil microbes, boosting their activity and speeding up the breakdown of organic matter. Hence, this enhances the Soil Plant Interface by promoting the efficient circulation of nutrients and the creation of soil organic carbon. Soil with cow dung added to it is healthier and more productive, which improves SWI and encourages long-term approaches to soil management.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no funding for this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthorship contribution distributionConceptualization: Gaurav Jadav, Sandhya DodiaMethodology: Pradhumansinh Kher, Jignesh TankData Collection: Gaurav Jadav, Sandhya Dodia, Jignesh TankAnalysis: J H Markna, V D Bhatt, D K Dhurav,Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft: Gaurav Jadav, J H MarknaWriting \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp;amp; Editing: Sandhya Dodia, D K Dhurav, Bharat KatariaSupervision: Bharat Kataria ,V D Bhatt\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study will be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdekiya A, Ojeniyi S, Owonifari O. 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Biotechnol. 2016;15(2):32\u0026ndash;44. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGavrilescu M. Water, soil, and plants interactions in a threatened environment. Water. MDPI; 2021;13(19):2746. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGonz\u0026aacute;lez L, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Vilar M. Determination of relative water content. Handb. Plant Ecophysiol. Tech. Springer; 2001. p. 207\u0026ndash;12. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrasserov\u0026aacute; A, Hanč A, Innemanov\u0026aacute; P, Cajthaml T. Composting and vermicomposting used to break down and remove pollutants from organic waste: a mini review. Eur. J. Environ. Sci. 2020;10(1):9\u0026ndash;14. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGupta KK, Aneja KR, Rana D. Current status of cow dung as a bioresource for sustainable development. Bioresour. Bioprocess. Springer; 2016;3:1\u0026ndash;11. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHajkowicz S, Collins K. A review of multiple criteria analysis for water resource planning and management. Water Resour. Manag. Springer; 2007;21:1553\u0026ndash;66. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHamid Y, Tang L, Hussain B, Usman M, Lin Q, Rashid MS, et al. Organic soil additives for the remediation of cadmium contaminated soils and their impact on the soil-plant system: A review. Sci. Total Environ. Elsevier; 2020;707:136121. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang X, Shi Z, Zhu H, Zhang H, Ai L, Yin W. Soil moisture dynamics within soil profiles and associated environmental controls. Catena. Elsevier; 2016;136:189\u0026ndash;96. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIbisch RB, Bogardi JJ, Borchardt D. Integrated water resources management: concept, research and implementation. Springer; 2016. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu J, Yang H, Gosling SN, Kummu M, Fl\u0026ouml;rke M, Pfister S, et al. Water scarcity assessments in the past, present, and future. Earths Future. Wiley Online Library; 2017;5(6):545\u0026ndash;59. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManna M, Hazra J. 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Drivers of biochar-mediated improvement of soil water retention capacity based on soil texture: a meta-analysis. Geoderma. Elsevier; 2023;437:116591. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZaman M, Chowdhury T, Nahar K, Chowdhury M. Effect of cow dung as organic manure on the growth, leaf biomass yield of Stevia rebaudiana and post harvest soil fertility. 2017; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhai N, Zhang T, Yin D, Yang G, Wang X, Ren G, et al. Effect of initial pH on anaerobic co-digestion of kitchen waste and cow manure. Waste Manag. Elsevier; 2015;38:126\u0026ndash;31. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang C-Y, Oki T. Water pricing reform for sustainable water resources management in China\u0026rsquo;s agricultural sector. Agric. Water Manag. Elsevier; 2023;275:108045. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Soil water dynamics, Cow dung, Soil Water Index, Soil Water Management","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266673/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266673/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWater scarcity is a critical worldwide problem that is worsened by causes such as increasing population, climate change, and unsustainable agriculture methods. The depletion of water resources in several areas presents a substantial risk to the security of food, the advancement of the economy, and the sustainability of the environment. Tackle water shortage, it is necessary to implement inventive solutions in several sectors, particularly agriculture since it is responsible for most water use worldwide. This study investigates the impact of cow dung amendment on soil water dynamics across twelve different soil types. The Relative Water Content (RWC), Gravimetric Water Content (GWC), field capacity (FC), and porosity were tested for different soil types at different levels of cow dung addition expressed as a percentage of the total weight (D1(0%), D2(5%), D31(10%), D4(15%), and D5(30%)). Results show significant variations in soil water characteristics among different soil types and dung concentrations. Higher levels of cow dung led to increased RWC, GWC, and porosity with notable shifts in FC. The findings provide insights into the complex interactions between soil properties and organic amendments, offering valuable implications for sustainable soil management practices and agricultural productivity optimization.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Role of Cow Dung in Modulating Soil Water Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis Different Soil Types","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-10-21 06:59:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266673/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"20358646-c158-42b0-8d09-e1ee073b32ea","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 21st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-10T12:38:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-10-21 06:59:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5266673","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5266673","identity":"rs-5266673","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}