Culturally responsive elementary science teaching: A meta-analysis of current science teaching studies and implications

Culturally responsive elementary science teaching: A meta-analysis of current science teaching studies and implications | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF analysis Culturally responsive elementary science teaching: A meta-analysis of current science teaching studies and implications Lundon Pinneo, Amy L Benton This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2648740/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Sep, 2024 Read the published version in Cultural Studies of Science Education → Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study utilizes the meta-analysis method described by Timulak ( 2009 ) to create a more cohesive understanding of culturally responsive (CR) science teaching. This phenomenon is explored by defining the characteristics of CR teaching from the extant literature and comparing those characteristics to current CR science teaching studies with a focus on the elementary level. Six themes emerge from the selected studies, representing both the extant literature and the current CR science teaching studies. As this study demonstrates, additional themes of CR science teaching are not represented in the extant literature. Additionally, no one study addresses all six themes. This paper will make the argument to include these six themes in future studies, which will result in more cohesive findings and lead to evidence-based strategies for implementing CR teaching in elementary preservice teacher settings. culturally responsive teaching meta-analysis science elementary education Introduction Forty years after the landmark case in which the Supreme Court declared segregated schools unconstitutional in Brown V. Board of Education (1954), Ladson-Billings & Tate’s 1995 article argued inequalities due to race were still evident within society. Thus, there was a need for the theorization of race within education. Critical Race Theory (CRT) acknowledges that social constructs impact citizens differently based on race/ethnicity, which limits changes in social systems such as education (Bell, 1954). From a law perspective, Bell (1954) discussed specific legal cases which grew from the desegregation of American schools. But the CRT lens was not applied to the examination of school systems itself (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). This lens was necessary, as Lason-Billings and Tate (1995) argued, because “(1) race continues to be significant in the United States; (2) U.S. society is based on property rights rather than human rights; and (3) the intersection of race and property creates an analytical tool for understanding inequity.” (p. 47). With these understandings in place, Ladson-Billings & Tate strengthened their argument for a school-specific theory in which to explore inequalities due to race. Using the theoretical framework of Cheryl I. Harris (1993), they make direct parallels between Harris’s “property function of whiteness” and US school systems (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). The four functions are 1. “rights of disposition,” 2. “rights to use and enjoyment,” 3. “reputation and status property,” and 4. “the absolute right to exclude” (Harris, 1993). Ladson-Billings and Tate give examples of each in relation to these functions (1995). In brief, 1. our school system rewards those who conform to the hegemonic norms of the school; 2. whites have greater access to school facilities; 3. schools associated with minority students or located in urban neighborhoods have poor reputations, and 4. school choice permits privileged White students to opt out of schools with minority populations or urban settings. By tying school-specific examples to Harris’ (1993) functions of white property, Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) made a strong argument for a need for a CRT lens with the sole purpose of analyzing our school systems. Yet their article did not propose clear parameters or even a title for such a theory. Another drawback to the extant literature was a lack of focus within the field of science. From 2008 to 2018, degrees within science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields comprised 18 percent of the total 331,000 bachelor’s degrees awarded in the U.S. When compared to the national average, each race/ethnicity is unique. The percentage of White students with a bachelor’s degree in STEM was the same at 18 percent while Asian/Pacific Islander (15%), Hispanic (15%), American Indian/Alaska Native (14%), and Black (12%) all had lower percentages than the national average (NCES, 2019). In contrast, Asian students had a higher than average rate of 33%, as did students with Two or more races at 20% of bachelor’s degrees within STEM (NCES, 2019). White, Asian, and students with Two or more races obtained bachelor’s degrees in STEM at higher percentage rates than the national average of overall STEM bachelor’s degrees. Table 1 contains the total percentage based on race/ethnicity within all levels of degrees/certificates within STEM college degrees, as reported by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2019). Table 1 NCES (2019) Race/Ethnicity Percentages of Awarded Degrees/Certificates at the Postsecondary Level within STEM Fields for 2008-09 and 2017-18 Percentages based on Race/Ethnicity Year White Black Hispanic Asian/Pacific Islander American Indian/Alaska Native Two or more races 2008-09 70.0 9.3 8.6 11.3 0.8 --- 2017-18 61.5 8.4 13.3 12.6 0.5 3.7 The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) were published by the National Research Council (NRC) in 2013. Shortly after, twenty states adopted NGSS, while twenty-four developed their own state standards based on NGSS guidelines (National Science Teaching Association NSTA, 2014 ). With a “focus on issues of student diversity and equity in relation to the NGSS specifically as the NGSS present both learning opportunities and challenges to all students, particularly non-dominant student groups,” NGSS strives to decrease the achievement gap (NGSS, 2013, Appendix p. 26). But as discussed above, diversity within STEM fields is still limited in regard to specific races/ethnicities. Rather than looking at the standards as a solution to increase diversity in STEM degrees, Maltese and Tai (2010) noted that student interest in science must occur prior to selecting high school courses. They found that students who took more science courses in high school and valued the long-term outcomes of science on a future career were more likely to pursue a STEM degree (Maltese and Tai, 2010). Thus, it is important to focus on increasing student interest in lower grades, especially those in underrepresented race/ethnicity groups, for an increase in the diversity of STEM degree/certificate earners. For that reason, this study’s primary focus was on CR science in elementary classrooms. By increasing CR science strategies in elementary grades, students will experience science content as it relates to them, making the overall experience more meaningful. First, an overview of Culturally Relevant/Responsive Pedagogy/Teaching (CRP/T) is necessary to compare the extant literature with current CR science elementary teacher characteristics and practices. Literature Review This literature review focuses on two main topics. The first topic explores the parameters of Culturally Relevant/Responsive Pedagogy/Teaching (CRP/T) as defined in the extant literature in order to frame a working definition of CRP/T. The second topic is current, peer-reviewed research studies on current CR science teachers and CR science teacher development. The CR science teacher studies provide additional content on the parameters of CRP/T, specifically within the context of teaching science. The CR science teacher development studies provide insight into teacher-preparation practices geared towards growing preservice teachers’ CR science teaching practices. Parameters Of Culturally Relevant/responsive Pedagogy/teaching (Crp/t) Ladson-Billings’ three-year study, which labeled her theory “Culturally Relevant Pedagogy” (CRP), identified three areas of “Culturally Relevant Pedagogy” as exhibited by eight elementary teachers (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ). Unlike the article published by Tate, Ladson-Billings’ study did not argue the need for CRP but instead developed three areas of successful CRP as exhibited by these eight elementary teachers. This three-year study included an ethnographic interview, weekly classroom observations, and participant review and analysis of the videos (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ). Although each teacher participant was unique, Ladson-Billings identified areas in which their successful implementation of CRP practices overlapped. These three areas are “…helping their students to be academically successful, culturally competent, and socio-politically critical” (Ladson-Billings, 1995 , p. 477-8). In other words, students must maintain their cultural heritage and recognize and critique sociopolitical concepts while achieving academic success (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ). The eight elementary teacher participants did so by viewing their students’ through an asset lens, encouraging individual differences, and placing students in leadership roles (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ). They also avoided the “right-answer approach” to academics, guiding students to think critically. Parallel to the work of Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ), Geneva Gay published a book titled Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice (2001). In her book, Gay summarizes what she terms “Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT)” (2002). Similar to Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ) in concept, the title replaces “relevant” with “responsive” and “pedagogy” with “teaching .”Here, the two are used interchangeably with the acronym “CRP/T,” in which the “R” represents both “relevant” and “responsive” while the “P” denotes “pedagogy,” and the “T” denotes “teaching” (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ; Gay, 2002 ). Gay ( 2002 ) states, “Culturally responsive teaching is defined as using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively” (p 106). She outlines five “specific components” of CRT that she has compiled through her research (Gay, 2002 ). These five components can be viewed in Table 1 . In contrast to Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ), Gay does not explicitly express “academic achievement” as one of her components (2002). Instead, her components outline what a teacher must learn in order to implement CRT in their classrooms (2002). First, teachers must develop their own knowledge base of cultural diversity that goes beyond traditional multicultural training and instead focuses on knowledge about the specific, ethnically diverse students the teacher will be working with (2002). Including the ability to design curricula that are culturally relevant by being critically aware of the three types of curricula: “formal,” “symbolic,” and “societal” (Gay, 2002 , p. 108). Once aware, teachers must address the issues within each (2002). The third component, also unique from Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ) three areas, requires teachers “demonstrating cultural caring and building a learning community” (Gay, 2002 , p. 109). Here, Gay stresses the importance of incorporating the students’ prior knowledge and experiences within the classroom, validating their students’ assets, and creating a learning environment built on caring (2002). Similar to Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ) “cultural competency” area since Gay states that students should be made aware of the cultural context of the content (2002). Related to the caring learning environment, Gay ( 2002 ) posits effective “cross-cultural communications” as a necessary component of CRT (p. 110). Effective instruction is reliant upon effective communication (Gay, 2002 ). Teachers must listen to their students and also know how to connect to ethnically diverse students in a way that is familiar to them (Gay, 2002 ). The fifth and final component addresses “cultural congruity in classroom instruction” (Gay, 2002 , p. 112). Here, she stresses the importance of matching instructional strategies to the learning strategies of ethnically diverse students (Gay, 2002 ). As Ladson-Billings continued to seek out and document teachers who were successful with African American students, she began to characterize these “culturally relevant, (CR)” teachers. By 2011, she added an additional area, “teacher thinking,” to her three original (Ladson-Billings, p. 34). The “teacher thinking” area is broken down into three further subcategories, “social contexts,” “the students,” “the curriculum,” and “instruction” (Ladson-Billings, 2011 , p. 34–37). First, she states that CR teachers must recognize an inherent difference within the school system and beyond between minority students and the hegemonic society (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ). CR teachers must encourage appreciation of personal culture within students while also exposing them to different cultures. (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ). In addition, she argues that CR teachers must learn to feel with their students rather than pity them (2011). Therefore, teachers must get to know students and their situations at the individual level, including aspects of their personal lives. Ladson-Billings ( 2011 ) states that CR teachers recognize what she calls “school-dependence” of disadvantaged students (p. 35). She explains that students with resources outside of school do not rely solely on their school for growth and success (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ). The final characteristic is regarding curriculum. CR teachers recognize that curriculum is a societal artifact and should not be treated as stagnant (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ). Instead, CR teachers challenge students to develop personal meaning within the curriculum (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ). CR teachers should focus on the long-term success of their students by helping them to know how the content and skills apply to their lives (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ). Milner’s article in the same book as Ladson-Billings’ (2010) article shares one “principle beyond good intentions” with her work (p. 71). They both assert that CR teachers know what deficit thinking is and reject it (Ladon-Billings, 2011; Milner, 2010 ). But this is where the “teacher thinking” or “principles,” as Milner ( 2010 ) calls them, cease being the same. He instead speaks on three additional and unique values. Milner’s second principle states that CT teachers must understand the difference between ‘equity’ and ‘equality’ and apply this practice within the classroom (Milner, 2010 ). Expanding on Ladson-Billings’ characteristic of realizing a system of inequality, Milner suggests that different students need different things (2010). His third principle, “understand and negotiate power structures,” pushes teachers' expectations toward Paulo Freire’s argument in Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Milner, 2010 , p. 71). Here, Milner cites Freire’s belief that in order to shift the traditional power from the teacher to the students, teachers must pose questions that encourage students to think for themselves while still understanding the social structure (2010). Milner’s fourth and final principle encourages teachers to not only recognize cultural differences but, instead, navigate through any conflicts these differences may cause while encouraging students to do the same (2011). Milner’s case study (2016) offers a more in-depth look into one teacher’s teaching characteristics. The participant, Mr. Jackson, is a Black male math and science middle school teacher. Many of the characteristics identified in this case study fall under the categories set forth by Ladson-Billings ( 1995 & 2011 ), Gay ( 2002 ), and Milner’s own 2010 article. This snapshot of one successful CR teacher provides images of what CR teaching looks like, giving context for the parameters of CRP/T. Whether teaching math or science, Mr. Jackson validated his students’ prior knowledge and personal interests in several ways (Milner, 2016). First, he listened to them and got to know each student as an individual (Milner, 2016). Aligning with both Gay’s (2001) and Milner’s (2011) CRP/T parameters of a caring and inclusive learning environment. He then applied what he learned about his students to the classroom environment and his instruction (Milner, 2016). One example was how Mr. Jackson incorporated situations that were occurring at the school into his math lessons (Milner, 2016). Realizing he shared musical interests with his students, songs that were familiar to his students were often played in his classroom (Milner, 2016). These two strategies incorporate parameters from Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ), Gay (2001), and Milner (2011). Another key component was his view of both teachers and students. Mr. Jackson recognized the assets he brought, such as shared music tastes and those of his students, by giving them opportunities to teach him (Milner, 2016). Although music was his major connection with his students, teachers need to identify their own individual assets rather than mimic Mr. Jackson’s (Milner, 2016). What all teachers can borrow from this case study is how Mr. Jackson situated himself as a “community member” rather than a “spectator” by building relationships with his students, valuing them as individuals, and creating opportunities for his students to demonstrate their own assets within the classroom. (Milner, 2016, p. 425). The findings of Ladson-Billings ( 1995 , 2011 ), Gay ( 2002 ), and Milner ( 2010 ) provide the characteristics of effective CRT teachers, which are summarized in Table 2 below. Table 2 Summary of CRP/T Parameters Ladson-Billings, 1995 Geneva Gay, 2002 Milner, 2010 1. Aids in academic student achievement (1995) 2. Gives students cultural competency by being aware of personal views, views of others, and positive interactions across differing cultures 3. Critical awareness of sociopolitical climate Ladson-Billings, 2011 4. Teacher thinking a) Social contexts: assume social inequalities based on race and poverty b) The students: reject deficit lens and feels with rather for students by advocating and holding high standards c) The curriculum: recognizes that it is a societal document and modifies as needed d) Instruction: know and use a variety of strategies to engage ALL students 1. Develop a cultural diversity knowledgebase 2. Include cultural diversity in the curriculum 3. Establish a caring community of culturally responsive learning 4. Communicate with ethnically diverse students 5. Respond to cultural diversity through instruction 1. Ensure students find meaning in the classroom 2. Help students feel a sense of belonging within the classroom 3. Facilitate the building of skills and knowledge needed for academic success Methods Selection of the literature The purpose of this study is to compare the CR teacher characteristics from the extant research to the current CR science teacher research in elementary. By doing so, the current CR science teacher research strategies and outcomes can be evaluated through the lens of CRT characteristics. A meta-analysis was also conducted with the current CR science teacher research in elementary. Revealing if there are unique characteristics and/or strategies to CR elementary science teaching. To locate CR science teaching in elementary, a university search engine was utilized to locate articles in peer-reviewed journals. A complete list of the search words and the total results Table 3 . Initially, the search was narrowed by restricting the dates from 2014 to the present. This search yielded 429 total articles. These articles contained a variety of language outside of “culturally responsive teaching in science.” For example, if the terms “integrating indigenous knowledge,” “social justice,” “language barriers,” “minorities,” and “equitable” occurred in the title, the abstract, or both without the mention of CRT, then the article was omitted. Since CRT within science is the focus of this review, the date restriction was removed from the search, and specific words within the title were applied instead. Within the search, only one study focused on elementary science. Thus, the search was extended to include middle and secondary grades. A total of forty-three journals were represented in the search. Table 4 provides a list of all the journals and which were represented in the four selected articles for the meta-analysis. Table 3 Key Title Words, Number of Total Results, and Number of Selected Articles Key Title Words # of Total Results culturally responsive teaching in elementary science 10 culturally relevant teaching in elementary science 5 culturally responsive pedagogy in elementary science 3 culturally relevant pedagogy in elementary science 2 culturally responsive teaching in middle school science 4 culturally relevant teaching in middle school science 17 culturally responsive pedagogy in middle school science 5 (2 previously represented) culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school science 10 (2 previously represented) culturally responsive teaching and science (title) 17 (1 previously represented) culturally responsive teaching (title) and science (title), and elementary 4 (1 previously represented) culturally relevant teaching (title) and science (title), and elementary 8 (2 previously represented) Only research articles were selected for further analysis and synthesis. From the research articles revealed in the eleven searches, four articles examined the characteristics of effective CRT science teachers. Xu et al. (2012) focused on elementary teachers, Byrd ( 2016 ) surveyed 315 middle school and high school students across the United States, Lanier & Glasson ( 2014 ) studied one middle school science teacher and eleven of her students, while Wallace & Brand’s ( 2012 ) study participants are two middles school science teachers. Table 4 provides an overview of the four selected studies. They were selected because they focus on CR science teacher characteristics at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. Table 4 Overview of Four CR Science Teaching Studies Author, Year Theoretical Lens Participants Wallace & Brand, 2012 Critical Race Theory Two middle school science teachers One White female and one Black female, both over 22 years of teaching experience Xu et al. 2012 Sociocultural perspective 8 African American elementary teachers Lanier & Glasson 2014 Third space theory & Critical Race Pedagogy One middle-school teacher was selected based on research requirements (total of 9), two of which were a success with AA students in an urban middle school 11 students from the participating teachers’ class Byrd, C.M. 2016 Critical Race Theory 315 MS and HS students (6–12) across the US In addition to the four articles selected for their research on effective CR science teaching characteristics, seven additional articles were selected from the original eleven searches. Unlike the previous four, these articles focused on developing CR science practices with either preservice or in-service teachers. These studies provide additional insight into the current studies seeking to increase CR science teaching practices by revealing similar and unique methods. Table 6 provides an overview of the seven studies focused on the development of CR science practices. Table 5 CR Science Teacher Development Studies Chronological Level: K-12 students; Preservice teachers first, followed by in-service teachers Author, Year Participants & Grade level Strategies Outcomes Preservice Bottoms et al. 2017 53 PSETs, UG, over two semesters PSETs worked with diverse families in FMSNs while enrolled in science methods course Intentional course assignments, materials and structures. Intentional instructional design (methods) information. FMSN: 1. Creates more opportunities for interaction and reflection 2. Integrates emotions to re-conceptualize practice 3. Builds partnerships in the community 4. Teaches content through culture and community resources Burgess et al. 2018 15 non-traditionally licensed elementary para-educators, 11 bilingual, and 10 Lainx Used outdoor spaces in conjunction with classroom experiences Co-learning: instructors learned how candidates learned and used that knowledge to shape instruction (this is the CRT component) Two perspectives for implications: those of PSTs and those of TEs PSTs: 1. Use learner-centered strategies and previous experiences 2. utilize specific cultural ties within the science content 3. support the cultural and community wealth of students 4. emphasize asset over deficit views TEs: 1. listen to PSTs 2. meet their needs 3. view them as collaborators with assets 4. value family/community connections 4. reported higher CRT awareness Mensah, F. M. 2011 Three graduate-level PSETs in 4/5th grade science within a science methods course for an ILP Microteaching Discussions in science methods course Groups of 3 PSET Intentional FP in an urban setting PSETs need: 1. opportunities to collaborate 2. diverse urban settings 3. time to incorporate and reflect on CRT strategies 4. microteaching opportunities 5. time to research the particular students and community Author , Year Participants & Grade level Strategies Outcomes Brown & Crippen 2016a 14secondary math PSTs & 5 science PSTs Third-year UGs majoring in math/science with a minor in secondary education PSTs math/science methods course and FE of their program-intentionally complementary Two GAIn observations by the PSTs and then designed and taught three lessons using the 5E Lesson Template (Bybee et al. 2006) GAIn alone cannot cultivate CR practices in PSTs More explicit lesson planning based on GAIn observations needed Hernandez et al. 2013 12, non-traditional Latinx students in a UG ILP for secondary science TE’s approach 1. Review of literature 2. Synthesis of literature for major themes 3. Application of major themes to PST course Use the developed model to guide course/curriculum development for TE. However, to fully comprehend PSTs ability to implement CRT, a variety of data collection is needed, as well as an intentionally designed FE, such as the Professional Development School model, in conjunction with post-lesson debriefings. In-service Johnson & Fargo 2014 4–6 grade Hispanic students in two elementary schools, one with the PD and one without the PD 2-year professional development program Effective PD components: 1. Clear content (science) connection 2. Significant, if not the whole school, number of participants and align with school/district/teacher beliefs 3. Must occur over a long period of time and be ongoing Johnson, C.C. 2011 Two middle-school science teachers in a district with a growing Hispanic population Transformative professional development (TPD) for three consecutive years Year 1: building relationships; inquiry, positive expectations, and cooperative learning Year 2: new lessons/units, teaching strategies, teacher empowerment, and incorporation of Hispanic students’ lives within science content Year 3: additional teaching strategies, CRP study, and common discipline plan development TPD may be an effective model with the use of Ladsen-Billings (1995) CPD areas, but it is time-consuming (< 300 hours), expensive, and requires district/school-wide participation and school/district support Shed light on the continued institutional inequalities within the district/school, of which teachers need to be aware of Author , Year Participants & Grade level Strategies Outcomes Goldston & Nichols, 2009 Six middle school teachers Both science teachers were White The other four teachers were Black, and one taught LA Two university professors developed a PLC with a total of 6 middle school teachers within a predominantly black and low-income school Within the PLC, participants read books, discussed, took photos, then used the photos to create a photonarrative which was further discussed Photonarratives are an alternative method for science teachers to develop and grow cultural knowledge of their students and school community Three Luminaries emerged: 1. Church and Sunday schooling 2. Daily sustenance 3. Community Nam et al. 2012 35 teachers of AI students, 29 of which taught middle or high school science, participated in the CYCLES and ICE-Net Climate Change PD Teachers participated in a 3-year-long PD and were asked directly about their view of CR science teaching They were also given content knowledge specific to climate change Teachers’ perceptions of CR science teaching strategies are grouped into three subcategories: 1. providing hands-on experiences 2. place-based teaching 3. integrating traditional teaching styles Challenges are grouped into two main subcategories: 1. external (science standards, parents, community, and student attitude) 2. internal (lack of knowledge about the AI culture, low awareness, and less connection with the AI community) To implement CR, teachers need: 1. know their AI students’ knowledge and beliefs 2. incorporate specific student knowledge and beliefs into content 3. view learning as reciprocal 4. value community resources/input Clear need for specific PD Brown & Crippen 2016b Six life science teachers from the Five participating high schools 2 to 22 years of teaching experience All women Ongoing, 6-month PD with a focus on both science content and pedagogy Six major activities: 1. Lesson study 2. GAIn observation 3. Curriculum topic study 4. Professional growth tasks 5. Saturday collaboration sessions 6. Culturally responsive science units Four themes exhibited by CR science knowledge and practices which cannot stand alone: 1. views of students 2. repositioning 3. community building 4. utilizing a CRP toolbox Additional research is needed on how to develop sociocultural and critical consciousness in science teachers and their lesson designs Key AA: African American AI: American Indian CRIOP: Culturally Responsive Instruction Observation Protocol (Powel & Rightmyer, 2011) CR: culturally responsive/relevant CRP: culturally responsive/relevant pedagogy CRT: culturally responsive/relevant teaching EST: elementary science teacher FE: field experience (K-12 school setting) FMSN: family math and science night FP: field placement GAIn: Growing Awareness Inventory (Brown & Crippen, 2016a ) ILP: initial license program LA: Language Arts PD: professional development PLC: personal learning community PSSTP: preservice secondary science teacher preparation PST: preservice teacher PSET: preservice elementary teacher STARS: Science Teachers Are Responsive To Students program STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics TE: teacher educator TEK: traditional ecological knowledge UG: undergraduate US: United States Wk: week Meta-analysis Of Selected Literature As Timulak explains, “the basic idea of qualitative meta-analysis is to provide a concise and comprehensive picture of findings across qualitative studies that investigate the same general research topic (2009, p 591). Meta-analysis serves two purposes. First, by conducting a meta-analysis, more information about the phenomena is revealed (Timulak, 2009 ). The first phenomenon being explored here is the comprehensive list of CR science teacher characteristics. The second phenomenon is the methods used to build CR science teaching awareness and strategies in preservice and in-service teachers. To compare the extant data with the new science-specific studies, five themes were created. These themes encompass the specific characteristics that overlap in one or more of the studies. The themes and specific characteristics are found below in Table 6 . Table 6 Five Characteristics of Effective CR Science Teachers Characteristics Academics Cultural competency Social inequities CR learning environment Rejection of deficit lens Characteristics (Author/s, Date) *Aides in academic student achievement (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ) *Facilitate the building of skills and knowledge needed for academic success (Milner, 2010 ) Provide a challenging curriculum that incorporates scaffolding opportunities to ensure all students meet high expectations (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) Develop students’ life-long skills through achievement and by removing barriers (Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Expect all students to learn the science content and contribute to discussions about learning (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) *Gives students cultural competency by being aware of personal views, views of others, and positive interactions across differing cultures (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ) *Develop cultural diversity knowledgebase (Gay, 2002 ) Examine their own biases and stereotypes, analyze privileges, and share personal experiences, perspectives, and privileges with students (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Develop skills in talking about race and ethnicity (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Learn and respond to students’ sociocultural realities while also helping students to do the same with their peers (Byrd, 2016 ) Remain involved in the students’ community from which students reside (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Get to know each student as an individual, your students’ communities, and avoid stereotyping, relating to students on a personal level instead (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Demonstrate an awareness of cultural differences within the classroom (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Recognize that culture impacts a student’s learning (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Awareness and concern for the student's preparation and skill acquisition for the real world (Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) *Critical awareness of sociopolitical climate; social contexts: assume social inequalities based on race and poverty; the curriculum recognizes that it is a social document and modifies as needed (Ladson-Billings, 1995 , 2011 ) Develop students’ sense of empowerment, self-efficacy, and self-confidence in the science content (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Develop a critical view of teaching situated within the sociocultural context (Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Use class time to acknowledge and address issues of social inequities (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Will advocate for individual students (Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) *Establish a caring community of culturally responsive learning; communicate with ethnically diverse students (Gay, 2002 ) *Include cultural diversity in the curriculum (Gay, 2002 ) *Help students feel a sense of belonging within the classroom (Milner 2010 ) Foster collaborative learning relationships and incorporate healthy classroom competition (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Develop a sense of community, trust, positivity, respect, and safety in the classroom where all feel included (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Demonstrate care and respect for all students while being patient and tolerant (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ; Xu et al., 2012) Value and affirm what students have to say and the products they produce (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Valuing students’ experiences outside of the classroom and encourage opportunities for students to share (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Have conversations with individual students beyond just the science content to build connections and carve out time before/after school to spend with students (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace and Brand, 2012 ) All students always engaged in the learning activities (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Effective planning, classroom management, and communication skills (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) Physical classroom is organized and displays science content relevant to current instruction (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) *The students reject deficit lens and feel with rather for the student by advocating and holding high standards (Ladson-Billings, 2011 ) Value the resources, intellectual and practical, students bring to class and build from them (Byrd, 2016 ) Believe in the abilities of all students (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) *Denotes extant literature that is not specific to science education As Table 6 demonstrates, there are a significant amount of effective CR science teacher characteristics that align with the work of Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ), Gay ( 2002 ), and Milner’s ( 2010 )’s general effective CR teacher characteristics. There are also characteristics unique to effective CR science teachers. For example, under the theme of cultural competency, Lanier and Glosson (2014) and Wallace and Brand ( 2012 ) stress the importance of recognizing that culture impacts the student’s learning. As science teachers, it is important to plan according to those cultural impacts while designing lessons to create an effective CR science learning environment (Lanier and Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012). Under the theme of social inequities, another unique, effective CR science characteristic is to use class time to acknowledge and address issues of social inequities, especially as they relate to the science content (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier and Glosson, 2014). Three out of the four science-specific studies argue that effective CR science teachers provide a challenging curriculum that incorporates scaffolding opportunities to ensure all students meet high expectations (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012). This aligns with the belief in the abilities of all students, as expressed by Lanier and Glosson (2014) and Wallace and Brand ( 2012 ) under the theme of rejection of the deficit lens. Each of the themes will be discussed in greater detail under the findings. Through this comparison, one unique characteristic emerged within the science-specific studies. Both Xu et al. (2012) and Lanier and Glasson ( 2014 ) stress the importance of an additional characteristic that best fits under the theme of “effective pedagogical strategies” of effective CR science teachers. Lanier and Glasson ( 2014 ) tout having a genuine interest in the science content and offering multiple standpoints as a characteristic of a science CR teacher. This is mirrored by Lanier and Glasson’s ( 2014 ) inclusion of using a variety of teaching strategies. By demonstrating excitement for the content, teachers are generating interest in their students as well. In addition, presenting content more than once and in a variety of ways gives students the opportunity to interact with the content frequently and in ways, they may better connect. Lanier and Glasson ( 2014 ) also explicitly link effective classroom management to the characteristics of CR teachers. A detailed list of effective CR science teacher strategies across the four studies is found in Table 7 . Table 7 Pedagogical Strategies of Effective CR Science Teachers Pedagogical strategies (Author, date) Offer multiple standpoints on the same science concept (Xu et al., 2012) Make direct connections between students’ life outside of the classroom, personal interests, and the science content while planning and facilitating (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Incorporate peer discussions, inquiry-based, exploration activities, hands-on experiments, making authentic connections, providing new exposures, song, technology, physical/virtual field trips, science content readings, group projects, referencing previous experiences, evidence-gathering activities, story-telling, comics, trial-and-error opportunities, drawings, writings, and whole-class discussions (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ; Xu et al., 2012) Personalize the content by connecting science to relevant or real-world phenomena students can relate to and include examples from the students’ culture (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ; Xu et al., 2012) Develop reciprocal learning experiences through inquiry activities and by giving up some authority (Lanier & Glasson, 2014 ; Xu et al., 2012) Incorporate the “funds of knowledge” from the community and students into instruction while harnessing a constructivist view by building from what students already know (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Utilize a variety of authentic assessment opportunities and tools; provide specific feedback and positive reinforcement (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ) Science learning should be fun and incorporate laughter (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Encourage students to make sense of the science content by making their own connections from prior experiences (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Incorporate opportunities for students to be involved in decision-making, specifically in science content, forms of expression, and grouping (Byrd, 2012; Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) Include opportunities to teach about different cultures regardless of the demographic makeup of the classroom (Byrd, 2012) Inviting community members/parents/guardians into the classroom and encouraging students to share science content with their families (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) Address students’ science misconceptions by redirecting rather than correcting them (Lanier & Glosson, 2014) Exhibit and possess a personal interest in science (Xu et al., 2012) Encourage students to make sense of science ideas/ vocabulary with their own words and use student-friendly wording when introducing science vocabulary (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) Encourage students to share what they learn with their families (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012) Table 6 adds to the extant literature on effective CR teacher characteristics by adding effective CR science teacher characteristics. All characteristics fit under the five themes of academics, cultural competency, social inequities, CR learning environment, and the rejection of a deficit lens. A new theme that stands outside of the effective CR science teacher characteristics also emerged since it contains pedagogical strategies, Table 7 , effective CR science teachers implement. Both tables provide detailed insight into effective CR science teachers’ characteristics and their pedagogical strategies. This information provides researchers with themes substantiated by examples for future evaluation of science teachers. But there is also a need to analyze the CR science teacher development studies found in Table 5 . Rather than uncovering the effective CR science teacher characteristics and strategies, the ten CR science teacher development studies in Table 5 sought to increase CR science teaching in either preservice or in-service teachers. These studies shared one major similarity, intentional planning and teaching CR science lessons. But they went about their studies in unique ways, giving future researchers a large sample of methodologies. Johnson and Fargo (2012) compared the state science assessments of 4th through 6th graders, half in the test and half in the control schools. For the students in the test school, the ten elementary teachers received professional development over the two years. Four other studies, Johnson ( 2011 ), Goldson and Nichols (2009), Nam et al. (2012), and Brown and Crippen ( 2016b ), also utilized professional development of in-service teachers. Still, they did not use student academic achievement in science as an indicator. The remaining five studies, Bottoms et al. (2017), Brown and Crippen ( 2016a ), Hernandez et al. ( 2013 ), Burgess et al. ( 2018 ), and Mensah (2011), focused on preservice teachers. In summary, six focused on preservice science teachers, and four focused on in-service science teachers. Of the preservice teacher participant studies, four were elementary science teachers. An additional unique theme of science-specific CR teachers emerged through the seven CR science teacher development studies utilized in the second meta-analysis. Bottoms et al. (2017), Hernandez et al. ( 2013 ), and Mensah (2011) describes the need for reflection in their outcomes. For Bottoms et al. (2017), the Family Math and Science Night provided time for the preservice science elementary teachers (PSETs) to reflect on their lessons. Thus strengthening their conceptualization of CR teaching. The need for reflection was listed as an outcome for Hernandez et al. ( 2013 ), stating a need for professional development to include post-lesson debriefing for the participating teachers. This need was also expressed in Mensah’s (2011) outcomes in relation to PSETs. Through this meta-analysis, a new list of six themes of CR science teacher characteristics, effective CR science teacher pedagogical strategies, and the various methods for the development of CR science teacher studies provide a cohesive overview of current CR science teaching studies. Results And Discussion During the literature review, several holes emerged. First, there were a limited number of elementary science teacher studies, one on the effective characteristics of CR science teachers and four on the development of effective CR science teachers for a total of five out of the grand sum of fourteen. As an elementary science methods instructor, the lack of studies regarding preservice elementary teachers is problematic. The lack of a cohesive language within CR science teachers and teaching research proved to be another hurdle. As demonstrated in the article selection, most of the research does not explicitly address cultural relevance or responsiveness. A larger number of articles instead referenced “equity, diversity, migrants, English Language Learners (ELL) and urban or indigenous populations.” Though these studies are grounded in the complexities of culture in education, they were not conducted through the CR lens. Thus, they do not address the standards set out in the CR teacher characteristics. The remaining science-specific CR studies lack one evaluation model and how to explicitly address the development of these characteristics and strategies. To address the holes revealed during the meta-analysis of the fourteen CR science studies, examples from the studies will be linked to the six themes of CR teacher characteristics in addition to the science-specific themes of pedagogy and reflection. Academics Academically, Ladson-Billings ( 1995 ) and Milner ( 2010 ) state the importance of CR teachers addressing the academic needs of their students. This was mirrored by the science-specific studies seeking effective CR characteristics since all four articles stressed the importance of high expectations for all students (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012). Though Wallace and Brand ( 2012 ) did not explicitly address high expectations, they discussed preparing students with real-world skills and holding every student accountable for learning the science content. Yet, only one of the eleven current CR science studies addressed student academic success as one of the research goals. Johnson and Fargo’s (2014) study found that 50% of students in the test school with teachers receiving professional development scored proficient in science, while only 31% reached a level of proficient in the control school. By the end of the second year, students in the 67% at the test school were proficient compared to only 29% at the control school (Johnson & Fargo, 2014). Five other CR science teacher development studies stressed the importance of teachers having high expectations for all students (Bottoms et al., 2017; Brown & Crippen, 2016a ; Hernandez et al., 2013 ; Johnson, 2010; Mensah, 2011). Related to academics is the science content itself. Johnson and Fargo (2014) argue that for successful CR professional development to occur, there must be a clear science-content connection. The importance of science content was also addressed in the outcomes by Nam et al. (2012). Specifically, the teacher participants in the three-year professional development were challenged by the connection of CR to the science content. The other nine studies do not address academics in the strategy or the outcomes. Cultural competency In contrast to the academic theme, the cultural competency theme emerged in all but one of the eleven CR science teacher development studies. These are directly linked to Gay’s ( 2002 ) characteristic of CR teachers developing a knowledge base of their students’ culture. For the CR science teacher characteristic studies, three discussed topics which fall under the theme of cultural competency. Specifically, effective CR science teachers must get to know each student as an individual, learn about students’ communities and avoid stereotyping by relating to students on a personal level instead (Byrd, 2016 ; Lanier & Glosson, 2014). Within the CR science teacher development studies, Goldston and Nichols ( 2009 ) required six middle school teachers to create a photo narrative of their students’ community. This resulted in an increase in teachers’ cultural knowledge of their students and their students’ communities. Bottoms et al. (2017) focused a great deal on topics under the cultural competency theme. Explicitly, preservice teachers need time and support to deal with the emotions associated with identifying current beliefs about differing cultures (Bottoms et al., 2017). Preservice teachers need to, according to Bottoms et al. (2017), take the time to learn about the student’s culture and how to include specific cultural references in the science content. The importance of involving the students’ families and communities was also stressed by several of the studies (Bottoms et al., 2017; Burgess et al., 2018 ; Hernandez et al., 2013 ). Building K-12 students’ social competency, awareness of other cultures, and valuing these cultural differences in the classroom was evident in the studies by Mensah (2011), Johnson, C.C. (2010), and Brown and Crippen ( 2016b ). Nam et al. (2012) pointed to the direct implications of the lack of cultural knowledge and the need for current teachers to learn their students’ knowledge and beliefs in order to implement CR strategies. In agreeance with this need, Mensah’s (2011) research outcomes state that preservice elementary science teachers need time to research the particular students and community. Social inequities Both Ladson-Billings ( 1995 , 2011 ) and Gay ( 2002 ) determine that CR teachers must be aware of social inequalities outside and within the classroom. These inequalities then need to be addressed within the curriculum (Gay, 2002 ; Ladson-Billings, 1995 , 2011 ). Agreeing with the extant literature, Wallace and Brand ( 2012 ) discussed the importance of effective CR science teachers to develop a critical view of teaching situated within the sociocultural context. Byrd ( 2016 ) and Lanier and Glosson (2014) took it a step further by stating effective CR science teachers use class time to acknowledge and address issues of social inequities. Six of the eleven CR science teacher development studies align with this theme. Johnson ( 2011 ) conducted a three-year professional development with two middle school science teachers. As a result, the teachers were made more aware of the continued institutional inequities within the district and school. Johnson states the importance of this awareness in teachers (2011). Brown and Crippen ( 2016a ) stress the importance for teachers to not only acknowledge social inequities but to teach within the current sociocultural climate. The remaining four CR science teacher development studies encourage teachers to help develop a critical awareness of social inequities their students may encounter and then address these experiences within the context of the science content, pushing students to develop solutions and focus on community assets rather than deficits (Brown and Crippen, 2016b ; Goldson and Nichols, 2009; Hernandez et al., 2013 ; Johnson, 2011 ; Mensah, 2011). CR learning environment A learning environment that is culturally inclusive encourages students to feel a sense of belonging and seeks to build relationships on trust, which are all characteristics of a CR learning environment (Gay, 2002 ; Milner, 2010 ; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ). All four of the effective CR science teacher characteristic studies echo the extant literature, stating CR science teachers demonstrate care and respect for all students while being patient and tolerant (Lanier & Glosson, 2014; Wallace & Brand, 2012 ; Xu et al., 2012). Byrd ( 2016 ) stresses the importance of valuing students’ experiences outside of the classroom and encouraging opportunities for students to share. Of the ten CR science teacher development studies, eight addressed the CR learning environment in either their strategy or their outcomes. Johnson and Fargo (2014) were the least specific, stating there is a need to focus on the learning environment but without specific guidelines. Bottoms et al. (2017), Brown and Crippen ( 2016b ), and Johnson (2010) found that the community needs to be connected through active partnerships as well. Furthermore, the classroom must function as a community as well (Brown & Crippen, 2016b ). Brown and Crippen ( 2016a ) were more specific in regard to the learning environment, expressing that CR learning environments encourage student communication, collaboration, respect for all, and with the teacher expressing care for every student. Uniquely, Hernandez et al. ( 2013 ) encouraged the use of K-12 students’ native language in the classroom. Burges et al. (2018) presented their outcomes from two different perspectives, those of the PSTs and those of the TEs. The PSTs, stressed the importance of supporting the culture and community of the students within the classroom (Burges et al., 2018). For TE’s, they discovered the need to listen to PSTs, meet their needs and view them as collaborators in addition to valuing their cultural and community wealth in the classroom. Mirroring this sentiment, Nam et al. (2012) found that CR teachers must view learning as reciprocal, and they must value the students’ community resources and input. All these studies demonstrate a need to focus on the learning environment and not just the science teacher characteristics and strategies when evaluating effective CR examples. Rejection of deficit lens Ladson-Billings ( 2011 ) expressed the need for students to reject the societal deficit lens. Connected to this goal are the perspectives of teachers. Although the deficit lens is not explicitly addressed in the four effective CR teacher characteristic studies, three express sentiments reflecting an asset-based approach to teaching. Byrd ( 2016 ) found that CR science teachers value their students’ practical and intellectual resources, while Lanier & Gloss (2014) and Wallace and Brand ( 2012 ) state that all CR science teachers have a belief that their students have valuable abilities. Three of the ten CR science teacher development studies explicitly addressed the deficit lens. Bottoms et al. (2017) and Burgess et al. ( 2018 ) stated that PSTs need to emphasize asset over deficit views. Brown and Crippen’s ( 2016b ) outcomes were grouped into four themes. One of these themes specifically addresses the preservice teachers’ views by focusing on the resources from their K-12 students’ backgrounds (Brown and Crippen, 2016b ). The CR science teacher must adopt and model an asset lens. Pedagogical Strategies The first discovered theme unique to science-specific CR studies is pedagogy. This becomes apparent since, out of the ten CR science teacher development studies, all address pedagogy. Many of the effective CR strategies exemplified in the effective CR science teacher characteristic studies are also present. For instance, CR science teachers must build from what their K-12 students already know, engage students in inquiry and/or experiential learning experiences and connect the science content to real-world concepts students can relate to (Brown and Crippen, 2016b ; Hernandez et al., 2013 ; Johnson & Fargo, 2014; Mensah, F.M., 2011). Goldson and Nichols (2009) stress the importance of bridging students’ culture and science content, specifically by utilizing the K-12 community. Uniquely, Johnson and Fargo (2011) stress the importance of including opportunities for argumentation in science. In contrast, Hernandez et al. ( 2013 ) discuss promoting critical thinking in K-12 students with the incorporation of hands-on activities, teacher modeling, and visual aids. Critical and creative thinking were topics within Johnson’s (2010) study, specifically with a focus on literacy and language strategies. Collaboration between K-12 students and the use of open-ended questions were other prominent CR science teaching strategies in the CR science teacher development studies (Bottoms et al., 2017; Burgess et al., 2018 ; Mensah F.M., 2011). Teacher flexibility and dual learning (teacher and K-12 students) were exemplified by Bottoms et al. (2017), Burgess et al., 2018 and Brown and Crippen ( 2016b ). In two studies, Burgess et al. ( 2018 ) and Nam et al. (2012) discussed the success of utilizing local spaces outside of the classroom to bridge experiences outside of the community with the science content. Their place-based science inquiry promoted reciprocal learning between the teachers and K-12 students while making the science content more meaningful to all (Burgess et al., 2018 & Nam et al., 2012). Based on these exemplified pedagogical strategies, the teacher must have knowledge of the students. That includes the students’ culture. Thus, there exists a bit of an overlap between cultural competency and individualized instruction. Reflection Another unique aspect of the CR science teacher development studies was the time preservice science teachers need to reflect on current and future practices, especially in relation to effective CR science teaching. Four CR science teacher development studies expressed the need for the participants to have time to reflect on their lessons. In the case of the Family Math and Science Nights, PSTs used their reflections to adapt their lessons for the following events (Bottoms et al., 2016a). This is similar to the discussion by Burgess et al. ( 2018 ) and Mensah (2011), who stated that the preservice science teachers needed time to reflect on their current CR strategies in order to plan for future lessons. Goldson and Nichols’ (2009) use of photo narratives made reflection crucial to the professional development process. Missing from their study, the need for the inclusion of post-teaching debriefing, or reflection, was stated by Hernandez et al. ( 2013 ). In addition, Brown and Crippen’s ( 2016a ) study with PST participants indicated a need for more explicit lesson planning based on field observations. Though reflection is not explicitly stated here, the importance is evident in the reflective nature of effective lesson planning. Some limitations of this work include the following: Limited representation: Many of the studies included in a meta-analysis of culturally responsive teaching may be limited to certain populations or geographic regions. This can make it difficult to generalize the findings to other contexts. Variability in intervention: There may be considerable variability in how culturally responsive teaching is implemented across different studies, which can make it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions about the effectiveness of the approach. Subjectivity in measurement: Measuring the effectiveness of culturally responsive teaching can be challenging, as it often relies on subjective measures of student engagement, motivation, and achievement. This subjectivity can make it difficult to compare results across studies. Publication bias: The studies included in a meta-analysis may be subject to publication bias, which occurs when studies with positive results are more likely to be published than those with negative or inconclusive results. This can lead to an overestimation of the effectiveness of culturally responsive teaching. Lack of consensus on a definition: Despite the widespread interest in culturally responsive teaching, there is still a lack of consensus on how it should be defined and operationalized. This can make it challenging to compare and synthesize research findings. Conclusion And Implications Effective CR elementary science teachers are necessary for increasing all students, regardless of culture and ethnicity, interest in science in order to promote student enrollment in additional science courses at the postsecondary level (Maltese and Tai, 2010). The first step in this process is to engage all students when delivering science content in K-12 schools. This requires teacher preparation institutions, especially within preservice elementary teacher programs, to include effective CR science teaching characteristics and pedagogical practice building within the curriculum. But, as this meta-analysis demonstrates, there are limited studies on effective elementary science teacher characteristics and practices. This meta-analysis included studies from middle-level and high school level schools in addition to CR science teacher development studies to address this gap in the literature. From this, explicit characteristics which are unified under five cohesive themes and specific CR science teacher pedagogical practices became apparent. The findings from each meta-analysis can be utilized independently or in unison to further future CR elementary science teacher studies. First, by defining a clear picture of effective CR science teacher characteristics, future studies will not only be more cohesive but will also offer a clear methodological path. The five cohesive themes with the examples from the four effective CR science teacher studies offer a snapshot of characteristics future researchers can look for. In addition, the effective CR science teacher pedagogical practices exemplified within these four studies give practical examples current teachers can utilize to build CR elementary science teaching within their own classrooms. They also provide researchers with a practical list for classroom observations. For the development of CR elementary science teachers, each of the five themes and the pedagogical practices of effective CR elementary science teachers needs to be explicitly addressed in the research method. By doing so, the outcomes should reflect a positive increase in these desired characteristics. Additionally, by connecting the desired characteristics to practical strategies, the teachers become the basis for evaluation rather than the student outcome, which, as Aronson and Laughter (2016) point out, may be inherently biased when student scores are used since the testing instruments themselves are often biased. Thus, with a clear evaluation model and CR elementary science teacher methodology, teacher educators (TEs) can develop strategies to systematically address each of the CR science teacher themes and CR pedagogical practices. Through the unification of an evaluation system and methodology, evidence-based strategies will also be discovered, giving all TEs the specific tools needed to cultivate CR elementary science teachers. References Brown, J. (2017). A meta-synthesis of the compementarity of culturally responsive and inquiry-based science education in K-12 settings: Implications for advancing equitable science teaching and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 54(9) , 1143-1173. Brown, J., & Crippen, K. (2016a). The growing awareness inventory: Building capacity for culturally responsive science and mathematics with a structured observation protocol. School Science and Mathematics , 127-138. Brown, J., & Crippen, K. (2016b). 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Sep, 2024 Read the published version in Cultural Studies of Science Education → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revision 13 Sep, 2023 Reviews received at journal 27 Jul, 2023 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Jul, 2023 Reviewers invited by journal 12 Jul, 2023 Editor assigned by journal 12 Jul, 2023 Submission checks completed at journal 03 Mar, 2023 First submitted to journal 02 Mar, 2023 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2648740","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"analysis","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":180487631,"identity":"6c9724ce-e340-4916-a1c4-038425a19865","order_by":0,"name":"Lundon Pinneo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Arkansas at Little Rock","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lundon","middleName":"","lastName":"Pinneo","suffix":""},{"id":180487632,"identity":"225f2de9-35e4-4fd2-853c-76d071cb4630","order_by":1,"name":"Amy L Benton","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA30lEQVRIie3PsQrCMBCA4XPRJdA1gtVXiBSCg+Cr1EWXgkOhZCwUuvYBfAldnCOBugRcD1pcRCcHXTrb6qhE3RzyDwkc9xECYLP9Y/R5Eac5BUArBmCfiQTodetV0L+QMZPfEmeZ5MerKIm3V6eVFAc37iQbanykzOdM6jPhOOModejFJI+MBDDgdJuqmgAvbqk/jWk9MYkBLqoH8bJdhduGDC5mwjBoPwiDgD8JJWYyLHNOtVaEYhDVf/G9lMzCkYn0i+RMhVATJ9ttUArfzTpqjSbyWvu3dZvNZrO96w7I9FQl5agjjQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Samford University","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amy","middleName":"L","lastName":"Benton","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-03-02 19:14:44","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2648740/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2648740/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-024-10222-6","type":"published","date":"2024-09-23T15:58:09+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":65627413,"identity":"7d597ba8-8580-412b-93fb-24f7b7fa512c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-30 16:15:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":783247,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2648740/v1/a243eb60-0d79-4bbe-a485-631faece5dc0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Culturally responsive elementary science teaching: A meta-analysis of current science teaching studies and implications","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eForty years after the landmark case in which the Supreme Court declared segregated schools unconstitutional in Brown V. Board of Education (1954), Ladson-Billings \u0026amp; Tate’s 1995 article argued inequalities due to race were still evident within society. Thus, there was a need for the theorization of race within education. Critical Race Theory (CRT) acknowledges that social constructs impact citizens differently based on race/ethnicity, which limits changes in social systems such as education (Bell, 1954). From a law perspective, Bell (1954) discussed specific legal cases which grew from the desegregation of American schools. But the CRT lens was not applied to the examination of school systems itself (Ladson-Billings \u0026amp; Tate, 1995). This lens was necessary, as Lason-Billings and Tate (1995) argued, because “(1) race continues to be significant in the United States; (2) U.S. society is based on property rights rather than human rights; and (3) the intersection of race and property creates an analytical tool for understanding inequity.” (p. 47).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith these understandings in place, Ladson-Billings \u0026amp; Tate strengthened their argument for a school-specific theory in which to explore inequalities due to race. Using the theoretical framework of Cheryl I. Harris (1993), they make direct parallels between Harris’s “property function of whiteness” and US school systems (Ladson-Billings \u0026amp; Tate, 1995). The four functions are 1. “rights of disposition,” 2. “rights to use and enjoyment,” 3. “reputation and status property,” and 4. “the absolute right to exclude” (Harris, 1993). Ladson-Billings and Tate give examples of each in relation to these functions (1995). In brief, 1. our school system rewards those who conform to the hegemonic norms of the school; 2. whites have greater access to school facilities; 3. schools associated with minority students or located in urban neighborhoods have poor reputations, and 4. school choice permits privileged White students to opt out of schools with minority populations or urban settings. By tying school-specific examples to Harris’ (1993) functions of white property, Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) made a strong argument for a need for a CRT lens with the sole purpose of analyzing our school systems. Yet their article did not propose clear parameters or even a title for such a theory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother drawback to the extant literature was a lack of focus within the field of science. From 2008 to 2018, degrees within science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields comprised 18 percent of the total 331,000 bachelor’s degrees awarded in the U.S. When compared to the national average, each race/ethnicity is unique. The percentage of White students with a bachelor’s degree in STEM was the same at 18 percent while Asian/Pacific Islander (15%), Hispanic (15%), American Indian/Alaska Native (14%), and Black (12%) all had lower percentages than the national average (NCES, 2019). In contrast, Asian students had a higher than average rate of 33%, as did students with Two or more races at 20% of bachelor’s degrees within STEM (NCES, 2019). White, Asian, and students with Two or more races obtained bachelor’s degrees in STEM at higher percentage rates than the national average of overall STEM bachelor’s degrees. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e contains the total percentage based on race/ethnicity within all levels of degrees/certificates within STEM college degrees, as reported by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNCES (2019) Race/Ethnicity Percentages of Awarded Degrees/Certificates at the Postsecondary Level within STEM Fields for 2008-09 and 2017-18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentages based on Race/Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsian/Pacific Islander\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmerican Indian/Alaska Native\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo or more races\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2008-09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e---\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017-18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) were published by the National Research Council (NRC) in 2013. Shortly after, twenty states adopted NGSS, while twenty-four developed their own state standards based on NGSS guidelines (National Science Teaching Association NSTA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). With a “focus on issues of student diversity and equity in relation to the NGSS specifically as the NGSS present both learning opportunities and challenges to all students, particularly non-dominant student groups,” NGSS strives to decrease the achievement gap (NGSS, 2013, Appendix p. 26). But as discussed above, diversity within STEM fields is still limited in regard to specific races/ethnicities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRather than looking at the standards as a solution to increase diversity in STEM degrees, Maltese and Tai (2010) noted that student interest in science must occur prior to selecting high school courses. They found that students who took more science courses in high school and valued the long-term outcomes of science on a future career were more likely to pursue a STEM degree (Maltese and Tai, 2010). Thus, it is important to focus on increasing student interest in lower grades, especially those in underrepresented race/ethnicity groups, for an increase in the diversity of STEM degree/certificate earners. For that reason, this study’s primary focus was on CR science in elementary classrooms. By increasing CR science strategies in elementary grades, students will experience science content as it relates to them, making the overall experience more meaningful. First, an overview of Culturally Relevant/Responsive Pedagogy/Teaching (CRP/T) is necessary to compare the extant literature with current CR science elementary teacher characteristics and practices.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis literature review focuses on two main topics. The first topic explores the parameters of Culturally Relevant/Responsive Pedagogy/Teaching (CRP/T) as defined in the extant literature in order to frame a working definition of CRP/T. The second topic is current, peer-reviewed research studies on current CR science teachers and CR science teacher development. The CR science teacher studies provide additional content on the parameters of CRP/T, specifically within the context of teaching science. The CR science teacher development studies provide insight into teacher-preparation practices geared towards growing preservice teachers’ CR science teaching practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParameters Of Culturally Relevant/responsive Pedagogy/teaching (Crp/t)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLadson-Billings\u0026rsquo; three-year study, which labeled her theory \u0026ldquo;Culturally Relevant Pedagogy\u0026rdquo; (CRP), identified three areas of \u0026ldquo;Culturally Relevant Pedagogy\u0026rdquo; as exhibited by eight elementary teachers (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Unlike the article published by Tate, Ladson-Billings\u0026rsquo; study did not argue the need for CRP but instead developed three areas of successful CRP as exhibited by these eight elementary teachers. This three-year study included an ethnographic interview, weekly classroom observations, and participant review and analysis of the videos (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Although each teacher participant was unique, Ladson-Billings identified areas in which their successful implementation of CRP practices overlapped. These three areas are \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;helping their students to be academically successful, culturally competent, and socio-politically critical\u0026rdquo; (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, p. 477-8). In other words, students must maintain their cultural heritage and recognize and critique sociopolitical concepts while achieving academic success (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The eight elementary teacher participants did so by viewing their students\u0026rsquo; through an asset lens, encouraging individual differences, and placing students in leadership roles (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). They also avoided the \u0026ldquo;right-answer approach\u0026rdquo; to academics, guiding students to think critically.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParallel to the work of Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), Geneva Gay published a book titled \u003cem\u003eCulturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice\u003c/em\u003e (2001). In her book, Gay summarizes what she terms \u0026ldquo;Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT)\u0026rdquo; (2002). Similar to Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) in concept, the title replaces \u0026ldquo;relevant\u0026rdquo; with \u0026ldquo;responsive\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;pedagogy\u0026rdquo; with \u0026ldquo;teaching .\u0026rdquo;Here, the two are used interchangeably with the acronym \u0026ldquo;CRP/T,\u0026rdquo; in which the \u0026ldquo;R\u0026rdquo; represents both \u0026ldquo;relevant\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;responsive\u0026rdquo; while the \u0026ldquo;P\u0026rdquo; denotes \u0026ldquo;pedagogy,\u0026rdquo; and the \u0026ldquo;T\u0026rdquo; denotes \u0026ldquo;teaching\u0026rdquo; (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Gay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) states, \u0026ldquo;Culturally responsive teaching is defined as using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively\u0026rdquo; (p 106). She outlines five \u0026ldquo;specific components\u0026rdquo; of CRT that she has compiled through her research (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These five components can be viewed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. In contrast to Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), Gay does not explicitly express \u0026ldquo;academic achievement\u0026rdquo; as one of her components (2002). Instead, her components outline what a teacher must learn in order to implement CRT in their classrooms (2002). First, teachers must develop their own knowledge base of cultural diversity that goes beyond traditional multicultural training and instead focuses on knowledge about the specific, ethnically diverse students the teacher will be working with (2002). Including the ability to design curricula that are culturally relevant by being critically aware of the three types of curricula: \u0026ldquo;formal,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;symbolic,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;societal\u0026rdquo; (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, p. 108). Once aware, teachers must address the issues within each (2002). The third component, also unique from Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) three areas, requires teachers \u0026ldquo;demonstrating cultural caring and building a learning community\u0026rdquo; (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, p. 109). Here, Gay stresses the importance of incorporating the students\u0026rsquo; prior knowledge and experiences within the classroom, validating their students\u0026rsquo; assets, and creating a learning environment built on caring (2002). Similar to Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) \u0026ldquo;cultural competency\u0026rdquo; area since Gay states that students should be made aware of the cultural context of the content (2002). Related to the caring learning environment, Gay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) posits effective \u0026ldquo;cross-cultural communications\u0026rdquo; as a necessary component of CRT (p. 110). Effective instruction is reliant upon effective communication (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Teachers must listen to their students and also know how to connect to ethnically diverse students in a way that is familiar to them (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The fifth and final component addresses \u0026ldquo;cultural congruity in classroom instruction\u0026rdquo; (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, p. 112). Here, she stresses the importance of matching instructional strategies to the learning strategies of ethnically diverse students (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs Ladson-Billings continued to seek out and document teachers who were successful with African American students, she began to characterize these \u0026ldquo;culturally relevant, (CR)\u0026rdquo; teachers. By 2011, she added an additional area, \u0026ldquo;teacher thinking,\u0026rdquo; to her three original (Ladson-Billings, p. 34). The \u0026ldquo;teacher thinking\u0026rdquo; area is broken down into three further subcategories, \u0026ldquo;social contexts,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;the students,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;the curriculum,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;instruction\u0026rdquo; (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, p. 34\u0026ndash;37). First, she states that CR teachers must recognize an inherent difference within the school system and beyond between minority students and the hegemonic society (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). CR teachers must encourage appreciation of personal culture within students while also exposing them to different cultures. (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, she argues that CR teachers must learn to feel with their students rather than pity them (2011). Therefore, teachers must get to know students and their situations at the individual level, including aspects of their personal lives. Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) states that CR teachers recognize what she calls \u0026ldquo;school-dependence\u0026rdquo; of disadvantaged students (p. 35). She explains that students with resources outside of school do not rely solely on their school for growth and success (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The final characteristic is regarding curriculum. CR teachers recognize that curriculum is a societal artifact and should not be treated as stagnant (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Instead, CR teachers challenge students to develop personal meaning within the curriculum (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). CR teachers should focus on the long-term success of their students by helping them to know how the content and skills apply to their lives (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilner\u0026rsquo;s article in the same book as Ladson-Billings\u0026rsquo; (2010) article shares one \u0026ldquo;principle beyond good intentions\u0026rdquo; with her work (p. 71). They both assert that CR teachers know what deficit thinking is and reject it (Ladon-Billings, 2011; Milner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). But this is where the \u0026ldquo;teacher thinking\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;principles,\u0026rdquo; as Milner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) calls them, cease being the same. He instead speaks on three additional and unique values. Milner\u0026rsquo;s second principle states that CT teachers must understand the difference between \u0026lsquo;equity\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;equality\u0026rsquo; and apply this practice within the classroom (Milner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Expanding on Ladson-Billings\u0026rsquo; characteristic of realizing a system of inequality, Milner suggests that different students need different things (2010). His third principle, \u0026ldquo;understand and negotiate power structures,\u0026rdquo; pushes teachers' expectations toward Paulo Freire\u0026rsquo;s argument in \u003cem\u003ePedagogy of the Oppressed\u003c/em\u003e (Milner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, p. 71). Here, Milner cites Freire\u0026rsquo;s belief that in order to shift the traditional power from the teacher to the students, teachers must pose questions that encourage students to think for themselves while still understanding the social structure (2010). Milner\u0026rsquo;s fourth and final principle encourages teachers to not only recognize cultural differences but, instead, navigate through any conflicts these differences may cause while encouraging students to do the same (2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilner\u0026rsquo;s case study (2016) offers a more in-depth look into one teacher\u0026rsquo;s teaching characteristics. The participant, Mr. Jackson, is a Black male math and science middle school teacher. Many of the characteristics identified in this case study fall under the categories set forth by Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Gay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and Milner\u0026rsquo;s own 2010 article. This snapshot of one successful CR teacher provides images of what CR teaching looks like, giving context for the parameters of CRP/T. Whether teaching math or science, Mr. Jackson validated his students\u0026rsquo; prior knowledge and personal interests in several ways (Milner, 2016). First, he listened to them and got to know each student as an individual (Milner, 2016). Aligning with both Gay\u0026rsquo;s (2001) and Milner\u0026rsquo;s (2011) CRP/T parameters of a caring and inclusive learning environment. He then applied what he learned about his students to the classroom environment and his instruction (Milner, 2016). One example was how Mr. Jackson incorporated situations that were occurring at the school into his math lessons (Milner, 2016). Realizing he shared musical interests with his students, songs that were familiar to his students were often played in his classroom (Milner, 2016). These two strategies incorporate parameters from Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), Gay (2001), and Milner (2011). Another key component was his view of both teachers and students. Mr. Jackson recognized the assets he brought, such as shared music tastes and those of his students, by giving them opportunities to teach him (Milner, 2016). Although music was his major connection with his students, teachers need to identify their own individual assets rather than mimic Mr. Jackson\u0026rsquo;s (Milner, 2016). What all teachers can borrow from this case study is how Mr. Jackson situated himself as a \u0026ldquo;community member\u0026rdquo; rather than a \u0026ldquo;spectator\u0026rdquo; by building relationships with his students, valuing them as individuals, and creating opportunities for his students to demonstrate their own assets within the classroom. (Milner, 2016, p. 425).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Gay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and Milner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) provide the characteristics of effective CRT teachers, which are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of CRP/T Parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLadson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneva Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Aids in academic student achievement (1995)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Gives students cultural competency by being aware of personal views, views of others, and positive interactions across differing cultures\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Critical awareness of sociopolitical climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLadson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Teacher thinking\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea) Social contexts: assume social inequalities based on race and poverty\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eb) The students: reject deficit lens and feels with rather for students by advocating and holding high standards\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ec) The curriculum: recognizes that it is a societal document and modifies as needed\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ed) Instruction: know and use a variety of strategies to engage ALL students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Develop a cultural diversity knowledgebase\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Include cultural diversity in the curriculum\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Establish a caring community of culturally responsive learning\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Communicate with ethnically diverse students\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Respond to cultural diversity through instruction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Ensure students find meaning in the classroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Help students feel a sense of belonging within the classroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Facilitate the building of skills and knowledge needed for academic success\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelection of the literature\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study is to compare the CR teacher characteristics from the extant research to the current CR science teacher research in elementary. By doing so, the current CR science teacher research strategies and outcomes can be evaluated through the lens of CRT characteristics. A meta-analysis was also conducted with the current CR science teacher research in elementary. Revealing if there are unique characteristics and/or strategies to CR elementary science teaching.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo locate CR science teaching in elementary, a university search engine was utilized to locate articles in peer-reviewed journals. A complete list of the search words and the total results Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Initially, the search was narrowed by restricting the dates from 2014 to the present. This search yielded 429 total articles. These articles contained a variety of language outside of \u0026ldquo;culturally responsive teaching in science.\u0026rdquo; For example, if the terms \u0026ldquo;integrating indigenous knowledge,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;social justice,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;language barriers,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;minorities,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;equitable\u0026rdquo; occurred in the title, the abstract, or both without the mention of CRT, then the article was omitted. Since CRT within science is the focus of this review, the date restriction was removed from the search, and specific words within the title were applied instead. Within the search, only one study focused on elementary science. Thus, the search was extended to include middle and secondary grades. A total of forty-three journals were represented in the search. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e provides a list of all the journals and which were represented in the four selected articles for the meta-analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Title Words, Number of Total Results, and Number of Selected Articles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Title Words\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e# of Total Results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003eresponsive\u003c/em\u003e teaching in elementary science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003erelevant\u003c/em\u003e teaching in elementary science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003eresponsive\u003c/em\u003e pedagogy in elementary science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003erelevant\u003c/em\u003e pedagogy in elementary science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003eresponsive\u003c/em\u003e teaching in middle school science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003erelevant\u003c/em\u003e teaching in middle school science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003eresponsive\u003c/em\u003e pedagogy in middle school science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (2 previously represented)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003erelevant\u003c/em\u003e pedagogy in middle school science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2 previously represented)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally responsive teaching and science (title)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (1 previously represented)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003eresponsive\u003c/em\u003e teaching (title) and science (title), and elementary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (1 previously represented)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eculturally \u003cem\u003erelevant\u003c/em\u003e teaching (title) and science (title), and elementary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (2 previously represented)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly research articles were selected for further analysis and synthesis. From the research articles revealed in the eleven searches, four articles examined the characteristics of effective CRT science teachers. Xu et al. (2012) focused on elementary teachers, Byrd (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) surveyed 315 middle school and high school students across the United States, Lanier \u0026amp; Glasson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) studied one middle school science teacher and eleven of her students, while Wallace \u0026amp; Brand\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) study participants are two middles school science teachers. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e provides an overview of the four selected studies. They were selected because they focus on CR science teacher characteristics at the elementary, middle, and high school levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverview of Four CR Science Teaching Studies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor, Year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheoretical Lens\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical Race Theory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo middle school science teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne White female and one Black female, both over 22 years of teaching experience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXu et al.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociocultural perspective\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 African American elementary teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanier \u0026amp; Glasson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird space theory \u0026amp;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical Race Pedagogy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne middle-school teacher was selected based on research requirements (total of 9), two of which were a success with AA students in an urban middle school\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 students from the participating teachers\u0026rsquo; class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eByrd, C.M.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical Race Theory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e315 MS and HS students (6\u0026ndash;12) across the US\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the four articles selected for their research on effective CR science teaching characteristics, seven additional articles were selected from the original eleven searches. Unlike the previous four, these articles focused on developing CR science practices with either preservice or in-service teachers. These studies provide additional insight into the current studies seeking to increase CR science teaching practices by revealing similar and unique methods. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e provides an overview of the seven studies focused on the development of CR science practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCR Science Teacher Development Studies\u003c/b\u003e Chronological Level: K-12 students; Preservice teachers first, followed by in-service teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants \u0026amp; Grade level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcomes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreservice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBottoms et al.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53 PSETs, UG, over two semesters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSETs worked with diverse families in FMSNs while enrolled in science methods course\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntentional course assignments, materials and structures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntentional instructional design (methods) information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFMSN:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Creates more opportunities for interaction and reflection\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Integrates emotions to re-conceptualize practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Builds partnerships in the community\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Teaches content through culture and community resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurgess et al.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 non-traditionally licensed elementary para-educators, 11 bilingual, and 10 Lainx\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsed outdoor spaces in conjunction with classroom experiences\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCo-learning: instructors learned how candidates learned and used that knowledge to shape instruction (this is the CRT component)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo perspectives for implications: those of PSTs and those of TEs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSTs:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Use learner-centered strategies and previous experiences\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. utilize specific cultural ties within the science content\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. support the cultural and community wealth of students\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. emphasize asset over deficit views\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEs:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. listen to PSTs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. meet their needs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. view them as collaborators with assets\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. value family/community connections\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. reported higher CRT awareness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMensah, F. M.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree graduate-level PSETs in 4/5th grade science within a science methods course for an ILP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroteaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscussions in science methods course\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroups of 3 PSET\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntentional FP in an urban setting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSETs need:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. opportunities to collaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. diverse urban settings\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. time to incorporate and reflect on CRT strategies\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. microteaching opportunities\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. time to research the particular students and community\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAuthor\u003c/b\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eYear\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticipants \u0026amp; Grade level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStrategies\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutcomes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrown \u0026amp; Crippen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14secondary math PSTs \u0026amp; 5 science PSTs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird-year UGs majoring in math/science with a minor in secondary education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSTs math/science methods course and FE of their program-intentionally complementary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo GAIn observations by the PSTs and then designed and taught three lessons using the 5E Lesson Template (Bybee et al. 2006)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGAIn alone cannot cultivate CR practices in PSTs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore explicit lesson planning based on GAIn observations needed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHernandez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12, non-traditional Latinx students in a UG ILP for secondary science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTE\u0026rsquo;s approach\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Review of literature\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Synthesis of literature for major themes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Application of major themes to PST course\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse the developed model to guide course/curriculum development for TE. However, to fully comprehend PSTs ability to implement CRT, a variety of data collection is needed, as well as an intentionally designed FE, such as the Professional Development School model, in conjunction with post-lesson debriefings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIn-service\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJohnson \u0026amp; Fargo 2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;6 grade Hispanic students in two elementary schools, one with the PD and one without the PD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2-year professional development program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective PD components:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Clear content (science) connection\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Significant, if not the whole school, number of participants and align with school/district/teacher beliefs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Must occur over a long period of time and be ongoing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJohnson, C.C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo middle-school science teachers in a district with a growing Hispanic population\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransformative professional development (TPD) for three consecutive years\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear 1: building relationships; inquiry, positive expectations, and cooperative learning\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear 2: new lessons/units, teaching strategies, teacher empowerment, and incorporation of Hispanic students\u0026rsquo; lives within science content\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear 3: additional teaching strategies, CRP study, and common discipline plan development\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPD may be an effective model with the use of Ladsen-Billings (1995) CPD areas, but it is time-consuming (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;300 hours), expensive, and requires district/school-wide participation and school/district support\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShed light on the continued institutional inequalities within the district/school, of which teachers need to be aware of\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAuthor\u003c/b\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eYear\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticipants \u0026amp; Grade level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStrategies\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutcomes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoldston \u0026amp; Nichols, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSix middle school teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth science teachers were White\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe other four teachers were Black, and one taught LA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo university professors developed a PLC with a total of 6 middle school teachers within a predominantly black and low-income school\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the PLC, participants read books, discussed, took photos, then used the photos to create a photonarrative which was further discussed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhotonarratives are an alternative method for science teachers to develop and grow cultural knowledge of their students and school community\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree Luminaries emerged:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Church and Sunday schooling\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Daily sustenance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Community\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNam et al.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 teachers of AI students, 29 of which taught middle or high school science, participated in the CYCLES and ICE-Net Climate Change PD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers participated in a 3-year-long PD and were asked directly about their view of CR science teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey were also given content knowledge specific to climate change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of CR science teaching strategies are grouped into three subcategories:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. providing hands-on experiences\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. place-based teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. integrating traditional teaching styles\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChallenges are grouped into two main subcategories:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. external (science standards, parents, community, and student attitude)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. internal (lack of knowledge about the AI culture, low awareness, and less connection with the AI community)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo implement CR, teachers need:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. know their AI students\u0026rsquo; knowledge and beliefs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. incorporate specific student knowledge and beliefs into content\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. view learning as reciprocal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. value community resources/input\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear need for specific PD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrown \u0026amp; Crippen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSix life science teachers from the Five participating high schools\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 to 22 years of teaching experience\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll women\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOngoing, 6-month PD with a focus on both science content and pedagogy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSix major activities:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Lesson study\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. GAIn observation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Curriculum topic study 4. Professional growth tasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Saturday collaboration sessions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Culturally responsive science units\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour themes exhibited by CR science knowledge and practices which cannot stand alone:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. views of students\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. repositioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. community building\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. utilizing a CRP toolbox\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditional research is needed on how to develop sociocultural and critical consciousness in science teachers and their lesson designs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAA: African American\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAI: American Indian\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCRIOP: Culturally Responsive Instruction Observation Protocol (Powel \u0026amp; Rightmyer, 2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR: culturally responsive/relevant\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCRP: culturally responsive/relevant pedagogy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCRT: culturally responsive/relevant teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEST: elementary science teacher\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFE: field experience (K-12 school setting)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFMSN: family math and science night\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFP: field placement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGAIn: Growing Awareness Inventory (Brown \u0026amp; Crippen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eILP: initial license program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLA: Language Arts\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePD: professional development\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePLC: personal learning community\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSSTP: preservice secondary science teacher preparation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePST: preservice teacher\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSET: preservice elementary teacher\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTARS: Science Teachers Are Responsive To Students program\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTE: teacher educator\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEK: traditional ecological knowledge\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUG: undergraduate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUS: United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWk: week\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeta-analysis Of Selected Literature\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs Timulak explains, \u0026ldquo;the basic idea of qualitative meta-analysis is to provide a concise and comprehensive picture of findings across qualitative studies that investigate the same general research topic (2009, p 591). Meta-analysis serves two purposes. First, by conducting a meta-analysis, more information about the phenomena is revealed (Timulak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The first phenomenon being explored here is the comprehensive list of CR science teacher characteristics. The second phenomenon is the methods used to build CR science teaching awareness and strategies in preservice and in-service teachers. To compare the extant data with the new science-specific studies, five themes were created. These themes encompass the specific characteristics that overlap in one or more of the studies. The themes and specific characteristics are found below in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive Characteristics of Effective CR Science Teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural competency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial inequities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR learning environment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRejection of deficit lens\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Author/s, Date)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Aides in academic student achievement (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Facilitate the building of skills and knowledge needed for academic success (Milner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide a challenging curriculum that incorporates scaffolding opportunities to ensure all students meet high expectations (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop students\u0026rsquo; life-long skills through achievement and by removing barriers (Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpect all students to learn the science content and contribute to discussions about learning (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Gives students cultural competency by being aware of personal views, views of others, and positive interactions across differing cultures (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Develop cultural diversity knowledgebase (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamine their own biases and stereotypes, analyze privileges, and share personal experiences, perspectives, and privileges with students (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop skills in talking about race and ethnicity (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearn and respond to students\u0026rsquo; sociocultural realities while also helping students to do the same with their peers (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRemain involved in the students\u0026rsquo; community from which students reside (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGet to know each student as an individual, your students\u0026rsquo; communities, and avoid stereotyping, relating to students on a personal level instead (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrate an awareness of cultural differences within the classroom (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognize that culture impacts a student\u0026rsquo;s learning (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness and concern for the student's preparation and skill acquisition for the real world (Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Critical awareness of sociopolitical climate; social contexts: assume social inequalities based on race and poverty; the curriculum recognizes that it is a social document and modifies as needed (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop students\u0026rsquo; sense of empowerment, self-efficacy, and self-confidence in the science content (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop a critical view of teaching situated within the sociocultural context (Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse class time to acknowledge and address issues of social inequities (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWill advocate for individual students (Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Establish a caring community of culturally responsive learning; communicate with ethnically diverse students (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Include cultural diversity in the curriculum (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Help students feel a sense of belonging within the classroom (Milner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFoster collaborative learning relationships and incorporate healthy classroom competition (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop a sense of community, trust, positivity, respect, and safety in the classroom where all feel included (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrate care and respect for all students while being patient and tolerant (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue and affirm what students have to say and the products they produce (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValuing students\u0026rsquo; experiences outside of the classroom and encourage opportunities for students to share (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHave conversations with individual students beyond just the science content to build connections and carve out time before/after school to spend with students (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace and Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll students always engaged in the learning activities (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective planning, classroom management, and communication skills (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical classroom is organized and displays science content relevant to current instruction (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*The students reject deficit lens and feel with rather for the student by advocating and holding high standards (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue the resources, intellectual and practical, students bring to class and build from them (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBelieve in the abilities of all students (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e*Denotes extant literature that is not specific to science education\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates, there are a significant amount of effective CR science teacher characteristics that align with the work of Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), Gay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and Milner\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026rsquo;s general effective CR teacher characteristics. There are also characteristics unique to effective CR science teachers. For example, under the theme of cultural competency, Lanier and Glosson (2014) and Wallace and Brand (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) stress the importance of recognizing that culture impacts the student\u0026rsquo;s learning. As science teachers, it is important to plan according to those cultural impacts while designing lessons to create an effective CR science learning environment (Lanier and Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012). Under the theme of social inequities, another unique, effective CR science characteristic is to use class time to acknowledge and address issues of social inequities, especially as they relate to the science content (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier and Glosson, 2014). Three out of the four science-specific studies argue that effective CR science teachers provide a challenging curriculum that incorporates scaffolding opportunities to ensure all students meet high expectations (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012). This aligns with the belief in the abilities of all students, as expressed by Lanier and Glosson (2014) and Wallace and Brand (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) under the theme of rejection of the deficit lens. Each of the themes will be discussed in greater detail under the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough this comparison, one unique characteristic emerged within the science-specific studies. Both Xu et al. (2012) and Lanier and Glasson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) stress the importance of an additional characteristic that best fits under the theme of \u0026ldquo;effective pedagogical strategies\u0026rdquo; of effective CR science teachers. Lanier and Glasson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) tout having a genuine interest in the science content and offering multiple standpoints as a characteristic of a science CR teacher. This is mirrored by Lanier and Glasson\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) inclusion of using a variety of teaching strategies. By demonstrating excitement for the content, teachers are generating interest in their students as well. In addition, presenting content more than once and in a variety of ways gives students the opportunity to interact with the content frequently and in ways, they may better connect. Lanier and Glasson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) also explicitly link effective classroom management to the characteristics of CR teachers. A detailed list of effective CR science teacher strategies across the four studies is found in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePedagogical Strategies of Effective CR Science Teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePedagogical strategies (Author, date)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOffer multiple standpoints on the same science concept (Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMake direct connections between students\u0026rsquo; life outside of the classroom, personal interests, and the science content while planning and facilitating (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncorporate peer discussions, inquiry-based, exploration activities, hands-on experiments, making authentic connections, providing new exposures, song, technology, physical/virtual field trips, science content readings, group projects, referencing previous experiences, evidence-gathering activities, story-telling, comics, trial-and-error opportunities, drawings, writings, and whole-class discussions (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonalize the content by connecting science to relevant or real-world phenomena students can relate to and include examples from the students\u0026rsquo; culture (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop reciprocal learning experiences through inquiry activities and by giving up some authority (Lanier \u0026amp; Glasson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncorporate the \u0026ldquo;funds of knowledge\u0026rdquo; from the community and students into instruction while harnessing a constructivist view by building from what students already know (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUtilize a variety of authentic assessment opportunities and tools; provide specific feedback and positive reinforcement (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eScience learning should be fun and incorporate laughter (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage students to make sense of the science content by making their own connections from prior experiences (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncorporate opportunities for students to be involved in decision-making, specifically in science content, forms of expression, and grouping (Byrd, 2012; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclude opportunities to teach about different cultures regardless of the demographic makeup of the classroom (Byrd, 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInviting community members/parents/guardians into the classroom and encouraging students to share science content with their families (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAddress students\u0026rsquo; science misconceptions by redirecting rather than correcting them (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExhibit and possess a personal interest in science (Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage students to make sense of science ideas/ vocabulary with their own words and use student-friendly wording when introducing science vocabulary (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage students to share what they learn with their families (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e adds to the extant literature on effective CR teacher characteristics by adding effective CR science teacher characteristics. All characteristics fit under the five themes of academics, cultural competency, social inequities, CR learning environment, and the rejection of a deficit lens. A new theme that stands outside of the effective CR science teacher characteristics also emerged since it contains pedagogical strategies, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, effective CR science teachers implement. Both tables provide detailed insight into effective CR science teachers\u0026rsquo; characteristics and their pedagogical strategies. This information provides researchers with themes substantiated by examples for future evaluation of science teachers. But there is also a need to analyze the CR science teacher development studies found in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRather than uncovering the effective CR science teacher characteristics and strategies, the ten CR science teacher development studies in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e sought to increase CR science teaching in either preservice or in-service teachers. These studies shared one major similarity, intentional planning and teaching CR science lessons. But they went about their studies in unique ways, giving future researchers a large sample of methodologies. Johnson and Fargo (2012) compared the state science assessments of 4th through 6th graders, half in the test and half in the control schools. For the students in the test school, the ten elementary teachers received professional development over the two years. Four other studies, Johnson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Goldson and Nichols (2009), Nam et al. (2012), and Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e), also utilized professional development of in-service teachers. Still, they did not use student academic achievement in science as an indicator. The remaining five studies, Bottoms et al. (2017), Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e), Hernandez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), Burgess et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and Mensah (2011), focused on preservice teachers. In summary, six focused on preservice science teachers, and four focused on in-service science teachers. Of the preservice teacher participant studies, four were elementary science teachers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn additional unique theme of science-specific CR teachers emerged through the seven CR science teacher development studies utilized in the second meta-analysis. Bottoms et al. (2017), Hernandez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and Mensah (2011) describes the need for reflection in their outcomes. For Bottoms et al. (2017), the Family Math and Science Night provided time for the preservice science elementary teachers (PSETs) to reflect on their lessons. Thus strengthening their conceptualization of CR teaching. The need for reflection was listed as an outcome for Hernandez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), stating a need for professional development to include post-lesson debriefing for the participating teachers. This need was also expressed in Mensah\u0026rsquo;s (2011) outcomes in relation to PSETs. Through this meta-analysis, a new list of six themes of CR science teacher characteristics, effective CR science teacher pedagogical strategies, and the various methods for the development of CR science teacher studies provide a cohesive overview of current CR science teaching studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results And Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the literature review, several holes emerged. First, there were a limited number of elementary science teacher studies, one on the effective characteristics of CR science teachers and four on the development of effective CR science teachers for a total of five out of the grand sum of fourteen. As an elementary science methods instructor, the lack of studies regarding preservice elementary teachers is problematic. The lack of a cohesive language within CR science teachers and teaching research proved to be another hurdle. As demonstrated in the article selection, most of the research does not explicitly address cultural relevance or responsiveness. A larger number of articles instead referenced \u0026ldquo;equity, diversity, migrants, English Language Learners (ELL) and urban or indigenous populations.\u0026rdquo; Though these studies are grounded in the complexities of culture in education, they were not conducted through the CR lens. Thus, they do not address the standards set out in the CR teacher characteristics. The remaining science-specific CR studies lack one evaluation model and how to explicitly address the development of these characteristics and strategies. To address the holes revealed during the meta-analysis of the fourteen CR science studies, examples from the studies will be linked to the six themes of CR teacher characteristics in addition to the science-specific themes of pedagogy and reflection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAcademics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademically, Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) and Milner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) state the importance of CR teachers addressing the academic needs of their students. This was mirrored by the science-specific studies seeking effective CR characteristics since all four articles stressed the importance of high expectations for all students (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Xu et al., 2012). Though Wallace and Brand (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) did not explicitly address high expectations, they discussed preparing students with real-world skills and holding every student accountable for learning the science content. Yet, only one of the eleven current CR science studies addressed student academic success as one of the research goals. Johnson and Fargo\u0026rsquo;s (2014) study found that 50% of students in the test school with teachers receiving professional development scored proficient in science, while only 31% reached a level of proficient in the control school. By the end of the second year, students in the 67% at the test school were proficient compared to only 29% at the control school (Johnson \u0026amp; Fargo, 2014). Five other CR science teacher development studies stressed the importance of teachers having high expectations for all students (Bottoms et al., 2017; Brown \u0026amp; Crippen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e; Hernandez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson, 2010; Mensah, 2011). Related to academics is the science content itself. Johnson and Fargo (2014) argue that for successful CR professional development to occur, there must be a clear science-content connection. The importance of science content was also addressed in the outcomes by Nam et al. (2012). Specifically, the teacher participants in the three-year professional development were challenged by the connection of CR to the science content. The other nine studies do not address academics in the strategy or the outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultural competency\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast to the academic theme, the cultural competency theme emerged in all but one of the eleven CR science teacher development studies. These are directly linked to Gay\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) characteristic of CR teachers developing a knowledge base of their students\u0026rsquo; culture. For the CR science teacher characteristic studies, three discussed topics which fall under the theme of cultural competency. Specifically, effective CR science teachers must get to know each student as an individual, learn about students\u0026rsquo; communities and avoid stereotyping by relating to students on a personal level instead (Byrd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014). Within the CR science teacher development studies, Goldston and Nichols (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) required six middle school teachers to create a photo narrative of their students\u0026rsquo; community. This resulted in an increase in teachers\u0026rsquo; cultural knowledge of their students and their students\u0026rsquo; communities. Bottoms et al. (2017) focused a great deal on topics under the cultural competency theme. Explicitly, preservice teachers need time and support to deal with the emotions associated with identifying current beliefs about differing cultures (Bottoms et al., 2017). Preservice teachers need to, according to Bottoms et al. (2017), take the time to learn about the student\u0026rsquo;s culture and how to include specific cultural references in the science content. The importance of involving the students\u0026rsquo; families and communities was also stressed by several of the studies (Bottoms et al., 2017; Burgess et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Hernandez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Building K-12 students\u0026rsquo; social competency, awareness of other cultures, and valuing these cultural differences in the classroom was evident in the studies by Mensah (2011), Johnson, C.C. (2010), and Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e). Nam et al. (2012) pointed to the direct implications of the lack of cultural knowledge and the need for current teachers to learn their students\u0026rsquo; knowledge and beliefs in order to implement CR strategies. In agreeance with this need, Mensah\u0026rsquo;s (2011) research outcomes state that preservice elementary science teachers need time to research the particular students and community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocial inequities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth Ladson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and Gay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) determine that CR teachers must be aware of social inequalities outside and within the classroom. These inequalities then need to be addressed within the curriculum (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Agreeing with the extant literature, Wallace and Brand (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) discussed the importance of effective CR science teachers to develop a critical view of teaching situated within the sociocultural context. Byrd (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Lanier and Glosson (2014) took it a step further by stating effective CR science teachers use class time to acknowledge and address issues of social inequities. Six of the eleven CR science teacher development studies align with this theme. Johnson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a three-year professional development with two middle school science teachers. As a result, the teachers were made more aware of the continued institutional inequities within the district and school. Johnson states the importance of this awareness in teachers (2011). Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e) stress the importance for teachers to not only acknowledge social inequities but to teach within the current sociocultural climate. The remaining four CR science teacher development studies encourage teachers to help develop a critical awareness of social inequities their students may encounter and then address these experiences within the context of the science content, pushing students to develop solutions and focus on community assets rather than deficits (Brown and Crippen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e; Goldson and Nichols, 2009; Hernandez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Mensah, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCR learning environment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA learning environment that is culturally inclusive encourages students to feel a sense of belonging and seeks to build relationships on trust, which are all characteristics of a CR learning environment (Gay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Milner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). All four of the effective CR science teacher characteristic studies echo the extant literature, stating CR science teachers demonstrate care and respect for all students while being patient and tolerant (Lanier \u0026amp; Glosson, 2014; Wallace \u0026amp; Brand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., 2012). Byrd (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) stresses the importance of valuing students\u0026rsquo; experiences outside of the classroom and encouraging opportunities for students to share. Of the ten CR science teacher development studies, eight addressed the CR learning environment in either their strategy or their outcomes. Johnson and Fargo (2014) were the least specific, stating there is a need to focus on the learning environment but without specific guidelines. Bottoms et al. (2017), Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e), and Johnson (2010) found that the community needs to be connected through active partnerships as well. Furthermore, the classroom must function as a community as well (Brown \u0026amp; Crippen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e). Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e) were more specific in regard to the learning environment, expressing that CR learning environments encourage student communication, collaboration, respect for all, and with the teacher expressing care for every student. Uniquely, Hernandez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) encouraged the use of K-12 students\u0026rsquo; native language in the classroom. Burges et al. (2018) presented their outcomes from two different perspectives, those of the PSTs and those of the TEs. The PSTs, stressed the importance of supporting the culture and community of the students within the classroom (Burges et al., 2018). For TE\u0026rsquo;s, they discovered the need to listen to PSTs, meet their needs and view them as collaborators in addition to valuing their cultural and community wealth in the classroom. Mirroring this sentiment, Nam et al. (2012) found that CR teachers must view learning as reciprocal, and they must value the students\u0026rsquo; community resources and input. All these studies demonstrate a need to focus on the learning environment and not just the science teacher characteristics and strategies when evaluating effective CR examples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRejection of deficit lens\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLadson-Billings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) expressed the need for students to reject the societal deficit lens. Connected to this goal are the perspectives of teachers. Although the deficit lens is not explicitly addressed in the four effective CR teacher characteristic studies, three express sentiments reflecting an asset-based approach to teaching. Byrd (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) found that CR science teachers value their students\u0026rsquo; practical and intellectual resources, while Lanier \u0026amp; Gloss (2014) and Wallace and Brand (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) state that all CR science teachers have a belief that their students have valuable abilities. Three of the ten CR science teacher development studies explicitly addressed the deficit lens. Bottoms et al. (2017) and Burgess et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) stated that PSTs need to emphasize asset over deficit views. Brown and Crippen\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e) outcomes were grouped into four themes. One of these themes specifically addresses the preservice teachers\u0026rsquo; views by focusing on the resources from their K-12 students\u0026rsquo; backgrounds (Brown and Crippen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e). The CR science teacher must adopt and model an asset lens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePedagogical Strategies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first discovered theme unique to science-specific CR studies is pedagogy. This becomes apparent since, out of the ten CR science teacher development studies, all address pedagogy. Many of the effective CR strategies exemplified in the effective CR science teacher characteristic studies are also present. For instance, CR science teachers must build from what their K-12 students already know, engage students in inquiry and/or experiential learning experiences and connect the science content to real-world concepts students can relate to (Brown and Crippen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e; Hernandez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson \u0026amp; Fargo, 2014; Mensah, F.M., 2011). Goldson and Nichols (2009) stress the importance of bridging students\u0026rsquo; culture and science content, specifically by utilizing the K-12 community. Uniquely, Johnson and Fargo (2011) stress the importance of including opportunities for argumentation in science. In contrast, Hernandez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) discuss promoting critical thinking in K-12 students with the incorporation of hands-on activities, teacher modeling, and visual aids. Critical and creative thinking were topics within Johnson\u0026rsquo;s (2010) study, specifically with a focus on literacy and language strategies. Collaboration between K-12 students and the use of open-ended questions were other prominent CR science teaching strategies in the CR science teacher development studies (Bottoms et al., 2017; Burgess et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Mensah F.M., 2011). Teacher flexibility and dual learning (teacher and K-12 students) were exemplified by Bottoms et al. (2017), Burgess et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e and Brown and Crippen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e). In two studies, Burgess et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Nam et al. (2012) discussed the success of utilizing local spaces outside of the classroom to bridge experiences outside of the community with the science content. Their place-based science inquiry promoted reciprocal learning between the teachers and K-12 students while making the science content more meaningful to all (Burgess et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; Nam et al., 2012). Based on these exemplified pedagogical strategies, the teacher must have knowledge of the students. That includes the students\u0026rsquo; culture. Thus, there exists a bit of an overlap between cultural competency and individualized instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eReflection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother unique aspect of the CR science teacher development studies was the time preservice science teachers need to reflect on current and future practices, especially in relation to effective CR science teaching. Four CR science teacher development studies expressed the need for the participants to have time to reflect on their lessons. In the case of the Family Math and Science Nights, PSTs used their reflections to adapt their lessons for the following events (Bottoms et al., 2016a). This is similar to the discussion by Burgess et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Mensah (2011), who stated that the preservice science teachers needed time to reflect on their current CR strategies in order to plan for future lessons. Goldson and Nichols\u0026rsquo; (2009) use of photo narratives made reflection crucial to the professional development process. Missing from their study, the need for the inclusion of post-teaching debriefing, or reflection, was stated by Hernandez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, Brown and Crippen\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e) study with PST participants indicated a need for more explicit lesson planning based on field observations. Though reflection is not explicitly stated here, the importance is evident in the reflective nature of effective lesson planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome limitations of this work include the following:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited representation: Many of the studies included in a meta-analysis of culturally responsive teaching may be limited to certain populations or geographic regions. This can make it difficult to generalize the findings to other contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariability in intervention: There may be considerable variability in how culturally responsive teaching is implemented across different studies, which can make it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions about the effectiveness of the approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubjectivity in measurement: Measuring the effectiveness of culturally responsive teaching can be challenging, as it often relies on subjective measures of student engagement, motivation, and achievement. This subjectivity can make it difficult to compare results across studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublication bias: The studies included in a meta-analysis may be subject to publication bias, which occurs when studies with positive results are more likely to be published than those with negative or inconclusive results. This can lead to an overestimation of the effectiveness of culturally responsive teaching.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of consensus on a definition: Despite the widespread interest in culturally responsive teaching, there is still a lack of consensus on how it should be defined and operationalized. This can make it challenging to compare and synthesize research findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion And Implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eEffective CR elementary science teachers are necessary for increasing all students, regardless of culture and ethnicity, interest in science in order to promote student enrollment in additional science courses at the postsecondary level (Maltese and Tai, 2010). The first step in this process is to engage all students when delivering science content in K-12 schools. This requires teacher preparation institutions, especially within preservice elementary teacher programs, to include effective CR science teaching characteristics and pedagogical practice building within the curriculum. But, as this meta-analysis demonstrates, there are limited studies on effective elementary science teacher characteristics and practices. This meta-analysis included studies from middle-level and high school level schools in addition to CR science teacher development studies to address this gap in the literature. From this, explicit characteristics which are unified under five cohesive themes and specific CR science teacher pedagogical practices became apparent. The findings from each meta-analysis can be utilized independently or in unison to further future CR elementary science teacher studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, by defining a clear picture of effective CR science teacher characteristics, future studies will not only be more cohesive but will also offer a clear methodological path. The five cohesive themes with the examples from the four effective CR science teacher studies offer a snapshot of characteristics future researchers can look for. In addition, the effective CR science teacher pedagogical practices exemplified within these four studies give practical examples current teachers can utilize to build CR elementary science teaching within their own classrooms. They also provide researchers with a practical list for classroom observations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the development of CR elementary science teachers, each of the five themes and the pedagogical practices of effective CR elementary science teachers needs to be explicitly addressed in the research method. By doing so, the outcomes should reflect a positive increase in these desired characteristics. Additionally, by connecting the desired characteristics to practical strategies, the teachers become the basis for evaluation rather than the student outcome, which, as Aronson and Laughter (2016) point out, may be inherently biased when student scores are used since the testing instruments themselves are often biased. Thus, with a clear evaluation model and CR elementary science teacher methodology, teacher educators (TEs) can develop strategies to systematically address each of the CR science teacher themes and CR pedagogical practices. Through the unification of an evaluation system and methodology, evidence-based strategies will also be discovered, giving all TEs the specific tools needed to cultivate CR elementary science teachers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References ","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrown, J. (2017). A meta-synthesis of the compementarity of culturally responsive and inquiry-based science education in K-12 settings: Implications for advancing equitable science teaching and learning. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Research in Science Teaching. 54(9)\u003c/em\u003e, 1143-1173.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrown, J., \u0026amp; Crippen, K. (2016a). 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(2014). \u003cem\u003eNational Science Teaching Association NSTA\u003c/em\u003e. Retrieved from About the Next Generation Science Standards: ngss.nsta.org/about.aspx\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Hunt Institute. (2014). \u003cem\u003eMoving forward: State engagement with the Next Generation Science Standards.\u003c/em\u003e Hunt Institute. Retrieved from Moving Forward: State Engagement with the Next Generation Science Standards.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTimulak, L. (2009). Meta-analysis of qualitative studies: A tool for reviewing qualitative research findings in psychotherapy. \u003cem\u003ePsychotherapy Research 19(4-5)\u003c/em\u003e, 591-600.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWallace, T., \u0026amp; Brand, B. (2012). Using critical race theory to analyze science teachers culturally responsive practices. \u003cem\u003eCultural Studies of Science Education\u003c/em\u003e, 341-374.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, J., \u0026amp; Coats, L. \u0026amp;. (2012). Promoting student interest in science: The perspectives of exemplary African American teachers. \u003cem\u003eAmerican Educational Research Journal. 49(1)\u003c/em\u003e, 124-154.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cultural-studies-of-science-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"csse","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cultural Studies of Science Education](http://link.springer.com/journal/11422)","snPcode":"11422","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11422/3","title":"Cultural Studies of Science Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"culturally responsive teaching, meta-analysis, science, elementary, education","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2648740/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2648740/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study utilizes the meta-analysis method described by Timulak (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) to create a more cohesive understanding of culturally responsive (CR) science teaching. This phenomenon is explored by defining the characteristics of CR teaching from the extant literature and comparing those characteristics to current CR science teaching studies with a focus on the elementary level. Six themes emerge from the selected studies, representing both the extant literature and the current CR science teaching studies. As this study demonstrates, additional themes of CR science teaching are not represented in the extant literature. Additionally, no one study addresses all six themes. This paper will make the argument to include these six themes in future studies, which will result in more cohesive findings and lead to evidence-based strategies for implementing CR teaching in elementary preservice teacher settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Culturally responsive elementary science teaching: A meta-analysis of current science teaching studies and implications","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2023-03-07 14:10:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2648740/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2023-09-13T21:50:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2023-07-27T18:14:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9d04149b-ec49-4b0a-9b0c-12afe51f51ff","date":"2023-07-17T04:16:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2023-07-12T15:13:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2023-07-12T05:34:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2023-03-03T08:37:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Cultural Studies of Science Education","date":"2023-03-02T19:09:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cultural-studies-of-science-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"csse","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cultural Studies of Science Education](http://link.springer.com/journal/11422)","snPcode":"11422","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11422/3","title":"Cultural Studies of Science Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1f0ec416-46ed-4656-ab8c-66569b30605f","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 7th, 2023","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-30T16:07:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-2648740","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-024-10222-6","journal":{"identity":"cultural-studies-of-science-education","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Cultural Studies of Science Education"},"publishedOn":"2024-09-23 15:58:09","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 23rd, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2023-03-07 14:10:38","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11422-024-10222-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-024-10222-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2648740","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2648740","identity":"rs-2648740","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"WrCJVZZCHTDjtuVLN7oU0","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}