The Relationships among Law Enforcement Officers’ Perceptions of Violence, Mindfulness Levels, and Defense Mechanisms in the Fight against Violence"

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Prof. Ozeren This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8895761/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objectives This study examines the interplay between psychological resilience factors—specifically mindfulness and defense mechanisms—and their impact on how law enforcement officers perceive and attribute responsibility for violence. By investigating these internal cognitive frameworks, the research aims to identify predictors of professional attitudes toward violence in high-stakes policing contexts. Methods Data were collected from a sample of 554 law enforcement officers (aged 18+) serving in a major metropolitan center. The methodological framework utilized the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40), and the Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine the correlations between dispositional mindfulness, the maturity of psychological defenses, and the cognitive processing of violent encounters. Results Correlation analyses revealed that higher levels of mindfulness significantly correlate with a reduction in maladaptive cognitive biases, such as minimizing violence, accepting violence as normative, and victim-blaming. Conversely, the use of immature (primitive) defense mechanisms was a strong predictor of skewed perceptions regarding responsibility for violence. While mindfulness and defense mechanisms operated as independent psychological constructs, both were found to be critical determinants of an officer's interpretative framework toward systemic and situational violence. Conclusions The findings suggest that an officer’s internal psychological maturity directly influences their professional stance on violence. From a policy perspective, integrating mindfulness-based resilience training (MBRT) and psychoeducational workshops into in-service police training is recommended. These interventions are proposed not only as wellness tools but as strategic mechanisms to enhance de-escalation capabilities, reduce cognitive distortions in the field, and promote more accountable criminal justice practices. Police Psychology Dispositional Mindfulness Defense Styles Responsibility Attribution Victim Blaming Introduction Law enforcement agencies play a central role in the processes of maintaining social order, ensuring public safety, and establishing legal authority. However, this role is not limited to responding to external events; it also requires understanding the internal processes of law enforcement personnel. Psychological variables such as perceptions of violence, levels of conscious awareness, and defense mechanisms profoundly affect law enforcement officers' professional decision-making processes, their ability to cope with stress, and their relationships with the public. Therefore, examining law enforcement personnel within the framework of these three fundamental concepts is highly important for developing holistic approaches aimed at improving both individual well-being and organizational effectiveness. Violence is a complex, multidimensional, and universal phenomenon that threatens the physical, mental, and social integrity of individuals. Law enforcement agencies, which are responsible for ensuring public peace and security, stand at the forefront of the fight against violence. However, this fight must be conducted not only through intervention in external events but also by understanding internal processes. Compared with people in other professions, police officers are particularly at risk of stress, which can affect each individual to varying degrees. Particularly because they have to quickly assess and respond to threats that they encounter while on duty, police officers generally develop their perceptions of violence in a highly alert and reactive manner (Papazoglou & Andersen, 2014; Roycroft & Brine, 2021; Williams et al., 2010). Constant exposure to violent incidents can cause law enforcement personnel to normalize violence over time and, in some cases, view it as a legitimate tool. However, within police culture, the use of force is sometimes institutionally rewarded, and empathetic attitudes are viewed as a form of weakness (Christopher et al., 2018). As a result of this situation, police officers are prone to excessive use of force, anger management issues, or misjudgments, especially when under stress. Perceptions of violence among law enforcement personnel are influenced by factors such as these personnel’s individual values, level of education, and length of service, as well as the organizational climate (Cruz, 2024). Mindfulness is defined as the state of focusing on the present moment without judgment and being aware of one's internal experiences. In the psychological literature, it has been shown to be effective in many areas, such as stress reduction, emotion regulation, and attention development. Individuals with high levels of mindfulness can respond more flexibly in stressful situations, regulate their emotions, and make conscious choices rather than automatic responses (Christopher et al., 2018). Mindfulness is considered to be a preventive tool against burnout and a protective measure for mental health, especially among professionals who are prone to trauma (e.g., healthcare workers, firefighters, soldiers, and police officers). Mindfulness-based approaches help individuals balance their stress responses by increasing their mental resilience. Mindfulness also helps individuals control violent impulses and reduces aggression levels (Nahardani, 2020). Mindfulness practices for law enforcement have been recommended in recent years to both improve professional performance and support psychological resilience. Policing is a high-stress profession involving intense decision-making moments, and the societal impact of wrong decisions is enormous. Mindfulness-based training enables police officers to increase their attention, manage their emotional responses, and behave more consciously while on duty (Christopher et al., 2018). Defense mechanisms are automatic responses that underlie many adaptive reactions in daily life and are triggered by internal and external stress and emotional conflict. Defense mechanisms are fundamental to people’s mental health, and the adequacy of an individual's defense mechanisms has a direct effect on his or her psychological functioning and interpersonal effectiveness (Békés et al., 2024). Although defense mechanisms sometimes function adaptively to enable individuals to continue their duties, the automaticity of these mechanisms in the absence of conscious awareness can lead to pathological conditions such as burnout, anxiety disorders, anger control problems, and even suicide risk (Nahardani, 2020). Police officers' tendency to use avoidance coping strategies when trying to cope with stress further exacerbates the effects of stress. Evidence shows that “avoidance-opposing” strategies such as acceptance, mindfulness, and emotional awareness are more effective coping methods and are linked to both mental health and personal effectiveness (Williams et al., 2010). Studies in the field of police psychology emphasize the fact that recognizing and acknowledging defense mechanisms and seeking professional support when necessary are critical for maintaining task quality and individual health. The primary objective of this study is to examine the levels of perception of violence, states of conscious awareness, and defense mechanisms among individuals serving in law enforcement agencies in conjunction with various variables and to reveal the relationships among these three fundamental elements. Thus, the aim of this research is to improve our understanding of the fundamental processes that play a role in perceiving, evaluating, and responding to violence at the personal and societal levels. This study also aims to map “internal attitudes toward violence,” which have not been sufficiently clarified in the broader literature. Method Design This study is descriptive-exploratory and cross-sectional in nature and focuses on law enforcement personnel working in the police department in the northern part of the country. Sample The research population consists of law enforcement personnel from the police department who volunteered to participate in the study. During the data collection period (June 1, 2024–August 1, 2024), 630 relevant personnel worked in the central department. A face-to-face survey was administered to 554 participants (88% participation rate) who were recruited from this population via convenience sampling. Data Collection The data included in the analysis were obtained through face-to-face surveys. The survey was administered to law enforcement officers working in the police department in X city center. Data Collection Tools In this study, a short information form created by the researchers, as well as the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ), and Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale (IVRS) were used as data collection tools. Participant Information Form A short introductory form that asks participants about their gender, age, marital status, and professional experience was prepared by the researchers. The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) The xx adaptation of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003) was produced by Ozyesil et al. (2011). This scale consists of 15 items that measure the general tendency to be mindful of momentary experiences in daily life and to pay attention to these experiences. The instrument uses a 6-point Likert scale, and higher scores indicate a higher level of mindful awareness. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the adapted scale was 0.80, while the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this study was 0.92. Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ) This instrument is a self-assessment scale developed by Andrews et al. (1993) to determine the conscious reflections of defense mechanisms used unconsciously. The xx adaptation of the scale was carried out by Yilmaz et al. (2007). This instrument uses a nine-point Likert-type scale and consists of 40 items grouped under three subscales: mature defense mechanisms, immature defense mechanisms, and neurotic defense mechanisms. A decrease in the scores obtained from the subscales indicates that the level of defense mechanisms used in the relevant subscale is low or absent, whereas an increase indicates that the defense mechanisms used are excessive. In the adaptation study, the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients were 0.70 for mature defense mechanisms, 0.61 for neurotic defense mechanisms, and 0.83 for immature defense mechanisms. For this study, these values were determined to be 0.61, 0.44, and 0.76, respectively. Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale (IVRS) The xx adaptation of the Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale developed by Yun and Vonk (2011) was conducted by Akın et al. (2012). This scale aims to assess individuals' perceptions of the forms of responsibility they assume for violent behaviors exhibited in their intimate relationships. The instrument is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale and consists of 20 items. The scale measures four subscales: minimization, acceptance of violence, blaming the partner, and blaming external factors. In the adaptation study, the reliability analysis conducted for the IVRS resulted in a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of 0.86. Within the scope of this study, the Cronbach's alpha values were 0.79 for minimizing, 0.87 for accepting violence, 0.74 for blaming the partner, and 0.95 for blaming external factors. Statistical Analysis The statistical analyses of the study were performed via the Jamovi 2.3.28 software package. Descriptive statistics for the quantitative variables in the study are presented as the mean, standard deviation, median, minimum, and maximum values; categorical variables are presented as the frequency and percentage. The normality of the quantitative variables was examined via the Shapiro‒Wilk test. The Mann‒Whitney U test was used for independent comparisons of two groups of quantitative variables, and the Kruskal–Wallis (KW) test was used for comparisons of three groups. Following the Kruskal‒Wallis test, the Bonferroni-corrected Mann‒Whitney U test was used for pairwise subgroup comparisons. The relationships among the scales were evaluated via the Spearman correlation coefficient. In all statistical analyses conducted for the study, results with a p value less than 0.05 were considered to indicate significance. Limitations The main limitation of this study is that the data collection method relies on self-report scales. Since the participants' responses involve subjective assessments, they may not correspond exactly with actual behavioral tendencies. Furthermore, as the sample investigated in this study is limited to law enforcement personnel in a specific geographic region, the generalizability of the findings is limited. Moreover, as the study focuses solely on psychological dimensions, institutional factors or sociopolitical structures are not included in the analysis. Findings Participants' Sociodemographic Characteristics Gender • 13.7% Female • 86.3% Male Age • med (29) min-max (23-49) Education Level • 3.6% High school • 70% Bachelor's degree • 13.4% Master's degree • 13.0% Other Marital status • 71.1% Married • 28.9% Single Children • 77.3% Have children • 22.7% Do not have children Method of choosing the profession • 61.9% Chose it themselves • 34.5% Chosen by family and environment • 3.6% Chosen for other reasons Professional experience • 42.8% 10 years and under • 38.3% 11–20 years • 19% Over 21 years Perceived income level • 37.7% Low • 53.1% Medium • 9.2% High Having a chronic illness • 9.6% Yes • 90.4% No Shown in Table 1 are participants' mean mindfulness awareness, defense styles, and intimate violence responsibilities subscale scores. Table 1 Participants' Mindfulness Awareness (MAAS), Defense Styles (DS), and Intimate Violence Responsibilities (IVR) Medyan Minimum Maksimum MAAS 64.63 ± 10.08 63 38 78 Neurotic Defense 18.65 ± 2.07 18.5 11 26 Mature Defense 20.97 ± 3.03 21 11.5 30.5 Immature Defense 55.71 ± 5.17 56 25 68.5 Minimization 4.20 ± 0.71 4.43 2.1 5.0 Violence Recognition 3.45 ± 1.21 3.2 1.0 5.0 Partner Blaming 3.56 ± 0.94 3.75 1.0 5.0 Distal Blaming 2.47 ± 1.50 2.25 1.0 5.0 A statistically significant difference is observed between women and men in terms of the violence acceptance subscale score (p=0.004). Women's scores on the relevant subscale are significantly higher. A statistically significant difference is also observed between women and men in terms of partner blame scale scores (p=0.015). Women's scores on the relevant subscale are significantly higher (Table 2). Table 2 Participants' MAAS, DS, and IVR Scores by Gender Female Male P MAAS 66.3 ± 9.14 66.5 (42 - 76) 64.4 ± 10.20 63 (38 – 78) 0.125 a Neurotic Defense 18.7 ± 1.54 19 (13.5 - 23) 18.6 ± 2.14 18.5 (11 – 26) 0.391 a Mature Defense 21.1 ± 2.52 21 (16.5 – 25.5) 20.9 ± 3.10 21 (11.5 – 30.5) 0.403 a Immature Defense 55.1 ± 6.32 54.5 (36.5 – 68.5) 55.8 ± 4.96 56 (25 - 68) 0.097 a Minimization 4.3 ± 0.58 4.43 (2.71 – 5.00) 4.2 ± 0.72 4.43 (2.14 – 5.00) 0.165 a Violence Recognition 3.8 ± 1.05 3.80 (1.00 – 5.00) 3.4 ± 1.22 3.00 (1.00 – 5.00) 0.004 a Partner Blaming 3.8 ± 0.79 4.0 (1.50 – 5.00) 3.5 ± 0.96 3.75 (1.00 – 5.00) 0.015 a Distal Blaming 2.9 ± 1.59 2.25 (1.00 – 5.00) 2.4 ± 1.48 2.25 (1.00 – 5.00) 0.099 a a Mann Whitney U test A weak inverse correlation is observed between the Mindfulness Awareness Scale score and “minimization” (r=-0.121). Furthermore, a weak inverse correlation is observed between the Mindfulness Awareness Scale score and “acceptance of violence” (r=-0.112). A weak inverse correlation is observed between the Mindfulness Awareness Scale score and “blaming the partner” (r=-0.108) (Table 3). A weak positive correlation is observed between “neurotic defense mechanisms” and “blaming the partner” (r=0.151). A weak positive correlation is also observed between “neurotic defense mechanisms” and “blaming external factors” (r=0.307) (Table 3). A weak linear correlation is observed between “immature defense mechanisms” and “acceptance of violence” (r=0.116). Furthermore, a weak linear correlation is observed between “immature defense mechanisms” and “blaming the partner” (r=0.132). Finally, a weak linear correlation is observed between “immature defense mechanisms” and “blaming external factors” (r=0.137) (Table 3). Table 3 Correlations among Participants' MAAS, DS, and IVR Scores MAAS ND MD ID M VR PB DB MAAS - ND r=0.056 p=0.186 - MD r= 0.024 p=0.569 r=0.169 p<0.001 - ID r=0.026 p=0.542 r=0.222 p<0.001 r=0.106 p=0.013 - M r=-0.121 p=0.005 r=0.002 p=0.967 r=0.036 p=0.404 r=0.087 p=0.490 - VR r=-0.112 p=0.008 r=0.001 p=0.977 r=0.010 p=0.808 r=0.116 p=0.006 r=0.606 p<0.001 - PB r=-0.108 p=0.011 r=0.151 p<0.001 r= -0.018 p=0.667 r=0.132 p=0.002 r=0.222 p<0.001 r=0.501 p<0.001 - DB r=0.002 p=0.972 r=0.307 p<0.001 r=0.030 p=0.486 r=0.137 p=0.001 r=0.156 p<0.001 r=0.295 p<0.001 r=0.459 p<0.001 - Spearman Correlation Test (MAAS: Mindful Attention Awarenes , ND: Neurotic Defense; MD: Matur Defence, ID: Immatur Defence; M: Minimization; VR: Violence Recognition; PB: Partner Blaming; DB: Distal Blaming) Discussion In this study, the participants’ mean MAAS scale scores were 64.63 ± 10.08. Given that the scores on the scale ranged from 15 to 90, the participants reported a level of mindful awareness that was slightly above average. Law enforcement officers work in high-stress environments that require emotional resilience, interpersonal skills, and effective communication. Occupational stress can negatively affect their motivation, conflict resolution skills, and professional effectiveness (Liu et al., 2025 ). Mindfulness and distress tolerance are identified as strong indicators of mental health in communities exposed to high levels of stress and trauma, such as first responders. The combination of these two protective factors may provide potential benefits for mental health. Higher levels of mindful awareness independently predict better occupational health (lower levels of burnout and higher levels of compassion satisfaction) (McDonald et al., 2022 ). In this context, the importance of mindful awareness training and education is emphasized. Mindfulness training (MT) can regulate how an individual assesses stress and reduce the stress response by increasing secondary assessments of approach-focused coping resources. A self-regulation process developed by the synergistic systems of attention/cognitive control, emotional regulation, and self-related processes is created (Schuman-Olivier et al., 2020 ; Trombka et al., 2021 ). On the other hand, in a related study, moving-kindness meditation guided by a short video application was shown to improve public service motivation, conflict resolution skills, and communication skills among police officers but did not significantly increase MAAS awareness (Liu et al., 2025 ). This situation suggests that longer-term, human-to-human interactive programs are more effective at increasing mindful awareness, which is a multilayered and deep concept. In terms of the average scale scores obtained by the participants, there was no statistically significant difference between women and men in terms of the “mindfulness” scale scores. In a recent study on this topic, the relationship between police officers' mindfulness and coping with stress was examined in terms of various variables (Birkok & Albayrak, 2021 ). In that study, similar to this study, no significant difference between police officers' levels of mindful awareness and their gender was found. Additionally, within the scope of “mindfulness training” designed for police officers (Trombka et al., 2021 ), researchers have reported that MAAS scale scores did not vary by gender. The Violence Responsibility Scale was used in this study because of its ability to form a significant background in the perception of violence. The “minimization” subscale had the highest mean score, whereas the “blaming external factors” subscale had the lowest mean score. In a previous study on the same scale (Polat & Özeren, 2021 ), the minimization subscale also had the highest mean score, while the blaming external factors subscale had the lowest mean score. In this study, compared with men, women had significantly higher mean scores on the “acceptance of violence” subscale. Furthermore, compared with men, women had higher scores on the “blaming the partner” subscale. Unlike Polat and Özeren's (2021) study, in which there was no statistically significant difference between women and men on the accepting violence subscale, this study revealed that women had higher scores on the blaming the partner subscale. In research aimed at determining the prevalence of not telling friends and relatives about abuse in close relationships among those who experience violence and minimizing violence, scholars have reported that those who experience physical violence accept violence more and that delays in disclosing violence are related to minimizing violence (Dunham & Senn, 2000 ). In this study, based on the participants’ scores on the scales and subscales, there is a weak inverse correlation between the level of conscious awareness and minimizing violence. This finding can be summarized as follows: as conscious awareness increases, minimizing violence decreases. According to the findings of this study, there is a weak inverse relationship between the level of conscious awareness and acceptance of violence. This finding can be summarized as follows: as conscious awareness increases, the acceptance of violence decreases. Furthermore, according to the findings of this study, there is a weak inverse relationship between the level of conscious awareness and blaming one's partner. This finding can be interpreted as blaming one's partner decreasing as conscious awareness increases. In this study, based on the participants’ scores on the scales and subscales, there is a weak linear relationship between immature defense mechanisms and acceptance of violence. There is a weak linear relationship between immature defense mechanisms and blaming the partner. There is a weak linear relationship between immature defense mechanisms and blaming external factors. In summary, there is a significant relationship between immature defense mechanisms and levels of negative violence responsibility perception. As one factor increases, so does the other. Throughout their lives, people feel important and valuable when they act in accordance with their identity structure or experience life in such a way, but they feel bad when they do or experience things that are contrary to their identity. This situation is a natural reflection of an integrated self-structure. Almost everyone uses defense mechanisms to reduce the pressure on their psychological structure by diminishing the effect of things that make them feel bad (Ozakkaş, 2013 ; Polat & Özeren, 2021 ). Mentioning this universal mechanism, also known as devaluation or devaluation, is appropriate here. Accepting violence by lowering the value attributed to oneself or one's interlocutor is actually quite primitive. However, its prevalence in society is still significant. Blaming external factors, i.e., shifting responsibility to others, indicates that projection, which is a primitive defense mechanism, is at work. Violence is a phenomenon that creates profound effects at both the individual and societal levels, is difficult to prevent, and is in a state of constant transformation. How law enforcement personnel, who are at the forefront of this issue, perceive this phenomenon, how they deal with it, and what mental processes they engage in can directly affect success in combating violence. However, comprehensive studies that address perceptions of violence, conscious awareness, and defense mechanisms together and specifically target law enforcement agencies are lacking. In this respect, it is hoped that this research will make a significant contribution to the literature and provide scientific foundations that can shed light on training, support, and intervention programs for law enforcement personnel. In terms of recommendations, support mechanisms aimed at protecting the mental health of personnel working in high-stress task environments should be strengthened on a more general level, and regular psychological screening and counseling services should be integrated into the institutional structure. In this context, psychoeducational approaches that strengthen the internal dynamics of law enforcement personnel must also be supported by a comprehensive policy. Additionally, mixed-method studies supported by qualitative data in the academic sphere would be highly beneficial in this context. In line with the results of this research, the fact that in-service training for law enforcement agencies should prioritize not only professional skills but also advanced negotiation skills, perception management, stress management, and emotion regulation skills is highlighted. Group studies can be planned according to the personality traits and conditions of law enforcement agencies on more culturally specific bases, or even for female and male law enforcement agents. Declarations Ethical Approval Permission to conduct the research was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the relevant university (xxx). (The name of the university has been removed for peer review purposes and will be provided upon request or in the final version of the manuscript.) This research procedure was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Funding No funding was received for this study. Author Contribution Gul Sultan Ozeren: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration.Rumeysa Tascı: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Resources.All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the law enforcement officers who participated in this study, achieving a remarkable 88% participation rate. We especially appreciate their dedication and effort in meticulously completing the scales, often despite the exhaustion of post-shift fatigue and their demanding work schedules. Data Availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Akın A, Gülşen M, Aşut S, Akca M (2012) The reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the intimate violence responsibility scale. 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Res Social Work Pract 21(5):562–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731511400757 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Prof. Ozeren","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA80lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5gYGhgIgzd7AcAAikkBICyNQi4EBAwPPASQtB4jSIgE3nIAW+YjE5s88Bn/kzSWfPzxcUHGHgZ89x4D54x7cWgxvJLZJ8xgYGO6cnWNweMaZZwySPW8MGA48w6NlRmIbM1AL44bbOQyHedsOMxjcyAFqweMyoBaQwwzsN9w8/gCsxZ6QFnmJxAaQwxI33GAwgNgiQUCLAc/DNsk5BsbJG84A/cJz5hmPxJlnBQfO4LOlPfnwhzcVcrYbjh9//Jmn4o4cf3vyxgcV+GxBkzvAAyZxawDa0oCmBZ/iUTAKRsEoGKEAAGEFWZZeDXXPAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Sinop University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Assoc.","middleName":"Prof.","lastName":"Ozeren","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-16 19:38:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8895761/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8895761/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106403883,"identity":"19bf0c43-7601-4cee-9d2d-6a55d7f9f8f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:15:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":797424,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8895761/v1/eb82bb1e-e55a-4778-8f07-b96f2aac9312.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Relationships among Law Enforcement Officers’ Perceptions of Violence, Mindfulness Levels, and Defense Mechanisms in the Fight against Violence\"","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLaw enforcement agencies play a central role in the processes of maintaining social order, ensuring public safety, and establishing legal authority. However, this role is not limited to responding to external events; it also requires understanding the internal processes of law enforcement personnel. Psychological variables such as perceptions of violence, levels of conscious awareness, and defense mechanisms profoundly affect law enforcement officers\u0026apos; professional decision-making processes, their ability to cope with stress, and their relationships with the public. Therefore, examining law enforcement personnel within the framework of these three fundamental concepts is highly important for developing holistic approaches aimed at improving both individual well-being and organizational effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eViolence is a complex, multidimensional, and universal phenomenon that threatens the physical, mental, and social integrity of individuals. Law enforcement agencies, which are responsible for ensuring public peace and security, stand at the forefront of the fight against violence. However, this fight must be conducted not only through intervention in external events but also by understanding internal processes. Compared with people in other professions, police officers are particularly at risk of stress, which can affect each individual to varying degrees. Particularly because they have to quickly assess and respond to threats that they encounter while on duty, police officers generally develop their perceptions of violence in a highly alert and reactive manner (Papazoglou \u0026amp; Andersen, 2014; Roycroft \u0026amp; Brine, 2021; Williams et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConstant exposure to violent incidents can cause law enforcement personnel to normalize violence over time and, in some cases, view it as a legitimate tool. However, within police culture, the use of force is sometimes institutionally rewarded, and empathetic attitudes are viewed as a form of weakness (Christopher et al., 2018). As a result of this situation, police officers are prone to excessive use of force, anger management issues, or misjudgments, especially when under stress. Perceptions of violence among law enforcement personnel are influenced by factors such as these personnel\u0026rsquo;s individual values, level of education, and length of service, as well as the organizational climate (Cruz, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMindfulness is defined as the state of focusing on the present moment without judgment and being aware of one\u0026apos;s internal experiences. In the psychological literature, it has been shown to be effective in many areas, such as stress reduction, emotion regulation, and attention development. Individuals with high levels of mindfulness can respond more flexibly in stressful situations, regulate their emotions, and make conscious choices rather than automatic responses (Christopher et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMindfulness is considered to be a preventive tool against burnout and a protective measure for mental health, especially among professionals who are prone to trauma (e.g., healthcare workers, firefighters, soldiers, and police officers). Mindfulness-based approaches help individuals balance their stress responses by increasing their mental resilience. Mindfulness also helps individuals control violent impulses and reduces aggression levels (Nahardani, 2020). Mindfulness practices for law enforcement have been recommended in recent years to both improve professional performance and support psychological resilience. Policing is a high-stress profession involving intense decision-making moments, and the societal impact of wrong decisions is enormous. Mindfulness-based training enables police officers to increase their attention, manage their emotional responses, and behave more consciously while on duty (Christopher et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDefense mechanisms are automatic responses that underlie many adaptive reactions in daily life and are triggered by internal and external stress and emotional conflict. Defense mechanisms are fundamental to people\u0026rsquo;s mental health, and the adequacy of an individual\u0026apos;s defense mechanisms has a direct effect on his or her psychological functioning and interpersonal effectiveness (B\u0026eacute;k\u0026eacute;s et al., 2024). Although defense mechanisms sometimes function adaptively to enable individuals to continue their duties, the automaticity of these mechanisms in the absence of conscious awareness can lead to pathological conditions such as burnout, anxiety disorders, anger control problems, and even suicide risk (Nahardani, 2020). Police officers\u0026apos; tendency to use avoidance coping strategies when trying to cope with stress further exacerbates the effects of stress. Evidence shows that \u0026ldquo;avoidance-opposing\u0026rdquo; strategies such as acceptance, mindfulness, and emotional awareness are more effective coping methods and are linked to both mental health and personal effectiveness (Williams et al., 2010). Studies in the field of police psychology emphasize the fact that recognizing and acknowledging defense mechanisms and seeking professional support when necessary are critical for maintaining task quality and individual health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary objective of this study is to examine the levels of perception of violence, states of conscious awareness, and defense mechanisms among individuals serving in law enforcement agencies in conjunction with various variables and to reveal the relationships among these three fundamental elements. Thus, the aim of this research is to improve our understanding of the fundamental processes that play a role in perceiving, evaluating, and responding to violence at the personal and societal levels. This study also aims to map \u0026ldquo;internal attitudes toward violence,\u0026rdquo; which have not been sufficiently clarified in the broader literature.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDesign\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is descriptive-exploratory and cross-sectional in nature and focuses on law enforcement personnel working in the police department in the northern part of the country.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research population consists of law enforcement personnel from the police department who volunteered to participate in the study. During the data collection period (June 1, 2024–August 1, 2024), 630 relevant personnel worked in the central department. A face-to-face survey was administered to 554 participants (88% participation rate) who were recruited from this population via convenience sampling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data included in the analysis were obtained through face-to-face surveys. The survey was administered to law enforcement officers working in the police department in X city center.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Collection Tools\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a short information form created by the researchers, as well as the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ), and Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale (IVRS) were used as data collection tools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipant Information Form\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA short introductory form that asks participants about their gender, age, marital status, and professional experience was prepared by the researchers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe xx adaptation of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown \u0026amp; Ryan, 2003) was produced by Ozyesil et al. (2011). This scale consists of 15 items that measure the general tendency to be mindful of momentary experiences in daily life and to pay attention to these experiences. The instrument uses a 6-point Likert scale, and higher scores indicate a higher level of mindful awareness. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the adapted scale was 0.80, while the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this study was 0.92.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDefense Style Questionnaire (DSQ)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis instrument is a self-assessment scale developed by Andrews et al. (1993) to determine the conscious reflections of defense mechanisms used unconsciously. The xx adaptation of the scale was carried out by Yilmaz et al. (2007). This instrument uses a nine-point Likert-type scale and consists of 40 items grouped under three subscales: mature defense mechanisms, immature defense mechanisms, and neurotic defense mechanisms. A decrease in the scores obtained from the subscales indicates that the level of defense mechanisms used in the relevant subscale is low or absent, whereas an increase indicates that the defense mechanisms used are excessive. In the adaptation study, the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients were 0.70 for mature defense mechanisms, 0.61 for neurotic defense mechanisms, and 0.83 for immature defense mechanisms. For this study, these values were determined to be 0.61, 0.44, and 0.76, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntimate Violence Responsibility Scale (IVRS)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe xx adaptation of the Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale developed by Yun and Vonk (2011) was conducted by Akın et al. (2012). This scale aims to assess individuals' perceptions of the forms of responsibility they assume for violent behaviors exhibited in their intimate relationships. The instrument is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale and consists of 20 items. The scale measures four subscales: minimization, acceptance of violence, blaming the partner, and blaming external factors. In the adaptation study, the reliability analysis conducted for the IVRS\u0026nbsp;resulted in a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of 0.86. Within the scope of this study, the Cronbach's alpha values were 0.79 for minimizing, 0.87 for accepting violence, 0.74 for blaming the partner, and 0.95 for blaming external factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe statistical analyses of the study were performed via the Jamovi\u0026nbsp;2.3.28 software package. Descriptive statistics for the quantitative variables in the study are presented as the mean, standard deviation, median, minimum, and maximum values; categorical variables are presented as the frequency and percentage. The normality of the quantitative variables was examined via the Shapiro‒Wilk test. The Mann‒Whitney U test was used for independent comparisons of two groups of quantitative variables, and the Kruskal–Wallis (KW) test was used for comparisons of three groups. Following the Kruskal‒Wallis test, the Bonferroni-corrected Mann‒Whitney U test was used for pairwise subgroup comparisons. The relationships among the scales were evaluated via the Spearman correlation coefficient. In all statistical analyses conducted for the study, results with a p value less than 0.05 were considered to indicate significance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main limitation of this study is that the data collection method relies on self-report scales. Since the participants' responses involve subjective assessments, they may not correspond exactly with actual behavioral tendencies. Furthermore, as the sample investigated in this study is limited to law enforcement personnel in a specific geographic region, the generalizability of the findings is limited. Moreover, as the study focuses solely on psychological dimensions, institutional factors or sociopolitical structures are not included in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u0026apos; Sociodemographic Characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;13.7% Female\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;86.3% Male\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; med (29) min-max (23-49)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducation Level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;3.6% High school\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;70% Bachelor\u0026apos;s degree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;13.4% Master\u0026apos;s degree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;13.0% Other\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMarital status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;71.1% Married\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;28.9% Single\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChildren\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;77.3% Have children\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;22.7% Do not have children\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod of choosing the profession\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;61.9% Chose it themselves\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;34.5% Chosen by family and environment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;3.6% Chosen for other reasons\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProfessional experience\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;42.8% 10 years and under\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;38.3% 11\u0026ndash;20 years\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;19% Over 21 years\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerceived income level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;37.7% \u0026nbsp; Low\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;53.1% \u0026nbsp; Medium\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;9.2% \u0026nbsp; High\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHaving a chronic illness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;9.6% \u0026nbsp; Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;90.4% No\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShown in Table 1 are participants\u0026apos; mean mindfulness awareness, defense styles, and intimate violence responsibilities subscale scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u0026apos; Mindfulness Awareness (MAAS), Defense Styles (DS), and Intimate Violence Responsibilities (IVR)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\n \u003cv:shapetype id=\"_x0000_t75\" coordsize=\"21600,21600\" o:spt=\"75\" o:preferrelative=\"t\" path=\"m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe\" filled=\"f\" stroked=\"f\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:stroke joinstyle=\"miter\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:formulas\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"sum @0 1 0\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"sum 0 0 @1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"prod @2 1 2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"prod @3 21600 pixelWidth\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"prod @3 21600 pixelHeight\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"sum @0 0 1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"prod @6 1 2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"prod @7 21600 pixelWidth\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"sum @8 21600 0\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"prod @7 21600 pixelHeight\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:f eqn=\"sum @10 21600 0\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:f\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:formulas\u003e\n \u003cv:path o:extrusionok=\"f\" gradientshapeok=\"t\" o:connecttype=\"rect\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:path\u003e\u0026nbsp;\n \u003c/v:stroke\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:shapetype\u003e\n \u003cv:shape id=\"_x0000_i1025\" type=\"#_x0000_t75\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:imagedata src=\"file:///C%3A/Users/pgs9865/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.png\" o:title=\"\" chromakey=\"white\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:imagedata\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:shape\u003e\n \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedyan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaksimum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMAAS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.63 \u0026plusmn; 10.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNeurotic Defense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.65 \u0026plusmn; 2.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMature Defense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.97 \u0026plusmn; 3.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImmature Defense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.71 \u0026plusmn; 5.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.20 \u0026plusmn; 0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eViolence Recognition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.45 \u0026plusmn; 1.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePartner Blaming\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.56 \u0026plusmn; 0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistal Blaming\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.47 \u0026plusmn; 1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant difference is observed between women and men in terms of the violence acceptance subscale score (p=0.004). Women\u0026apos;s scores on the relevant subscale are significantly higher. A statistically significant difference is also observed between women and men in terms of partner blame scale scores (p=0.015). Women\u0026apos;s scores on the relevant subscale are significantly higher (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u0026apos; MAAS, DS, and IVR\u0026nbsp;Scores by Gender\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMale\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMAAS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.3 \u0026plusmn; 9.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.5 (42 - 76)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.4 \u0026plusmn; 10.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63 (38 \u0026ndash; 78)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNeurotic Defense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.7 \u0026plusmn; 1.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (13.5 - 23)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.6 \u0026plusmn; 2.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.5 (11 \u0026ndash; 26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.391\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMature Defense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.1 \u0026plusmn; 2.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21 (16.5 \u0026ndash; 25.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.9 \u0026plusmn; 3.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21 (11.5 \u0026ndash; 30.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.403\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImmature Defense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.1 \u0026plusmn; 6.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.5 (36.5 \u0026ndash; 68.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.8 \u0026plusmn; 4.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56 (25 - 68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3 \u0026plusmn; 0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.43 (2.71 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.43 (2.14 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eViolence Recognition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8 \u0026plusmn; 1.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.80 (1.00 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4 \u0026plusmn; 1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00 (1.00 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.004\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePartner Blaming\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8 \u0026plusmn; 0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.0 (1.50 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5 \u0026plusmn; 0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.75 (1.00 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.015\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistal Blaming\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9 \u0026plusmn; 1.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25 (1.00 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4 \u0026plusmn; 1.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25 (1.00 \u0026ndash; 5.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.099\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eMann Whitney U test\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA weak inverse correlation is observed between the Mindfulness Awareness Scale score and \u0026ldquo;minimization\u0026rdquo; (r=-0.121). Furthermore, a weak inverse correlation is observed between the Mindfulness Awareness Scale score and \u0026ldquo;acceptance of violence\u0026rdquo; (r=-0.112). A weak inverse correlation is observed between the Mindfulness Awareness Scale score and \u0026ldquo;blaming the partner\u0026rdquo; (r=-0.108) (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA weak positive correlation is observed between \u0026ldquo;neurotic defense mechanisms\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;blaming the partner\u0026rdquo; (r=0.151). A weak positive correlation is also observed between \u0026ldquo;neurotic defense mechanisms\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;blaming external factors\u0026rdquo; (r=0.307) (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA weak linear correlation is observed between \u0026ldquo;immature defense mechanisms\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;acceptance of violence\u0026rdquo; (r=0.116). Furthermore, a weak linear correlation is observed between \u0026ldquo;immature defense mechanisms\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;blaming the partner\u0026rdquo; (r=0.132). Finally, a weak linear correlation is observed between \u0026ldquo;immature defense mechanisms\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;blaming external factors\u0026rdquo; (r=0.137) (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorrelations among Participants\u0026apos; MAAS, DS, and IVR\u0026nbsp;Scores\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"width:96.86%;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9.44%;border: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 11.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8%;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 11.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003eMAAS\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left: none;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:11.25pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New 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5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.35pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.606\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.35pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp 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5.4pt;height:33.9pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=-0.108\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep=0.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.9pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp 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style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.132\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep=0.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.9pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.222\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.9pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.501\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.9pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e-\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:7.94%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:33.9pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:9.44%;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top: none;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003eDB\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003er=0.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003ep=0.972\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.307\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003er=0.030\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003ep=0.486\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.137\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep=0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.156\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.295\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:11.8%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;background:#D9E2F3;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003er=0.459\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ep\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:7.94%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;height:22.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e-\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpearman Correlation Test\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(MAAS: Mindful Attention Awarenes\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eND: Neurotic Defense; MD: Matur Defence, ID: Immatur Defence; M: Minimization; VR: Violence Recognition; PB: Partner Blaming; DB: Distal Blaming)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the participants\u0026rsquo; mean MAAS scale scores were 64.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.08. Given that the scores on the scale ranged from 15 to 90, the participants reported a level of mindful awareness that was slightly above average. Law enforcement officers work in high-stress environments that require emotional resilience, interpersonal skills, and effective communication. Occupational stress can negatively affect their motivation, conflict resolution skills, and professional effectiveness (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Mindfulness and distress tolerance are identified as strong indicators of mental health in communities exposed to high levels of stress and trauma, such as first responders. The combination of these two protective factors may provide potential benefits for mental health. Higher levels of mindful awareness independently predict better occupational health (lower levels of burnout and higher levels of compassion satisfaction) (McDonald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, the importance of mindful awareness training and education is emphasized. Mindfulness training (MT) can regulate how an individual assesses stress and reduce the stress response by increasing secondary assessments of approach-focused coping resources. A self-regulation process developed by the synergistic systems of attention/cognitive control, emotional regulation, and self-related processes is created (Schuman-Olivier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Trombka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, in a related study, moving-kindness meditation guided by a short video application was shown to improve public service motivation, conflict resolution skills, and communication skills among police officers but did not significantly increase MAAS awareness (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This situation suggests that longer-term, human-to-human interactive programs are more effective at increasing mindful awareness, which is a multilayered and deep concept.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of the average scale scores obtained by the participants, there was no statistically significant difference between women and men in terms of the \u0026ldquo;mindfulness\u0026rdquo; scale scores. In a recent study on this topic, the relationship between police officers' mindfulness and coping with stress was examined in terms of various variables (Birkok \u0026amp; Albayrak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In that study, similar to this study, no significant difference between police officers' levels of mindful awareness and their gender was found. Additionally, within the scope of \u0026ldquo;mindfulness training\u0026rdquo; designed for police officers (Trombka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), researchers have reported that MAAS scale scores did not vary by gender.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Violence Responsibility Scale was used in this study because of its ability to form a significant background in the perception of violence. The \u0026ldquo;minimization\u0026rdquo; subscale had the highest mean score, whereas the \u0026ldquo;blaming external factors\u0026rdquo; subscale had the lowest mean score. In a previous study on the same scale (Polat \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zeren, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), the minimization subscale also had the highest mean score, while the blaming external factors subscale had the lowest mean score. In this study, compared with men, women had significantly higher mean scores on the \u0026ldquo;acceptance of violence\u0026rdquo; subscale. Furthermore, compared with men, women had higher scores on the \u0026ldquo;blaming the partner\u0026rdquo; subscale. Unlike Polat and \u0026Ouml;zeren's (2021) study, in which there was no statistically significant difference between women and men on the accepting violence subscale, this study revealed that women had higher scores on the blaming the partner subscale. In research aimed at determining the prevalence of not telling friends and relatives about abuse in close relationships among those who experience violence and minimizing violence, scholars have reported that those who experience physical violence accept violence more and that delays in disclosing violence are related to minimizing violence (Dunham \u0026amp; Senn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, based on the participants\u0026rsquo; scores on the scales and subscales, there is a weak inverse correlation between the level of conscious awareness and minimizing violence. This finding can be summarized as follows: as conscious awareness increases, minimizing violence decreases. According to the findings of this study, there is a weak inverse relationship between the level of conscious awareness and acceptance of violence. This finding can be summarized as follows: as conscious awareness increases, the acceptance of violence decreases. Furthermore, according to the findings of this study, there is a weak inverse relationship between the level of conscious awareness and blaming one's partner. This finding can be interpreted as blaming one's partner decreasing as conscious awareness increases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, based on the participants\u0026rsquo; scores on the scales and subscales, there is a weak linear relationship between immature defense mechanisms and acceptance of violence. There is a weak linear relationship between immature defense mechanisms and blaming the partner. There is a weak linear relationship between immature defense mechanisms and blaming external factors. In summary, there is a significant relationship between immature defense mechanisms and levels of negative violence responsibility perception. As one factor increases, so does the other.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroughout their lives, people feel important and valuable when they act in accordance with their identity structure or experience life in such a way, but they feel bad when they do or experience things that are contrary to their identity. This situation is a natural reflection of an integrated self-structure. Almost everyone uses defense mechanisms to reduce the pressure on their psychological structure by diminishing the effect of things that make them feel bad (Ozakkaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Polat \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zeren, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Mentioning this universal mechanism, also known as devaluation or devaluation, is appropriate here. Accepting violence by lowering the value attributed to oneself or one's interlocutor is actually quite primitive. However, its prevalence in society is still significant. Blaming external factors, i.e., shifting responsibility to others, indicates that projection, which is a primitive defense mechanism, is at work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViolence is a phenomenon that creates profound effects at both the individual and societal levels, is difficult to prevent, and is in a state of constant transformation. How law enforcement personnel, who are at the forefront of this issue, perceive this phenomenon, how they deal with it, and what mental processes they engage in can directly affect success in combating violence. However, comprehensive studies that address perceptions of violence, conscious awareness, and defense mechanisms together and specifically target law enforcement agencies are lacking. In this respect, it is hoped that this research will make a significant contribution to the literature and provide scientific foundations that can shed light on training, support, and intervention programs for law enforcement personnel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of recommendations, support mechanisms aimed at protecting the mental health of personnel working in high-stress task environments should be strengthened on a more general level, and regular psychological screening and counseling services should be integrated into the institutional structure. In this context, psychoeducational approaches that strengthen the internal dynamics of law enforcement personnel must also be supported by a comprehensive policy. Additionally, mixed-method studies supported by qualitative data in the academic sphere would be highly beneficial in this context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn line with the results of this research, the fact that in-service training for law enforcement agencies should prioritize not only professional skills but also advanced negotiation skills, perception management, stress management, and emotion regulation skills is highlighted. Group studies can be planned according to the personality traits and conditions of law enforcement agencies on more culturally specific bases, or even for female and male law enforcement agents.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ePermission to conduct the research was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the relevant university (xxx). (The name of the university has been removed for peer review purposes and will be provided upon request or in the final version of the manuscript.) This research procedure was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGul Sultan Ozeren: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Supervision, Project administration.Rumeysa Tascı: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Resources.All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the law enforcement officers who participated in this study, achieving a remarkable 88% participation rate. We especially appreciate their dedication and effort in meticulously completing the scales, often despite the exhaustion of post-shift fatigue and their demanding work schedules.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkın A, G\u0026uuml;lşen M, Aşut S, Akca M (2012) The reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the intimate violence responsibility scale. Abant İzzet Baysal \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Eğitim Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi 12(2):175\u0026ndash;184\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndrews G, Singh M, Bond M (1993) The defense style questionnaire. 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Turkish J Psychiatry 18(3):244\u0026ndash;253\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYun SH, Vonk ME (2011) Development and initial validation of the intimate violence responsibility scale (IVRS). Res Social Work Pract 21(5):562\u0026ndash;571. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/1049731511400757\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/1049731511400757\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Police Psychology, Dispositional Mindfulness, Defense Styles, Responsibility Attribution, Victim Blaming","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8895761/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8895761/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examines the interplay between psychological resilience factors\u0026mdash;specifically mindfulness and defense mechanisms\u0026mdash;and their impact on how law enforcement officers perceive and attribute responsibility for violence. By investigating these internal cognitive frameworks, the research aims to identify predictors of professional attitudes toward violence in high-stakes policing contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected from a sample of 554 law enforcement officers (aged 18+) serving in a major metropolitan center. The methodological framework utilized the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40), and the Intimate Violence Responsibility Scale. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine the correlations between dispositional mindfulness, the maturity of psychological defenses, and the cognitive processing of violent encounters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelation analyses revealed that higher levels of mindfulness significantly correlate with a reduction in maladaptive cognitive biases, such as minimizing violence, accepting violence as normative, and victim-blaming. Conversely, the use of immature (primitive) defense mechanisms was a strong predictor of skewed perceptions regarding responsibility for violence. While mindfulness and defense mechanisms operated as independent psychological constructs, both were found to be critical determinants of an officer's interpretative framework toward systemic and situational violence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings suggest that an officer\u0026rsquo;s internal psychological maturity directly influences their professional stance on violence. From a policy perspective, integrating mindfulness-based resilience training (MBRT) and psychoeducational workshops into in-service police training is recommended. These interventions are proposed not only as wellness tools but as strategic mechanisms to enhance de-escalation capabilities, reduce cognitive distortions in the field, and promote more accountable criminal justice practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Relationships among Law Enforcement Officers’ Perceptions of Violence, Mindfulness Levels, and Defense Mechanisms in the Fight against Violence\"","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-06 10:14:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8895761/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c6d4a959-1357-4bae-8c1c-30dfcadb8e1b","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-04T20:03:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-04T01:37:04+00:00","index":21,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-01T00:51:15+00:00","index":20,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-04T20:08:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-06 10:14:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8895761","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8895761","identity":"rs-8895761","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}