Insecticidal plant oil’s toxicity activities on the larval and adult stages of a major malaria vector (Anopheles gambiae Giles 1920)

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This study evaluates the toxicity potential of oils of insecticidal plants shortlisted in an ethnobotanical survey on the larvae and adult stages of Anopheles gambiae . Oils from leaves of Hyptis suaveolens, Ocimum gratissimum, Nicotiana tabacum, Ageratum conyzoides and fruit-peel of Citrus sinensis were extracted by steam-distillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Larvae and female adults of deltamethrin-susceptible Anopheles gambiae were gotten from an already established colony in the Entomological Research Laboratory, University of Ilorin. Twenty-five third instar stage larvae were used for larvicidal assays while twenty 2-5 days old adults were used for the adulticidal assays in five replicates. A. gambiae exposed to H. suaveolens and C. sinensis demonstrated significantly higher larval toxicity (94.7-100%) after 24 hours. At 48 hours, the mortality induced by the oils of the four plants peaked at 100%. N. tabacum (0.50 mg/ml) induced the highest percentage of adult mortality (100%) on A. gambiae which was compared favourably with the positive control Deltamethrin (0.05%). The lowest KdT 50 was observed with 0.25 mg/ml of N. tabacum (20.3 minutes) while the lowest KdT 95 was observed with 0.10mg/ml of A. conyzoides (35.97 mins) against adult A. gambiae . The significant larval and adult mortality rates, lower lethal concentration and knockdown times demonstrated by the evaluated plant oils showed promising outcomes that can be further developed for vector control management. Anopheles gambiae Plant oils Toxicity Mortality Figures Figure 1 Introduction Mosquito-borne disease burdens account for seventeen percent of all infectious diseases and seven hundred thousand deaths yearly (WHO 2019). Malaria, whose mosquito vector is Anopheles spp., frank the highest with approximately 229 million cases in 2021 resulting in 409,000 deaths globally, 95% of which occurred in Africa and 23% in Nigeria (WHO 2021). In Nigeria, Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Giles); is a complex with numerous sibling species including A. gambiae , A. arabiensis, A. coluzzii, A. quadriannulatus , A. amharicus , A. bwambae , A. merus and A. melas have been documented as malaria vectors. The first three sibling species have however been incriminated as responsible for the high malaria transmission, morbidity and mortality statistics in Nigeria (Okorie et al. 2011; Olayemi et al. 2011; Oduola et al. 2016; Obi et al. 2017). The prime choice mosquito control tactic in Africa remains the selective application of residual synthetic insecticides through either Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) or Long-Lasting Insecticide Nets (LLIN) use (WHO 2019). To this end, Pyrethroids are members of the prequalified classes of the active ingredients of the World Health Organisation (WHO) vector control product (Omotayo et al. 2021; WHO 2021; Ande et al. 2022). However, insecticide resistance development in mosquitoes poses a serious threat to sustainable synthetic insecticide-based vector control programmes in many African countries (Youmsi et al. 2017; Oduola et al. 2019) and necessitates the search for natural, sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Cultural practices over the years coupled with research outputs have shown that plants are rich sources of active constituents that have been used successfully and persistently against mosquitoes (Youmsi et al. 2017; Ogban et al. 2020; Adelaja et al. 2021). In many rural communities in Africa, plants are being used efficiently for the management of insects of concern including mosquitoes (Karunamoorthi et al. 2009; Nzelibe and Chintem 2015) and they have been reported to be readily accessible, available, affordable and biodegradable (Kamaraj et al. 2010). Plants, therefore, constitute a potential source of natural and sustainable agents that will stand the test of time as mosquito control agents. In Nigeria, numerous plants and plant parts have been reportedly used in the management of larvae or adult mosquitoes across various cultures and over the years (Ivoke et al. 2009; Mgbemena 2010; Okigbo et al. 2010; Ileke et al. 2015; Musa et al. 2015; Nzelibe and Chintem 2015; Ayange-Kaa et al. 2015; Owoeye et al. 2016; Adelaja et al. 2021). The potentials and modes of action of these plants have been scientifically validated through research reports (Ogban et al. 2020; Adelaja et al. 2021). Crude extracts of some of such plants reported include Ageratum conyzoides (L.), Hyptis suaveolens (L.), Ocimum gratissimum (L.) and Nicotiana tabacum (L.) (Ivoke et al. 2009; Mgbemena 2010; Okigbo et al. 2010; Ileke et al. 2015; Musa et al. 2015; Nzelibe and Chintem 2015; Ayange-Kaa et al. 2015; Owoeye et al. 2016; Adelaja et al. 2021). There is however a dearth of knowledge in respect of the toxicity potentials of the oils obtained from each of these botanicals and Citrus sinensis (L.) against A. gambiae . This study, therefore, provides valuable baseline information on the toxicity potentials of each of the above-mentioned plant oils on A. gambiae . Materials And Methods Plant Materials, Oil Extraction and Serial Dilution Procedures The leaves of Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae), Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae) and fruit peel of Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae) previously identified as most frequently used insecticidal plants from an ethnobotanical survey carried out among locals from different villages in North-central Nigeria (Adelaja et al. 2021) were sourced individually from fresh growing plants around Ilorin. Each collection was identified at the herbarium of the Plant Biology Department by accessory detail and air dried under shade for one week before hydro-distillation. The respective plant oils obtained from each pulverized plant sample were isolated by steam-distillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Each isolated oil was dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and stored in amber-coloured vials at 4 0 C until required for subsequent assays. Each of the five plant oils to be evaluated was serially diluted using technical grade acetone into eight concentrations, viz: 5% (vol: vol) – 0.05mg/ml, 10% (vol: vol) – 0.10 mg/ml, 15% (vol: vol) – 0.15 mg/ml, 20% (vol: vol) – 0.20mg/ml, 25% (vol: vol) – 0.25 mg/ml, 30% (vol: vol) – 0.30 mg/ml, 40% (vol: vol) – 0.40 mg/ml and 50% (vol: vol) – 0.50 mg/ml. These concentrations were determined based on previously unpublished data. Mosquito Collection And Rearing The larvae and female adults of deltamethrin susceptible Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes were gotten from an already established colony at the insectary of the Entomological Research Laboratory, University of Ilorin which was maintained at 27 ± 20 o C and 85 ± 5% RH. Mosquito larvae were fed a diet of non-fatty biscuits mixed with yeast at a ratio of 3:1 while emerged adults were confined in adult holding cages (50 x 50 x 50cm) and provided with a 10% sugar solution. Adult mosquitoes were sorted into males and females using morphological keys by Gillies and DeMeillon (1987). Larvicidal Bioassay The larvicidal activity of each of the plant oils at each of the serial dilution concentrations was evaluated according to the protocol of the World Health Organisation (WHO 2005) with slight modifications. Twenty-five (25) third instar larvae of A. gambiae mosquitoes were introduced into test cups containing 100ml of distilled water and allowed to acclimatise for 1 hour. After which 2ml of the various plant oil concentrations described earlier were introduced. Distilled water with and without acetone was used as negative and positive controls respectively. The number of dead larvae was recorded after 24 and 48 hours of exposure and the percentage mean mortality was calculated. The larvae were considered dead if they did not move when prodded with a needle in the siphon or cervical region. Each treatment was tested in five replicates. If the negative control mortality was between 5% and 20%, the mortalities of treated groups were corrected according to Abbott’s formula (Abbott 1925). Adulticidal Bioassay The adulticidal activity of the plant oils was evaluated against female adult A. gambiae mosquitoes following the World Health Organisation standard method (WHO 2013) with slight modifications. Two and a half millilitres (2.5 ml) of oil dilution concentration to be tested was impregnated on 12 × 15 cm Whatman paper (Dua et al. 2008). Deltamethrin (0.05%) was used as the positive control while acetone was used as the negative control. The impregnated papers were air-dried for 5 min and then inserted to line the interior of the exposure tube in the WHO test kit. Twenty (20), 2-5-day-old, blood-starved adult female mosquitoes were introduced into the holding tube and held for 1h to acclimatize. The mosquitoes were transferred gently into the exposure tube and knocked down was monitored and determined for 60 minutes and percentage knockdown was calculated afterwards. After 1 hour in the exposure tube, all mosquitoes were gently transferred back to the holding tube for recovery. A small ball of cotton wool soaked with 10% glucose solution was placed on the mesh screen for recovering mosquitoes to feed on. The number of dead mosquitoes was recorded at the end of the 24 hours recovery period, and the percentage of mortality was calculated. The bioassay was replicated five times. If the negative control mortality was between 5% and 20%, the mortalities of treated groups were corrected according to Abbott’s formula (Abbott 1925). Data Analysis Percentage knockdown and mortality were calculated using the formulae below: \(\text{%} \text{K}\text{n}\text{o}\text{c}\text{k} \text{D}\text{o}\text{w}\text{n}=\frac{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{k}\text{n}\text{o}\text{c}\text{k}\text{d}\text{o}\text{w}\text{n} \text{m}\text{o}\text{s}\text{q}\text{u}\text{i}\text{t}\text{o}\text{e}\text{s} \text{a}\text{f}\text{t}\text{e}\text{r} 60 \text{m}\text{i}\text{n}\text{u}\text{t}\text{e}\text{s} }{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{e}\text{x}\text{p}\text{o}\text{s}\text{e}\text{d} \text{m}\text{o}\text{s}\text{q}\text{u}\text{i}\text{t}\text{o}\text{e}\text{s}}\) X 100. $$\text{%} \text{M}\text{o}\text{r}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}= \frac{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{d}\text{e}\text{a}\text{d} \text{m}\text{o}\text{s}\text{q}\text{u}\text{i}\text{t}\text{o}\text{e}\text{s} \text{a}\text{f}\text{t}\text{e}\text{r} 24 \text{h}\text{r}\text{s}}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{e}\text{x}\text{p}\text{o}\text{s}\text{e}\text{d} \text{m}\text{o}\text{s}\text{q}\text{u}\text{i}\text{t}\text{o}\text{e}\text{s}} \times 100$$ One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to assess larval and adult mortalities after varying ranges of exposures and Tukey’s HSD post hoc test was used to separate the means ( P < 0.05 ). Statistical differences between plant oil, varying concentrations and exposure times were determined using Two-way ANOVA. Based on mortality data, the KdT 50 and KdT 95 as well as LT 50 values for successive plant oil concentrations were determined using probit analysis (Finney 1971). Probit regression analysis (Finney 1971) was also utilised to calculate the LC 50 and LC 90 values based on mortality data. All statistical analyses were performed with the aid of GraphPad Prism 8 software. Results Larvicidal Activity The mean larval mortality rates of A . gambiae exposed to various concentrations of each of the extracted plant oils and their LC 50 . and LC 90 values are shown in Table 1 . All plant oils were distinctly potent as toxicants against the third instar larvae with statistically different mortality rates (P < 0.05) even at the lowest plant oil application concentration of 0.05mg/ml. It was also observed that toxicity intensity was concentration dependent meaning as concentration increased, mortality rates increased. After a 24-hour exposure period, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the mean larval mortalities of the A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to H. suaveolens (100%, 100%, 100%) and C. sinensis (94.7%, 100%, 100%), and also between N. tabacum (78.7%, 89.3%, 100%) and A. conyzoides (81.3%, 90.7%, 100%) at 0.30, 0.40 and 0.50 mg/ml respectively. However, the mean larval mortalities in A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to these two groups of plant oils were significantly higher (P < 0.05) when compared to mortalities (58.7%, 60.0% and 65.3%) observed in A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to O. gratissimum at the three concentrations. (Table 1 ). After the 48-hour exposure period, mean larval mortality was 100% in A. gambiae exposed to 0.20 mg/ml of H. suaveolens , 0.30 mg/ml of C. sinensis , N. tabacum and A. conyzoides . The highest mortality (84.0%) in A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to O. gratissimum occurred at 0.50 mg/ml. The percentage mortality observed in A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to H. suaveolens at 0.20 mg/ml was significantly higher (P < 0.05) when compared to mortalities observed in A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to C. sinensis , N. tabacum and A. conyzoides (85.3%, 69.3%, 78.7% respectively) at the same concentration. The mean larval mortalities of A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to O. gratissimum were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of other plant oils at all concentrations (Table 1 ). The LC 50 measurements indicated that C. sinensis (0.14 mg/ml) was more toxic at 24 hours of exposure compared to O. gratissimum (0.22 mg/ml), H. suaveolens (0.24 mg/ml) and N. tabacum (0.26 mg/ml). However, at both 24- and 48-hours exposure, H. suaveolens showed lower LC 90 (0.32 mg/ml, 0.22 mg/ml) larval toxicity when compared with oils of C. sinensis (0.37 mg/ml, 0.29 mg/ml), N. tabacum (0.76 mg/ml, 0.31mg/ml), A. conyzoides (NA, 0.42 mg/ml) and O. gratissimum (0.32 mg/ml, 0.51 mg/ml) (Table 1 ). The lethal median time (LT 50 ) values of varying concentrations of the plant oils evaluated are shown in Table 2 . The LT 50 values ranged from 17.1 to 6.7 h for Hyptis suaveolens , 24.7 to 6.7 h for Citrus sinensis , 22.6 to 7.4 h for Ocimum gratissimum , 15.6 to 8.5 h for Nicotiana tabacum and 17.5 to 8.5 h for Ageratum conyzoides . The lowest LT 50 values recorded for all the plant oils were in the highest concentration (0.5 mg.ml). Meanwhile, the highest LT 50 was recorded in 0.15 mg/ml for Hyptis suaveolens (17.1 h) and Ocimum gratissimum (22.6 h), 0.1 mg/ml for Nicotiana tabacum (15.6 h) and 0.05 mg/ml for Citrus sinensis (24.7 h) and Ageratum conyzoides (17.5 h). Adulticidal Activity Figure 1 shows the adulticidal activity of various concentrations of the extracted plant oils against A . gambiae after 24 hrs exposure and Table 3 shows the percentage knockdown after one hour and their LC 50 . and LC 90 values. All plant oils were distinctly potent as toxicants against the female adult A . gambiae with statistically different mortality rates (P < 0.05) even at the lowest plant oil application concentration of 0.05 mg/ml. It was also observed that toxicity intensity was concentration dependent meaning as concentration increased, mortality rates increased also (Fig. 1 ). N. tabacum at 0.50 mg/ml induced the highest percentage mortality (100%) on A. gambiae which was compared favourably with Deltamethrin (0.05%), a positive experimental control insecticide. Also, exposure of A. gambiae to O. gratissimum at 0.40 and 0.50 mg/ml and N. tabacum at 0.40 mg/ml) resulted in a minimum of 75%, 85% and 80% mortalities, respectively. The lowest percentage of mortality was recorded at 0.05 mg/ml of A. conyzoides (3.3%) (Fig. 1 ). The lowest KdT 50 was recorded with N. tabacum at 0.25 mg/ml (20.3 mins) followed by O. gratissimum at 0.30 mg/ml (22.93 mins), while the highest KdT 50 was recorded with C. sinensis at 0.05 mg/ml (75.56 mins) followed by H. suaveolens at 0.30 mg/ml (73.25 mins). Meanwhile, the lowest KdT 95 was recorded with A. conyzoides at 0.10 mg/ml (35.97 mins) and 0.05 mg/ml (45.27 mins) followed by O. gratissimum at 0.30 mg/ml (48.11 mins) while the highest was recorded with N. tabacum at 0.20 mg/ml (313.1 mins) followed by C. sinensis at 0.05 mg/ml (288.9 mins) and 0.30 mg/ml (267.5 mins) (Table 3 ). Discussion Mosquito larvicidal efficacy of plant oils and extracts varies according to plant species, the part of the plant, the geographical location where the plant is grown and application methods (Ghosh and Chowdhury 2012; Adelaja et al. 2021). The current study investigated the toxicity potentials of the following shortlisted plants: H. suaveolens, C. sinensis, O. gratissimum, N. tabacum and A. conyzoides against a major malaria vector, A. gambiae . The 100% A. gambiae larvae mortally recorded with 0.30 mg/ml concentration of H. suaveolens , 0.40 mg/ml concentration of C. sinensis and 0.50 mg/ml concentrations of N. tabacum and A. conyzoides after 24 hours as well as 0.20 mg/ml concentration of H. suaveolens and 0.30 mg/ml concentrations of C. sinensis , N. tabacum and A. conyzoides after 48 hours compared favourably with Kavendan et al. (2014) and Bobbo et al. (2016) where H. suaveolens caused high mortalities against A. gambiae mosquito larvae after 24 hours post-exposure. Similarly, Musa et al. (2015) reported that A. conyzoides evoked 92.0% and 87.5% mortality respectively against A. gambiae after 24hrs of exposure while Ileke et al. (2015) reported that N. tabacum elicited high mortality to the larvae of A. gambiae . Hence, oils from H. suaveolens, C. sinensis , N. tabacum and A. conyzoides could be considered and adopted as natural larvicides for the management of Anopheles mosquitoes in malarious areas where breeding sites can easily be identified and accessed. However, it was observed that all the concentrations of O. gratissimum oils tested elicited lower larvicidal activities against A. gambiae larvae and may therefore not be a promising larvicidal agent. Meanwhile, the lowest LC 50 and LC 90 (after 24- and 48-hours exposure) against A. gambiae larvae were recorded in oil from C. sinensis and H. suaveolens . Oils from C. sinensis and H. suaveolens displayed the highest mortality at the lowest concentrations echoing their potential as good larvicides that should be considered for the management of Anopheles mosquitoes locally. In this study, N. tabacum at 0.50 mg/ml recorded a hundred percent mortality within a one-hour test period on adult A. gambiae comparing favourably with the Deltamethrin positive control. Similarly, Owoeye et al. (2016) and Ileke et al. (2015) have reported the toxicity of N. tabacum against adult A. gambiae within a one-hour test period. The lowest KdT 50 against A. gambiae was recorded in 0.25 mg/ml of N. tabacum while the lowest KdT 95 was recorded in 0.30 mg/ml of O. gratissimum . Therefore, the active ingredients in oil from N. tabacum can further be investigated and developed as alternatives to the use of pyrethroids for vector control purposes. Also, the high mortalities recorded in A. gambiae mosquitoes exposed to 0.50 mg/ml of O. gratissimum demonstrated its potential as an alternative for Anopheles mosquito control in places where they naturally grow. This suggests that N. tabacum and O. gratissimum plant oils have the potential to be used as rapid knockdown agents to be incorporated into aerosols used indoors for personal protection against adult endophagic and anthropogenic malaria vectors. Conclusion Plant oils should be seen as supplements to the current vector control intervention in play in developing countries in other to achieve proposed vector control targets. This study was able to establish the bioactivity and efficacy of the evaluated plants exhibiting, varying knockdown, larvicidal and adulticidal potentials. This can be researched further which can be maximized for vector control purposes. Declarations Acknowledgements Gratitude goes to the Chief S.L. Edu Research Grant through the Nigerian Conservation Foundation to be able to carry out a part of this work and the Department of Pharmacology Therapeutics, University of Ibadan for space to carry out plant extractions. Funding Funding for this work was provided by the Chief S.L. Edu Research Grant through the Nigerian Conservation Foundation. Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Availability of data and material All relevant data are within the paper and its supporting files. Authors’ contributions Olukayode James Adelaja: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing Original Draft preparation, Methodology, Visualization. Adedayo Olatubosun Oduola: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing. Adeolu Taiwo Ande: Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing. Oyindamola Olajumoke Abiodun: Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing Abisayo Ruth Adelaja: Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing. Ethical approval Not applicable Consent to participate Not applicable Consent to publication Not applicable References Abbott WS. A method of computing the effectiveness of an insecticide. J Econ Entom. 1925; 18: 265–267. Adelaja OJ, Oduola AO, Abiodun OO, Adeneye AK, Obembe A. 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Tables Table 1 Mean An. gambiae larval mortality (induced by) recorded at various plant oil concentrations and their lethal concentrations (LC 50 and LC 90 ) values Plant oils Mean Mortality (% ± SD) Lethal Conc. (mg/ml) Control 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 (mg/ml) 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 LC 50 (95% CL) LC 90 (95% CL) 24hrs Exposure Hyptis suaveolens 0.0 ± 0.0 45.3 ± 1.5 a 60.0 ± 1.0 a 62.7 ± 0.6 a 65.3 ± 0.6 a 77.3 ± 1.5 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.24 (2.22 to 2.64) 0.32 (2.63 to 3.87) Citrus sinensis 0.0 ± 0.0 10.7 ± 0.6 b 40.0 ± 1.0 b 54.7 ± 0.6 b 80.0 ± 1.0 b 82.7 ± 0.6 a 94.7 ± 0.6 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.14 (1.19 to 1.54) 0.37 (2.74 to 4.95) Ocimum gratissimum 0.0 ± 0.0 2.7 ± 0.6 c 6.7 ± 0.6 c 8.0 ± 0.0 c 29.3 ± 0.6 c 42.7 ± 0.6 b 58.7 ± 0.6 b 60.0 ± 0.0 b 65.3 ± 0.6 b 0.22 (2.08 to 2.26) 0.32 (2.90 to 3.53) Nicotiana tabacum 0.0 ± 0.0 17.3 ± 0.6 b 29.3 ± 0.6 d 42.7 ± 0.6 d 48.0 ± 1.0 d 68.0 ± 1.0 c 78.7 ± 1.5 c 89.3 ± 2.5 c 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.26 (1.94 to 3.53) 0.76 (3.40 to 16.77) Ageratum conyzoides 0.0 ± 0.0 40.0 ± 1.0 a 61.3 ± 0.6 a 66.7 ± 0.6 a 70.7 ± 0.6 a 78.7 ± 0.6 a 81.3 ± 1.2 c 90.7 ± 0.6 c 100.0 ± 0.0 a NA NA 48 hrs Exposure Hyptis suaveolens 0.0 ± 0.0 65.3 ± 1.5 a 84.0 ± 1.7 a 86.7 ± 1.2 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.09 (0.52 to 1.60) 0.22 (1.37 to 3.56) Citrus sinensis 0.0 ± 0.0 65.3 ± 1.5 b 46.7 ± 1.5 b 61.3 ± 1.5 b 85.3 ± 1.5 b 89.3 ± 1.5 b 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.15 (1.29 to 1.65) 0.29 (2.26 to 3.78) Ocimum gratissimum 0.0 ± 0.0 6.7 ± 0.6 c 12.0 ± 1.0 c 17.3 ± 1.5 c 41.3 ± 0.6 c 48.0 ± 1.0 c 61.3 ± 0.6 b 77.3 ± 0.6 b 84.0 ± 1.0 b 0.25 (2.19 to 2.76) 0.51 (3.69 to 6.95) Nicotiana tabacum 0.0 ± 0.0 24.0 ± 1.0 a 40.0 ± 1.0 a 48.0 ± 1.0 d 69.3 ± 1.2 d 86.7 ± 0.6 b 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.19 (1.73 to 2.01) 0.31 (2.64 to 3.72) Ageratum conyzoides 0.0 ± 0.0 54.7 ± 0.6 d 68.0 ± 1.0 d 72.0 ± 1.0 e 78.7 ± 0.6 b 90.7 ± 1.5 b 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 100.0 ± 0.0 a 0.19 (1.54 to 2.24) 0.42 (2.48 to 6.96) NA = Not Applicable, SD = Standard Deviation, CL = Confidence Level, mean mortality values followed by different subscripts are significantly different ( P < 0.05 ) between plant oils, n = 125. Table 2 Lethal Median Time (LT 50 ) values of different Plant oil concentration LT 50 Values (95%CI) (h) Concentration (mg/ml) 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 Hyptis suaveolens 15.9 (14.09–17.94) a 13.6 (12.11–15.34) a 17.1 (15.88–18.33) b 15.6 (14.06–17.32) c 17.0 (15.93–18.08) c 9.0 (8.42–9.64) d 7.5 (7.13–7.91) e 6.7 (6.57–6.89) e Citrus sinensis 24.7 (19.62–29.84) a 10.4 (9.06–11.92) b 13.8 (12.46–15.20) c 12.2 (11.42–13.01) d 15.0 (13.86–16.12) d 9.1 (8.62–9.59) e 7.5 (7.13–7.91) f 6.7 (6.57–6.89) f Ocimum gratissimum 20.7 (12.21–34.18) a 18.1 (12.79–24.96) a 22.6 (17.38–28.62) a 12.9 (11.09–14.88) b 12.1 (10.95–13.40) c 7.6 (6.68–8.62) d 9.4 (7.59–11.35) e 7.4 (6.09–8.82) f Nicotiana tabacum 13.2 (11.11–15.72) a 15.6 (14.22–17.13) b 12.7 (11.36–14.19) c 14.6 (12.72–16.60) d 11.0 (10.19–11.93) e 12.8 (11.26–14.50) f 11.4 (9.23–13.71) f 8.5 (6.79–10.38) g Ageratum conyzoides 17.5 (16.51–18.63) a 15.7 (14.88–16.57) b 14.6 (13.51–15.75) c 13.8 (12.41–15.24) d 11.0 (10.24–11.73) e 12.6 (11.12–14.25) ef 11.3 (9.29–13.49) f 8.5 (6.79–10.38) g LT 50 Values followed by different subscripts are significantly different ( P < 0.05 ) across varying concentrations Table 3 Knock-down Effect and Knockdown times ratings of plant oils against Anopheles gambiae Plant oils Conc. (mg/ml) % Kd after 1hr KdT 50 (95%CI) KdT 95 (95%CI) Hyptis suaveolens 0.05 6.67 31.05 (22.80 to 42.29) 53.88 (19.30 to 150.4) 0.10 11.67 49.86 (24.19 to 102.8) 102.3 (19.65 to 532.4) 0.15 13.33 NA NA 0.20 16.67 NA NA 0.25 18.33 NA NA 0.30 25.00 73.25 (NA) NA 0.40 30.00 NA NA 0.50 36.67 NA NA Citrus sinensis 0.05 8.33 75.56 (0.06 to 93831) 288.9 (NA) 0.10 13.33 NA NA 0.15 20.00 NA NA 0.20 33.33 NA NA 0.25 41.67 NA NA 0.30 50.00 48.19 (0.9433 to 2462) 267.5 (NA) 0.40 58.33 29.06 (25.49 to 33.13) 48.23 (32.33 to 71.93) 0.50 70.00 36.21 (20.93 to 62.63) 84.95 (14.79 to 488.1) Ocimum gratissimum 0.05 21.67 NA NA 0.10 36.67 NA NA 0.15 38.33 37.08 (23.97 to 37.22) 121 (15.01 to 975.0) 0.20 55.00 40.1 (18.90 to 85.05) 144.5 (16.65 to 1254) 0.25 51.67 34.19 (20.35 to 57.41) 152.5 (22.11 to 1053) 0.30 53.33 22.93 (18.84 to 27.91) 48.11 (25.77 to 89.83) 0.40 75.00 NA NA 0.50 85.00 NA NA Nicotiana tabacum 0.05 8.33 30.90 (20.51 to 46.56) 69.21 (16.84 to 284.5) 0.10 18.33 NA NA 0.15 28.33 29.87 (19.01 to 72.31) 77.19 (34.32 to 173.6) 0.20 43.33 60.4 (4.634 to 787.4) 313.1 (1.547 to 63336) 0.25 45.00 20.3 (8.496 to 48.49) 98.22 (4.662 to 2069) 0.30 48.33 32.96 (25.57 to 42.47) 78.26 (32.88 to 186.3) 0.40 80.00 NA NA 0.50 100.00 27.89 (23.15 to 33.60) 69.74 (35.07 to 138.7) Ageratum conyzoides 0.05 3.33 44.68 (NA) 45.27 (NA) 0.10 8.33 26.29 (19.79 to 34.93) 35.97 (23.43 to 55.22) 0.15 16.67 NA NA 0.20 26.67 NA NA 0.25 30.00 64.02 (13.25 to 309.4) 129.1 (9.150 to 1821) 0.30 38.33 NA NA 0.40 43.33 30.25 (25.76 to 35.52) 69.59 (39.76 to 121.8) 0.50 56.67 NA NA Conc. =Concentration, % Kd = Percentage KnockDown, NA = Not Applicable, KdT = Knock Down Time, CI = Confidence Interval, n = 100 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2327938","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":156785020,"identity":"81e1be6c-479d-4abd-84b7-a486da0c7187","order_by":0,"name":"Olukayode James Adelaja","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCRDBw2DBwNjAfADElyFWiwRQC1sCiM9DvBYgaQBhEwKS7WcMP7ypkJBnbj/z+dWNGgseBvbDRzfg0yLNk2MsOeeMhGFjT+4265xjQIfxpKXdwKdFjiHHQJq3TYKxsSF3m3EOG1CLBI8Zfi38b4x/8/6TsG/sf/PMOOcfEVqkJXLMpHkbJBIbZ+QwP85tI0KL5IxnZZZzjkkkN854Zsac2yfBw0bILxLnkzffeFNjY7uxP/nx55xvdXL87IeP4dXCwMABjg4GwwYGNnAkseFXDgLsD8CUPAMD8wfCqkfBKBgFo2AkAgAcr0V1H7p3jwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Olukayode","middleName":"James","lastName":"Adelaja","suffix":""},{"id":156785022,"identity":"c3acadea-94be-44a5-88c4-2b7f78c5b4d6","order_by":1,"name":"Adedayo Olatubosun Oduola","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adedayo","middleName":"Olatubosun","lastName":"Oduola","suffix":""},{"id":156785023,"identity":"f76050bd-cae7-4c8f-aa86-24fecc25007a","order_by":2,"name":"Adeolu Taiwo Ande","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adeolu","middleName":"Taiwo","lastName":"Ande","suffix":""},{"id":156785025,"identity":"58758866-cfd0-44e8-9059-4fd3befc057f","order_by":3,"name":"Oyindamola Olajumoke Abiodun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ibadan","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oyindamola","middleName":"Olajumoke","lastName":"Abiodun","suffix":""},{"id":156785027,"identity":"41138c9a-f791-4ac9-9b7b-8dfcd4fcfbb6","order_by":4,"name":"Abisayo Ruth Adelaja","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abisayo","middleName":"Ruth","lastName":"Adelaja","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-11-30 05:59:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2327938/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2327938/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-023-07806-6","type":"published","date":"2023-03-09T19:33:29+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":29925391,"identity":"da741aea-614f-4732-96df-0018bc09c4d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-12-05 20:27:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":126533,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdulticidal activity (Dose-response assay) of selected plant oils on \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e after 24 hrs post exposure.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2327938/v1/8c7e562ca75ac9d15f43eb9e.jpg"},{"id":44721817,"identity":"3b0b7954-5424-4cc2-b0d1-4907421dbbe7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-10-16 19:39:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":502950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2327938/v1/856d9530-8a19-4164-8a35-3c1275415554.pdf"},{"id":29926290,"identity":"abc9dcb7-ae92-4236-93db-473cb521071b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-12-05 20:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":42525,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstarct.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2327938/v1/7a2a075cfa34d937675d4d57.jpg"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Insecticidal plant oil’s toxicity activities on the larval and adult stages of a major malaria vector (Anopheles gambiae Giles 1920)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMosquito-borne disease burdens account for seventeen percent of all infectious diseases and seven hundred thousand deaths yearly (WHO 2019). Malaria, whose mosquito vector is \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e spp., frank the highest with approximately 229\u0026nbsp;million cases in 2021 resulting in 409,000 deaths globally, 95% of which occurred in Africa and 23% in Nigeria (WHO 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. (Giles); is a complex with numerous sibling species including \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. arabiensis, A. coluzzii, A. quadriannulatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. amharicus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. bwambae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. merus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. melas\u003c/em\u003e have been documented as malaria vectors. The first three sibling species have however been incriminated as responsible for the high malaria transmission, morbidity and mortality statistics in Nigeria (Okorie et al. 2011; Olayemi et al. 2011; Oduola et al. 2016; Obi et al. 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe prime choice mosquito control tactic in Africa remains the selective application of residual synthetic insecticides through either Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) or Long-Lasting Insecticide Nets (LLIN) use (WHO 2019). To this end, Pyrethroids are members of the prequalified classes of the active ingredients of the World Health Organisation (WHO) vector control product (Omotayo et al. 2021; WHO 2021; Ande et al. 2022). However, insecticide resistance development in mosquitoes poses a serious threat to sustainable synthetic insecticide-based vector control programmes in many African countries (Youmsi et al. 2017; Oduola et al. 2019) and necessitates the search for natural, sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural practices over the years coupled with research outputs have shown that plants are rich sources of active constituents that have been used successfully and persistently against mosquitoes (Youmsi et al. 2017; Ogban et al. 2020; Adelaja et al. 2021). In many rural communities in Africa, plants are being used efficiently for the management of insects of concern including mosquitoes (Karunamoorthi et al. 2009; Nzelibe and Chintem 2015) and they have been reported to be readily accessible, available, affordable and biodegradable (Kamaraj et al. 2010). Plants, therefore, constitute a potential source of natural and sustainable agents that will stand the test of time as mosquito control agents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, numerous plants and plant parts have been reportedly used in the management of larvae or adult mosquitoes across various cultures and over the years (Ivoke et al. 2009; Mgbemena 2010; Okigbo et al. 2010; Ileke et al. 2015; Musa et al. 2015; Nzelibe and Chintem 2015; Ayange-Kaa et al. 2015; Owoeye et al. 2016; Adelaja et al. 2021). The potentials and modes of action of these plants have been scientifically validated through research reports (Ogban et al. 2020; Adelaja et al. 2021). Crude extracts of some of such plants reported include \u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (L.), \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e (L.), \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e (L.) and \u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (L.) (Ivoke et al. 2009; Mgbemena 2010; Okigbo et al. 2010; Ileke et al. 2015; Musa et al. 2015; Nzelibe and Chintem 2015; Ayange-Kaa et al. 2015; Owoeye et al. 2016; Adelaja et al. 2021). There is however a dearth of knowledge in respect of the toxicity potentials of the oils obtained from each of these botanicals and \u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (L.) against \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e. This study, therefore, provides valuable baseline information on the toxicity potentials of each of the above-mentioned plant oils on \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlant Materials, Oil Extraction and Serial Dilution Procedures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe leaves of \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e (Lamiaceae), \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e (Lamiaceae), \u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (Solanaceae), \u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (Asteraceae) and fruit peel of \u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Rutaceae) previously identified as most frequently used insecticidal plants from an ethnobotanical survey carried out among locals from different villages in North-central Nigeria (Adelaja et al. 2021) were sourced individually from fresh growing plants around Ilorin. Each collection was identified at the herbarium of the Plant Biology Department by accessory detail and air dried under shade for one week before hydro-distillation. The respective plant oils obtained from each pulverized plant sample were isolated by steam-distillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Each isolated oil was dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and stored in amber-coloured vials at 4\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC until required for subsequent assays. Each of the five plant oils to be evaluated was serially diluted using technical grade acetone into eight concentrations, viz: 5% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.05mg/ml, 10% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.10 mg/ml, 15% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.15 mg/ml, 20% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.20mg/ml, 25% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.25 mg/ml, 30% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.30 mg/ml, 40% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.40 mg/ml and 50% (vol: vol) \u0026ndash; 0.50 mg/ml. These concentrations were determined based on previously unpublished data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMosquito Collection And Rearing\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe larvae and female adults of deltamethrin susceptible \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes were gotten from an already established colony at the insectary of the Entomological Research Laboratory, University of Ilorin which was maintained at 27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC and 85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% RH. Mosquito larvae were fed a diet of non-fatty biscuits mixed with yeast at a ratio of 3:1 while emerged adults were confined in adult holding cages (50 x 50 x 50cm) and provided with a 10% sugar solution. Adult mosquitoes were sorted into males and females using morphological keys by Gillies and DeMeillon (1987).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLarvicidal Bioassay\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe larvicidal activity of each of the plant oils at each of the serial dilution concentrations was evaluated according to the protocol of the World Health Organisation (WHO 2005) with slight modifications. Twenty-five (25) third instar larvae of \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes were introduced into test cups containing 100ml of distilled water and allowed to acclimatise for 1 hour. After which 2ml of the various plant oil concentrations described earlier were introduced. Distilled water with and without acetone was used as negative and positive controls respectively. The number of dead larvae was recorded after 24 and 48 hours of exposure and the percentage mean mortality was calculated. The larvae were considered dead if they did not move when prodded with a needle in the siphon or cervical region. Each treatment was tested in five replicates. If the negative control mortality was between 5% and 20%, the mortalities of treated groups were corrected according to Abbott\u0026rsquo;s formula (Abbott 1925).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAdulticidal Bioassay\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe adulticidal activity of the plant oils was evaluated against female adult \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes following the World Health Organisation standard method (WHO 2013) with slight modifications. Two and a half millilitres (2.5 ml) of oil dilution concentration to be tested was impregnated on 12 \u0026times; 15 cm Whatman paper (Dua et al. 2008). Deltamethrin (0.05%) was used as the positive control while acetone was used as the negative control. The impregnated papers were air-dried for 5 min and then inserted to line the interior of the exposure tube in the WHO test kit. Twenty (20), 2-5-day-old, blood-starved adult female mosquitoes were introduced into the holding tube and held for 1h to acclimatize. The mosquitoes were transferred gently into the exposure tube and knocked down was monitored and determined for 60 minutes and percentage knockdown was calculated afterwards. After 1 hour in the exposure tube, all mosquitoes were gently transferred back to the holding tube for recovery. A small ball of cotton wool soaked with 10% glucose solution was placed on the mesh screen for recovering mosquitoes to feed on. The number of dead mosquitoes was recorded at the end of the 24 hours recovery period, and the percentage of mortality was calculated. The bioassay was replicated five times. If the negative control mortality was between 5% and 20%, the mortalities of treated groups were corrected according to Abbott\u0026rsquo;s formula (Abbott 1925).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePercentage knockdown and mortality were calculated using the formulae below:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{%} \\text{K}\\text{n}\\text{o}\\text{c}\\text{k} \\text{D}\\text{o}\\text{w}\\text{n}=\\frac{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{k}\\text{n}\\text{o}\\text{c}\\text{k}\\text{d}\\text{o}\\text{w}\\text{n} \\text{m}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{q}\\text{u}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{e}\\text{s} \\text{a}\\text{f}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{r} 60 \\text{m}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{s} }{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{e}\\text{x}\\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{e}\\text{d} \\text{m}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{q}\\text{u}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{e}\\text{s}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003eX 100.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equa\" class=\"mathdisplay\"\u003e$$\\text{%} \\text{M}\\text{o}\\text{r}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}= \\frac{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{a}\\text{d} \\text{m}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{q}\\text{u}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{e}\\text{s} \\text{a}\\text{f}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{r} 24 \\text{h}\\text{r}\\text{s}}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{e}\\text{x}\\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{e}\\text{d} \\text{m}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{q}\\text{u}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{e}\\text{s}} \\times 100$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to assess larval and adult mortalities after varying ranges of exposures and Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD post hoc test was used to separate the means (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e). Statistical differences between plant oil, varying concentrations and exposure times were determined using Two-way ANOVA. Based on mortality data, the KdT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and KdT\u003csub\u003e95\u003c/sub\u003e as well as LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values for successive plant oil concentrations were determined using probit analysis (Finney 1971). Probit regression analysis (Finney 1971) was also utilised to calculate the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values based on mortality data. All statistical analyses were performed with the aid of GraphPad Prism 8 software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch3\u003eLarvicidal Activity\u003c/h3\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe mean larval mortality rates of \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003egambiae\u003c/em\u003e exposed to various concentrations of each of the extracted plant oils and their LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e. and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. All plant oils were distinctly potent as toxicants against the third instar larvae with statistically different mortality rates (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) even at the lowest plant oil application concentration of 0.05mg/ml. It was also observed that toxicity intensity was concentration dependent meaning as concentration increased, mortality rates increased.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter a 24-hour exposure period, there was no significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the mean larval mortalities of the \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e (100%, 100%, 100%) and \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (94.7%, 100%, 100%), and also between \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (78.7%, 89.3%, 100%) and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (81.3%, 90.7%, 100%) at 0.30, 0.40 and 0.50 mg/ml respectively. However, the mean larval mortalities in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to these two groups of plant oils were significantly higher (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) when compared to mortalities (58.7%, 60.0% and 65.3%) observed in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e at the three concentrations. (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter the 48-hour exposure period, mean larval mortality was 100% in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e exposed to 0.20 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e, 0.30 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e. The highest mortality (84.0%) in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e occurred at 0.50 mg/ml. The percentage mortality observed in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e at 0.20 mg/ml was significantly higher (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) when compared to mortalities observed in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (85.3%, 69.3%, 78.7% respectively) at the same concentration. The mean larval mortalities of \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e were significantly lower (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) than that of other plant oils at all concentrations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e measurements indicated that \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (0.14 mg/ml) was more toxic at 24 hours of exposure compared to \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e (0.22 mg/ml), \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e (0.24 mg/ml) and \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (0.26 mg/ml). However, at both 24- and 48-hours exposure, \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e showed lower LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e (0.32 mg/ml, 0.22 mg/ml) larval toxicity when compared with oils of \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (0.37 mg/ml, 0.29 mg/ml), \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (0.76 mg/ml, 0.31mg/ml), \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (NA, 0.42 mg/ml) and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e (0.32 mg/ml, 0.51 mg/ml) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe lethal median time (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e) values of varying concentrations of the plant oils evaluated are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values ranged from 17.1 to 6.7 h for \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e, 24.7 to 6.7 h for \u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e, 22.6 to 7.4 h for \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e, 15.6 to 8.5 h for \u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and 17.5 to 8.5 h for \u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e. The lowest LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values recorded for all the plant oils were in the highest concentration (0.5 mg.ml). Meanwhile, the highest LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e was recorded in 0.15 mg/ml for \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e (17.1 h) and \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e (22.6 h), 0.1 mg/ml for \u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (15.6 h) and 0.05 mg/ml for \u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (24.7 h) and \u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (17.5 h).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAdulticidal Activity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the adulticidal activity of various concentrations of the extracted plant oils against \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003egambiae\u003c/em\u003e after 24 hrs exposure and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the percentage knockdown after one hour and their LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e. and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values. All plant oils were distinctly potent as toxicants against the female adult \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003egambiae\u003c/em\u003e with statistically different mortality rates (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) even at the lowest plant oil application concentration of 0.05 mg/ml. It was also observed that toxicity intensity was concentration dependent meaning as concentration increased, mortality rates increased also (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.50 mg/ml induced the highest percentage mortality (100%) on \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e which was compared favourably with Deltamethrin (0.05%), a positive experimental control insecticide. Also, exposure of \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.40 and 0.50 mg/ml and \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.40 mg/ml) resulted in a minimum of 75%, 85% and 80% mortalities, respectively. The lowest percentage of mortality was recorded at 0.05 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (3.3%) (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lowest KdT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e was recorded with \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.25 mg/ml (20.3 mins) followed by \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.30 mg/ml (22.93 mins), while the highest KdT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e was recorded with \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e at 0.05 mg/ml (75.56 mins) followed by \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e at 0.30 mg/ml (73.25 mins). Meanwhile, the lowest KdT\u003csub\u003e95\u003c/sub\u003e was recorded with \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e at 0.10 mg/ml (35.97 mins) and 0.05 mg/ml (45.27 mins) followed by \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.30 mg/ml (48.11 mins) while the highest was recorded with \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.20 mg/ml (313.1 mins) followed by \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e at 0.05 mg/ml (288.9 mins) and 0.30 mg/ml (267.5 mins) (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e Mosquito larvicidal efficacy of plant oils and extracts varies according to plant species, the part of the plant, the geographical location where the plant is grown and application methods (Ghosh and Chowdhury 2012; Adelaja et al. 2021). The current study investigated the toxicity potentials of the following shortlisted plants: \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens, C. sinensis, O. gratissimum, N. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e against a major malaria vector, \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 100% \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e larvae mortally recorded with 0.30 mg/ml concentration of \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e, 0.40 mg/ml concentration of \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e and 0.50 mg/ml concentrations of \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e after 24 hours as well as 0.20 mg/ml concentration of \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e and 0.30 mg/ml concentrations of \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e after 48 hours compared favourably with Kavendan et al. (2014) and Bobbo et al. (2016) where \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e caused high mortalities against \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquito larvae after 24 hours post-exposure. Similarly, Musa et al. (2015) reported that \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e evoked 92.0% and 87.5% mortality respectively against \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e after 24hrs of exposure while Ileke et al. (2015) reported that \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e elicited high mortality to the larvae of \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e. Hence, oils from \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens, C. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e could be considered and adopted as natural larvicides for the management of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes in malarious areas where breeding sites can easily be identified and accessed. However, it was observed that all the concentrations of \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e oils tested elicited lower larvicidal activities against \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e larvae and may therefore not be a promising larvicidal agent. Meanwhile, the lowest LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e (after 24- and 48-hours exposure) against \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e larvae were recorded in oil from \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e. Oils from \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e displayed the highest mortality at the lowest concentrations echoing their potential as good larvicides that should be considered for the management of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes locally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e at 0.50 mg/ml recorded a hundred percent mortality within a one-hour test period on adult \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e comparing favourably with the Deltamethrin positive control. Similarly, Owoeye et al. (2016) and Ileke et al. (2015) have reported the toxicity of \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e against adult \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e within a one-hour test period. The lowest KdT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e against \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e was recorded in 0.25 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e while the lowest KdT\u003csub\u003e95\u003c/sub\u003e was recorded in 0.30 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e. Therefore, the active ingredients in oil from \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e can further be investigated and developed as alternatives to the use of pyrethroids for vector control purposes. Also, the high mortalities recorded in \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes exposed to 0.50 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e demonstrated its potential as an alternative for \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mosquito control in places where they naturally grow. This suggests that \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e plant oils have the potential to be used as rapid knockdown agents to be incorporated into aerosols used indoors for personal protection against adult endophagic and anthropogenic malaria vectors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlant oils should be seen as supplements to the current vector control intervention in play in developing countries in other to achieve proposed vector control targets. This study was able to establish the bioactivity and efficacy of the evaluated plants exhibiting, varying knockdown, larvicidal and adulticidal potentials. This can be researched further which can be maximized for vector control purposes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGratitude goes to the Chief S.L. Edu Research Grant through the Nigerian Conservation Foundation to be able to carry out a part of this work and the Department of Pharmacology Therapeutics, University of Ibadan for space to carry out plant extractions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding for this work was provided by the Chief S.L. Edu Research Grant through the Nigerian Conservation Foundation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll relevant data are within the paper and its supporting files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOlukayode James Adelaja: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing Original Draft preparation, Methodology, Visualization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdedayo Olatubosun Oduola: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdeolu Taiwo Ande: Supervision, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOyindamola Olajumoke Abiodun: Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbisayo Ruth Adelaja: Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbbott WS. A method of computing the effectiveness of an insecticide. J Econ Entom. 1925; 18: 265\u0026ndash;267.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdelaja OJ, Oduola AO, Abiodun OO, Adeneye AK, Obembe A. Plants with insecticidal potential used by ethnic groups in North-Central Nigeria for the management of hematophagous insects. Asian J Ethnobio. 2021;4: 65\u0026ndash;75.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnde AT, Adelaja OJ, Agada AV, Akanni OI, Omotayo AI. Biological Fitness Costs Associated with the Various Permethrin Resistance Development Statuses in \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e in Nigeria. Sri Lanka J Bio. 2022; 7(1): 1\u0026ndash;11. http://doi.org/10.4038/sljb.v7i1.73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAyange-kaa AB, Hemen TJ, Onyezili N. The effect of dried leaves extract of \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e on various stages of mosquito development in Benue State, Nigeria. IOSR-JPBS. 2015; 10(6 II): 28\u0026ndash;32.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBobbo AA, Pukuma MS, Qadeer MA. Assessment of Larvicidal Activity of \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBalanites aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e Leaves and Root Extracts against Mosquito Species. IJSRP. 2016; 6(3):10\u0026ndash;14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDua VK, Alam MF, Pandey AC, Rai S, Chopra AK, Kaul VK, et al. Insecticidal activity of \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamansi\u003c/em\u003e (Verbenaceae) against mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 2008; 24: 315-8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFinney DJ. \u0026ldquo;Probit Analysis,\u0026rdquo; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1971.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhosh N, Chowdhury G. Plant extract as potential mosquito larvicide. Ind J Med Res. 2012; 135(5): 581\u0026ndash;598.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGillies MT, De Meillon, B. The Anophelinae of Africa South of the Sahara (Ethiopian Zoogeographical Region). Publication of South Africa Institute of Medical Research. 1968; 54: 203\u0026ndash;207.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIleke KD, Ogungbite OC. \u003cem\u003eAlstonia boonei\u003c/em\u003e De Wild oil extract in the management of mosquito (\u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e), a vector of malaria disease. J Coast Lif Med. 2015; 3(7): 557\u0026ndash;563.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIvoke N, Okafor FC, Owoicho LO. Evaluation of Ovicidal and Larvicidal effects of leaf extracts of \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e (L) Poit (Lamiaceae) Against \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Anophelidae) Complex. Ani Res Int. 2009; 6(3): 1072\u0026ndash;1076.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJoshi RK. GC \u0026ndash; MS Analysis of the Essential Oil of \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e L. Growing Desolately in South India. Acta Chromatographica. 2017; 29: 111\u0026ndash;119.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamaraj C, Rahuman AA, Bagavan A, Abduz ZA, Elango G, Kandan P, et al. Larvicidal efficacy of medicinal plant extract against \u003cem\u003eAnopheles stephensi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCulex quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Culicidae). Trop Biomed. 2010; 27: 211\u0026ndash;219.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKarunamoorthi K, Ilango K, Endale A. Ethnobotanical survey of knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants among the Ethiopian Oromo ethnic group. J Ethnopharm. 2009; 125: 224\u0026ndash;229.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKavendan K, Mahesh PK, Subramaniam J, Murugan K, William JS. Larvicidal activity of indigenous plant extracts on the rural malarial vector, \u003cem\u003eAnopheles culicifacies\u003c/em\u003e Giles. J Entom Acar Res. 2014; 46:1747.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMgbemena IC. Comparative Evaluation of Larvicidal Potentials of Three Plant Extracts on \u003cem\u003eAedes aegypti\u003c/em\u003e. J Amer Sci. 2010; 6(10): 435\u0026ndash;440.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMusa AO, Sow GJ, Nasir IF, Shuaibu BU, Edogbanya PRO. Effects of aqueous and methanolic leaf extracts of \u003cem\u003eAgeratum Conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e l. and \u003cem\u003eGuiera senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e L. against mosquito larvae in Zaria. J Trop Biosci. 2015; 10: 38\u0026ndash;44.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNzelibe HC, Chintem DGW. Larvicidal Potential of Leaf Extracts and Purified Fraction \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e against \u003cem\u003eCulex quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e Mosquito Larva. Int J Sci Res. 2015; 4(2): 2254\u0026ndash;2258.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eObi OA, Nock IH, Adebote DA, Nwosu LC. Ecological and Molecular observations on \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e species (Diptera: Culicidae) breeding in rock pools on iselbergs within Kaduna State, Nigeria. Mol Ent. 2017; 8(01):1\u0026ndash;10.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOduola AO, Abba E, Adelaja OJ, Ande AT, Yoriyo KP, Awolola TS. Widespread Report of Multiple Resistance in \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e Mosquitoes in Eight Communities in Southern Gombe, North East Nigeria. J Arth Bor Dis. 2019.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOduola AO, Adelaja OJ, Ayiegbusi ZO, Tola M, Obembe A, Ande AT, et al. Dynamics of Anopheline vector species composition and reported malaria cases during the rain and dry season in two selected communities in Kwara state. Nig J Paras. 2016;37(2): 158\u0026ndash;164.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOgban EI, Adelaja OJ, Ozovehe AS. Repellent potentials of \u003cem\u003eSecuridaca longepedunculata\u003c/em\u003e Fresen (Polygalaceae) crude extract and essential oil against mosquitoes. Int J Mosq Res. 2020; 7(5): 07\u0026ndash;11.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkigbo RN, Okeke JJ, Madu NC. Larvicidal effects of \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e against mosquito larvae. J Agric Tech. 2010; 6(4): 703\u0026ndash;719.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkorie PN, McKenzie FE, Ademowo OG, Bockarie M. Nigeria \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e vector database: an overview of 100 years' research. PLoS One. 2011;6(12): e28347.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlayemi IK, Ande AT, Chita S, Ibemesi G, Ayanwale VA, Odeyemi OM. Insecticide susceptibility profile of the principal malaria vector \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in North-central Nigeria. J Vect bor Dis. 2011;48(2): 109\u0026ndash;112.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOmotayo AI, Ande AT, Oduola AO, Adelaja OJ, Adesalu O, Jimoh TR, et al. Multiple insecticide resistance mechanisms in an urban population of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Culicidae) from Lagos, South-West Nigeria. Acta Tropica. 2022;227: 10629. ISSN 0001-706X\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOwoeye JO, Ibitoye OA. Analysis of Akure urban land use change detection from Remote Imagery Perspective. USR. 2016; 16: 1\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization. Guidelines for laboratory and field testing of mosquito larvicides. 2005; 15\u0026ndash;102.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization. Susceptibility Test Manual Instructions for Determining the Susceptibility or Resistance of Mosquito Larvae to Insecticides. 2013; WHO/VBC/75.583.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization. World malaria report. Global malaria programme World Health Organization, Geneva. 2019a; 1\u0026ndash;284.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization. World malaria report. Global malaria programme World Health Organization, Geneva. 2021; 1\u0026ndash;254.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYoumsi RDF, Fokou PVT, Menkem EZ, Bakarnga-Via I, Keumoe R, Nana V, Boyom FF. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used as insects\u0026rsquo; repellents in six malaria endemic localities of Cameroon. J Ethnobio \u0026amp; Ethnomed. 2017; 13(1): 33.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e larval mortality (induced by) recorded at various plant oil concentrations and their lethal concentrations (LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e) values\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlant oils\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean Mortality (% \u0026plusmn; SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLethal Conc. (mg/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControl\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.05\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.20\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(mg/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.40\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(95% CL)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e90\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(95% CL)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"12\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e24hrs Exposure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e62.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e77.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.22 to 2.64)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.63 to 3.87)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e54.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e80.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e82.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e94.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1.19 to 1.54)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.74 to 4.95)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e42.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e58.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.08 to 2.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.90 to 3.53)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e42.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e68.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e78.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e89.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1.94 to 3.53)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(3.40 to 16.77)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e61.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e66.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e70.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e78.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e81.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e90.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"12\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e48 hrs Exposure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e84.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e86.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(0.52 to 1.60)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1.37 to 3.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e46.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e61.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e85.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e89.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1.29 to 1.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.26 to 3.78)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e41.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e61.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e77.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e84.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.19 to 2.76)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(3.69 to 6.95)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e69.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e86.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1.73 to 2.01)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.64 to 3.72)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e54.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e68.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e72.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e78.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e90.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1.54 to 2.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2.48 to 6.96)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Not Applicable, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standard Deviation, CL\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Confidence Level, mean mortality values followed by different subscripts are significantly different (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e) between plant oils, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;125.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLethal Median Time (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e) values of different Plant oil concentration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e Values (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(h)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConcentration (mg/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.05\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.9 (14.09\u0026ndash;17.94)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.6 (12.11\u0026ndash;15.34)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.1 (15.88\u0026ndash;18.33)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(14.06\u0026ndash;17.32)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.0 (15.93\u0026ndash;18.08)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(8.42\u0026ndash;9.64)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(7.13\u0026ndash;7.91)\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.7 (6.57\u0026ndash;6.89)\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24.7 (19.62\u0026ndash;29.84)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(9.06\u0026ndash;11.92)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.8 (12.46\u0026ndash;15.20)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(11.42\u0026ndash;13.01)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(13.86\u0026ndash;16.12)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(8.62\u0026ndash;9.59)\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(7.13\u0026ndash;7.91)\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(6.57\u0026ndash;6.89)\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(12.21\u0026ndash;34.18)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(12.79\u0026ndash;24.96)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(17.38\u0026ndash;28.62)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(11.09\u0026ndash;14.88)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.1 (10.95\u0026ndash;13.40)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(6.68\u0026ndash;8.62)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.4 (7.59\u0026ndash;11.35)\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(6.09\u0026ndash;8.82)\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(11.11\u0026ndash;15.72)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(14.22\u0026ndash;17.13)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(11.36\u0026ndash;14.19)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(12.72\u0026ndash;16.60)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(10.19\u0026ndash;11.93)\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(11.26\u0026ndash;14.50)\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(9.23\u0026ndash;13.71)\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(6.79\u0026ndash;10.38)\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(16.51\u0026ndash;18.63)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(14.88\u0026ndash;16.57)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(13.51\u0026ndash;15.75)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(12.41\u0026ndash;15.24)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(10.24\u0026ndash;11.73)\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.6 (11.12\u0026ndash;14.25) \u003csup\u003eef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(9.29\u0026ndash;13.49)\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(6.79\u0026ndash;10.38)\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e Values followed by different subscripts are significantly different (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e) across varying concentrations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKnock-down Effect and Knockdown times ratings of plant oils against \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlant oils\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConc.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(mg/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e% Kd after 1hr\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKdT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKdT\u003csub\u003e95\u003c/sub\u003e (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e31.05 (22.80 to 42.29)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e53.88 (19.30 to 150.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e49.86 (24.19 to 102.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e102.3 (19.65 to 532.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e73.25 (NA)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e36.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e75.56 (0.06 to 93831)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e288.9 (NA)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e33.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e41.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e50.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.19 (0.9433 to 2462)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e267.5 (NA)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e58.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29.06 (25.49 to 33.13)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.23 (32.33 to 71.93)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e70.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e36.21 (20.93 to 62.63)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e84.95 (14.79 to 488.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e21.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e36.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e38.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e37.08 (23.97 to 37.22)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e121 (15.01 to 975.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e55.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.1 (18.90 to 85.05)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e144.5 (16.65 to 1254)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e51.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e34.19 (20.35 to 57.41)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e152.5 (22.11 to 1053)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e53.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22.93 (18.84 to 27.91)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.11 (25.77 to 89.83)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e75.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e85.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30.90 (20.51 to 46.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e69.21 (16.84 to 284.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e28.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29.87 (19.01 to 72.31)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e77.19 (34.32 to 173.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e43.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e60.4 (4.634 to 787.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e313.1 (1.547 to 63336)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20.3 (8.496 to 48.49)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e98.22 (4.662 to 2069)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e32.96 (25.57 to 42.47)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e78.26 (32.88 to 186.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e80.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27.89 (23.15 to 33.60)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e69.74 (35.07 to 138.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgeratum conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e44.68 (NA)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45.27 (NA)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.29 (19.79 to 34.93)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e35.97 (23.43 to 55.22)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e64.02 (13.25 to 309.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e129.1 (9.150 to 1821)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e38.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e43.33\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30.25 (25.76 to 35.52)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e69.59 (39.76 to 121.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e56.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConc. =Concentration, % Kd = Percentage KnockDown, NA = Not Applicable, KdT = Knock Down Time, CI = Confidence Interval, n = 100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"parasitology-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pare","sideBox":"Learn more about [Parasitology Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/436)","snPcode":"436","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/436/3","title":"Parasitology Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Anopheles gambiae, Plant oils, Toxicity, Mortality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2327938/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2327938/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDespite increasing reports and concerns about resistance development to public-health insecticides in malaria vectors, significant steps have been put into the quest for novel strategies to disrupt the disease transmission cycle by targeting insect vectors hence sustaining vector management. This study evaluates the toxicity potential of oils of insecticidal plants shortlisted in an ethnobotanical survey on the larvae and adult stages of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e. Oils from leaves of \u003cem\u003eHyptis suaveolens, Ocimum gratissimum, Nicotiana tabacum, Ageratum conyzoides \u003c/em\u003eand fruit-peel of \u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e were extracted by steam-distillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Larvae and female adults of deltamethrin-susceptible \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e were gotten from an already established colony in the Entomological Research Laboratory, University of Ilorin. Twenty-five third instar stage larvae were used for larvicidal assays while twenty 2-5 days old adults were used for the adulticidal assays in five replicates. \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e exposed to \u003cem\u003eH. suaveolens\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. sinensis\u003c/em\u003e demonstrated significantly higher larval toxicity (94.7-100%) after 24 hours. At 48 hours, the mortality induced by the oils of the four plants peaked at 100%. \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (0.50 mg/ml) induced the highest percentage of adult mortality (100%) on \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e which was compared favourably with the positive control Deltamethrin (0.05%). The lowest KdT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e was observed with 0.25 mg/ml of \u003cem\u003eN. tabacum\u003c/em\u003e (20.3 minutes) while the lowest KdT\u003csub\u003e95\u003c/sub\u003e was observed with 0.10mg/ml of\u003cem\u003e A. conyzoides\u003c/em\u003e (35.97 mins) against adult \u003cem\u003eA. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e. The significant larval and adult mortality rates, lower lethal concentration and knockdown times demonstrated by the evaluated plant oils showed promising outcomes that can be further developed for vector control management.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Insecticidal plant oil’s toxicity activities on the larval and adult stages of a major malaria vector (Anopheles gambiae Giles 1920)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-12-05 20:26:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2327938/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2023-02-13T07:00:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2023-02-11T17:07:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2022-12-24T03:22:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"7dcb356c-3d6b-445d-b460-491e21a8fed0","date":"2022-12-09T00:42:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9e9fdd16-edcf-479d-b021-0aa52dd9888b","date":"2022-12-05T11:55:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2022-12-05T07:19:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2022-12-02T05:10:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2022-12-02T03:10:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Parasitology Research","date":"2022-11-30T05:53:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"parasitology-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pare","sideBox":"Learn more about [Parasitology Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/436)","snPcode":"436","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/436/3","title":"Parasitology Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"94807b5e-c200-4eca-8267-26ec1165f5d6","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 5th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-10-16T19:36:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-2327938","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-023-07806-6","journal":{"identity":"parasitology-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Parasitology Research"},"publishedOn":"2023-03-09 19:33:29","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 9th, 2023"},"versionCreatedAt":"2022-12-05 20:26:57","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00436-023-07806-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-023-07806-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2327938","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2327938","identity":"rs-2327938","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"_2-kVJe1T_tPrBINL-cwx","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}