Valorisation of waste lignocellulosic biomass into UV-absorbing lignin: comparative extraction and characterization

Valorisation of waste lignocellulosic biomass into UV-absorbing lignin: comparative extraction and characterization | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Valorisation of waste lignocellulosic biomass into UV-absorbing lignin: comparative extraction and characterization Yogeshwar Vats, Rashid Mumtaz Khan, Sayed Sartaj Sohrab, Bhupendra Pratap Singh This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8939430/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Agro-industrial lignocellulosic waste streams are widely available and under-utilised sources of biomass which can be valorised for the production of high-value bio-derived materials. The non-edible aromatic biopolymer lignin holds great prospects as a renewable UV-protective agent for safer and sustainable applications such as coatings and agri-food packaging. Methods Lignin was isolated from four lignocellulosic substrates including wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust and eucalyptus sawdust by the Klason lignin process. In addition, FTIR was used to detect functional groups (guaiacyl, syringyl, carbonyl) of the isolated lignins; XRD for fundamental structure determination, TGA for thermal stability and UV–Vis spectroscopy by which the absorbance of UV radiation was analysed including UV-B spectrum area (290–320 nm), compared with TiO₂ and ZnO). Results Lignin yield Bamboo sawdust showed the highest lignin yield (24.11%) and was followed by eucalyptus (21.42%), wheat straw (17.31%), and cotton stalk (15.25%). FTIR demonstrated consistent lignin-associated aromatic and carbonyl functionalities in all samples, however XRD showed differential structural changes of the lignins. The TGA results presented a higher thermal stability for bamboo and eucalyptus lignins, with the other two lignins beginning to decompose at temperatures below 250°C. Moreover, the absorbance in UV range was analyzed by UV–Vis and it has been observed that bamboo lignin has strong absorption in UV region; particularly compared to the absorbance of TiO₂ and ZnO under tested conditions due to its higher absorbance toward UV-B at wavelengths ranging from 290 to 320 nm. Conclusion The results reveal a potential biomass and waste valorization route for functional lignin production from agro-industrial wastes, in which bamboo sawdust is identified as an exceptional feedstock mainly due to its high yield, thermal stability and excellent UV-blocking capability. This research paves a way towards the growth of safer and renewable UV absorbing materials and is also built upon socially solid and environmentally responsible practices helping humanity and the planet. Physical sciences/Engineering Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Materials science Lignin Agri-food residues Biomass valorization UV-blocking biopolymer Sustainable agriculture Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Lignin is an intricate biomacromolecule that plays an important role in the plant cell wall in structural support and defense mechanisms. It is the second-most-abundant biopolymer on the planet, surpassed only by cellulose [ 1 ] . Lignin is mostly found in the main cell walls of plant vascular tissue. It provides rigidity, toughness, and impermeability to water and pathogens. It is mainly made up of three basic monolignol subunits: p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol. These monolignols are polymerized for incorporation into the lignin polymer as p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G) and syringyl (S) units that are bonded together by different forms of chemical bonds to create the complex lignin structure [ 2 , 3 , 4 ] . Lignin structure is very heterogeneous, mainly because of the oxidative bonding of the monolignols in the lignification process. Additionally, the existence of functional groups such as hydroxyl, methoxyl, and carbonyl groups enhances the chemical composition of lignin [ 5 ] , forming a complex, irregular three-dimensional structure [ 3 ] . Lignin is a heterogeneous material that is difficult to characterize and analyze. Nevertheless, the development of spectroscopic and microspectroscopic technologies has played a significant role in understanding lignin structure and composition. Moreover, lignin composition may differ among plant sources. For example, the lignin structures of softwood and hardwood species vary, for example, with high levels of specific monolignols and linkages [ 6 , 7 ] , making it a highly flexible biopolymer with numerous potential uses in sustainable biomass applications. Traditionally, lignin has been considered a waste product in both pulping and bioethanol production. Nonetheless, in recent years, with insights into the structure and composition of lignin, the focus on the valorisation of lignin to produce renewable chemicals and biofuels has increased, creating an appealing feedstock for several applications and generating interest in research in this sphere [ 1 , 8 ] . Its extraction and utilisation can make biomass conversion processes more economically viable and sustainable and have the positive impact of converting renewable resources into a more efficient and less harmful use. Lignin as a significant part of biomass can be easily isolated and reclaimed in the biomass fractionation process and further used [ 9 , 10 ] . These processes entail various pretreatment and separation methods. Techniques commonly used for lignin isolation include dilute acid pretreatment, alkaline extraction, and organosolv procedures [ 11 , 12 ] . These techniques facilitate the separation of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose by streamlining the arrangement of lignocellulosic biomass. Using these chemical and biochemical processes, lignin can be converted into several highly valuable chemicals, such as phenols, aromatic compounds, and platform chemicals [ 1 , 8 ] . This will reduce dependence on fossil fuels and help build a more environmentally friendly and sustainable economy. Biofuels derived from lignin have also become a potentially viable alternative to fossil fuels and can be depolymerised and transformed into liquid biofuels, including bio-oil, which can be converted into transportation fuels. The use of lignin-based biofuels reduces greenhouse gas emissions and provides a renewable and sustainable source of energy. When lignin is used in other processes, including biomaterials and biofuels, it helps retain carbon that would otherwise be emitted into the atmosphere [ 10 , 12 ] . There are numerous other applications of lignin beyond liquid biofuels, including its use in the materials and energy industries and environmental applications. The most evident of these properties is that lignin exhibits a very high UV absorption capacity, which we discuss in this research paper. Many applications have shown interest in lignin-based materials as effective UV absorbers, including sunscreens, coatings, and plastics as additives, because of this property [ 13 , 14 , 15 ] . The UV absorption properties of lignin can be attributed to its aromatic structure and the presence of conjugated π-bonds within its chemical composition [ 16 ] . The aromatic rings of lignin can absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which can damage the skin and cause cancer. This supports the idea that lignin can be used as a component of sunscreens and other products to prevent UV radiation. The conjugated pi-bonds caused by the overlapping of the p-orbitals in the aromatic rings help capture UV light over a wide range of wavelengths. Therefore, as a renewable resource, lignin can be an important feedstock for the manufacture of renewable chemicals and sustainable materials and can open the door to various industries by examining the opportunities it offers through UV absorption. The objectives of this study are (i) extraction of lignin from wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust, and eucalyptus sawdust using optimized Klason technique, (ii) describe the structural and thermal properties of lignin, and (ii) compare the efficacy of a UV absorber to the traditional UV filters (TiO 2 and ZnO) with a view to identifying more sustainable alternatives to UV filters. In this study, the Klason Lignin isolating process was utilised to extract lignin from four biomasses, and isolating the lignin made it possible to thoroughly characterise the structure and functionality of the lignin, which is necessary to determine its capacity as a sustainable UV-blocking agent. Furthermore, lignin extraction is a crucial goal in biorefinery operations, as it facilitates the separation and valorization of distinct biomass components, namely cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, all of which may be used to achieve various high-value uses [ 17 ] . The lignin isolated was particularly studied in terms of its capacity to absorb UV rays and was compared with the cross-feedstock to find the most promising source of eco-friendly UV-protective materials. Four biomass sources, wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo, and eucalyptus (hardwood), were selected based on their lignin composition and availability. Wheat straw and cotton stalks are agricultural residues with lower lignin content and high availability, whereas bamboo (woody grass) and eucalyptus (hardwood) are lignin-rich woody biomasses with different monolignol ratios (high syringyl units in hardwoods) [ 18 , 19 ] . This diversity can be used to assess the UV-blocking potential of lignin in different biomass types, which has not been done previously, which concentrated on individual feedstocks [ 20 , 21 , 22 ] . In addition, all four biomasses are indigenously available in India (Table S1 ), and the high and widespread availability of these biomasses not only ensures a sustainable and economical supply of raw materials for lignin extraction but also enhances the practical relevance of this research for developing scalable, eco-friendly UV-blocking materials in alignment with sustainable resource utilisation goals [ 24 , 25 ] . The selection of these four particular biomasses will also promote the concept of "closing the loop" within the circular economy framework and facilitate the advancement of lignin-based products derived from agricultural residues and processes, fostering collaboration and innovation within the economy and paving the way for an environmentally friendly future [ 1 , 10 , 12 , 26 ] . The continuous exploration of lignin properties and the development of innovative technologies will unlock new avenues for its sustainable utilisation and contribute to a greener future. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Chemicals Sulphuric acid (98.08% pure), Sodium Hydroxide pellets, N-N, and Dimethyl formamide were acquired from HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd. (Mumbai, India). Whatman Filter papers (Diameter-125mm) were procured from GE Healthcare Life Sciences (Bangalore, India). Millipore water was used in all experiments for cleaning, rinsing, and other biomass activities. 2.2 Biomass Collection and Pre-treatment Biomasses of two agricultural residues, viz., (1) Wheat straw (WS) and (2) Cotton stalk (CS) were collected from nearby fields of Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Bio-Energy (SSS NIBE), Kapurthala, Punjab, India whereas remaining two woody residues (3) Bamboo sawdust (BS) and (4) Eucalyptus sawdust (ES) were collected from the timber processing workshop which lies inside the campus of SSS NIBE. All samples were processed and authenticated at the Chemical Conversion Division (CCD) of the SSS-NIBE, Kapurthala, Punjab, India. Bamboo and eucalyptus sawdust were sourced from Bambusa balcooa and Eucalyptus hybrid varieties, respectively, while the wheat and cotton varieties used were HD 2967 and PAU Bt 2, respectively. All biomass was pre-treated, including an initial water wash followed by a 3-hour drying in a hot-air oven at 70–80°C. The dried biomass was subsequently shredded into small fragments and reduced into a powder (particle size < 1 mm) using a household mixer grinder (Sujata Dynamix 900 Watts Mixer Grinder) (Fig. 2 ). The biomass was preserved in an airtight container at room temperature to prevent moisture absorption. 2.3 Lignin extraction The Klason Lignin Analytical Method was used and refined to separate lignin from each biomass type, as shown in Fig. 1 , according to the experimental setup. The method involved hydrolysing 1 g of dry prepared biomass in 15 mL of a 72% sulfuric acid solution while stirring with a glass rod. The sample was spread out, the beaker was sealed with a watch glass, and the mixture was placed in a water bath at 30°C for 2 h. A 1000 mL flask of water should have 300–400 mL of water added. The material was transferred from the beaker to a flask, and Millipore water was used to dilute the solution to a final volume of 575 mL. The solution was heated in a reflux system for four hours to preserve its volume. Lignin was precipitated by maintaining the flask at a 15° angle for 12 hours. Subsequently, the solution was vacuum-filtered to remove residual acid from the precipitated lignin, followed by multiple washes of the filter with hot water. This approach was utilised to prepare four samples, which were baked for 29 h at 85°C on the lignin-infused filtration paper [ 27 ] . 2.4 Lignin Estimation and Characterization Lignin was isolated from wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust, and eucalyptus sawdust using the Klason Lignin Analytical Method as per the NREL/TP-510-42618 protocol. The lignin yield was determined using Eq. (1) [27]: Lignin’ yield = A × 100/W (1) where Lignin’s yield = lignin content in the wood sample A = Weight of acid-insoluble lignin (g) W = Dry weight of biomass (g) To characterise, each technique uses particular parameters for sample preparation and instruments. Regarding X-ray diffraction (XRD), powdered lignin samples were placed on glass slides which were then analysed using a Panalytical X’ Pert Pro powder diffractometer with a vertical theta-theta goniometer in the 2θ range of 5–80° to determine the crystallinity and amorphous content. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was conducted by adding 200 mg of potassium bromide (KBr) with 2 mg of extracted lignin to create pellets, and a spectrum was recorded using a PerkinElmer Spectrum two spectrometer throughout the range of 400–4000 cm-1 at a resolution of 4 cm-1. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by heating a 5–10 mg lignin sample inside an alumina crucible between 30°C and 800°C at 10°C/min under a nitrogen atmosphere using a PerkinElmer STA 6000 thermal gravimetric analyser. To determine UV absorption using UV-visible spectrophotometry, 10 mg of lignin was solubilised in 25 mL of N, N-dimethylformamide, yielding a concentration of 0.4 mg/mL. The solution was filtered and measured in a PerkinElmer double-beam UV-Vis spectrophotometre between 280 and 400 nm (absorbance values reached 3.2 A). To be consistent in the comparison of the lignin properties using the four biomasses, the characterisation employs systematic analytical techniques to obtain attractive sources of sustainable UV protection and other high-value products. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Estimation of lignin Extracted lignin was investigated in the present study with four different kinds of lignocellulosic biomass (bamboo sawdust, cotton stalk, eucalyptus sawdust and wheat straw), and the yield of lignin was calculated as shown in Eq. (1). The resultant yield was the percentage of lignin recovered from each biomass source after its extraction. Lignin yield was the main factor differentiating the biomass sources. Among the raw materials, bamboo sawdust yielded the highest lignin yield (24.11%). This suggests that bamboo sawdust is a lignin-rich raw material that can efficiently separate lignin. Lignin contents of 15.25%, 21.42%, and 17.31% were recovered from cotton stalks, eucalyptus sawdust and 17.31% from wheat straw, respectively (Table 1 ). Table 1 Variations in the lignin yield among the different biomass sources S.No. Types of waste lignocellulosic biomass Yield of lignin obtained (%) 1. Bamboo sawdust 24.11 2. Eucalyptus sawdust 21.42 3. Wheat straw 17.31 4. Cotton stalk 15.25 The total lignin content was estimated as the aggregate of acid-insoluble lignin (AIL) and acid-soluble lignin (ASL), with ASL derived from literature values for analogous biomasses. ASL typically accounts for 1–4% of the total lignin in herbaceous and woody biomass, depending on the feedstock and hydrolysis conditions. Table 2 presents the measured acid-insoluble lignin, estimated ASL, and estimated total lignin content for each biomass sample. The natural constitution and structure of lignocellulosic biomass sources are responsible for the variability in lignin output, as different biomass sources have varying lignin content within their cellulosic matrix, and the efficiency of the extraction process can also affect the yield. The lower yield of lignin from cotton stalks compared to the other three extracted lignins may be attributed to factors such as the accessibility of lignin within the biomass, the presence of other components such as hemicellulose and cellulose, and the extraction process employed. Table 2 Estimated Acid-soluble lignin (ASL) and estimation of total lignin content for each biomass Biomass Acid-Insoluble Lignin (%) Estimated ASL (%) Estimated Total Lignin (%) Reference Wheat straw 17.31 0.7–2.1 18.0–19.4 [41] [29] Cotton stalk 15.25 0.6–1.8 15.8–17.0 [28] [29] Bamboo sawdust 24.11 1.0–3.0 25.1–27.1 [28] [29] Eucalyptus sawdust 21.42 0.9–2.6 22.3–24.0 [30] [31] 3.2 X-Ray Diffraction XRD analysis was performed to analyse the crystalline structure, molecular arrangement, and orientation of the lignin samples. By subjecting lignin samples to X-ray radiation, XRD measures the scattering pattern of X-rays as they interact with lignin molecules. The crystallinity and structural traits of lignin can be assessed from the produced diffraction pattern. However, lignin is generally considered to be predominantly amorphous. However, lignin can exhibit limited crystallinity in some cases, and its degree of crystallinity is typically lower than that of other biopolymers such as cellulose. The structural analyses of lignins were examined using XRD at 2θ = 5°–80°, the structural analyses of lignins were examined (Fig. 3 ). Lignin shows peaks at 2θ = 31.82° and 45.54°, reflecting its crystalline structure [ 32 ] , while the XRD patterns of our four lignin samples show a weak and slightly broad peak centred around 22.6°, indicating the presence of an amorphous pattern [ 33 ] . Therefore, the amorphous structure of lignin was attributed to the characteristic peak of lignin, which was located at 2θ = 22.6°. 3.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) FTIR spectroscopy was used to characterise the functional groups in lignin samples. The functional group analysis for each of the four lignin types is shown in the third figure: wheat straw lignin, eucalyptus sawdust lignin, cotton stalk lignin, and bamboo sawdust lignin. Figure 4 shows that lignin isolated from waste lignocellulosic biomass has spectra nearly identical to those of commercial lignin, which is consistent with previous research [ 34 , 35 , 36 ] . The presence of hydroxyl, methoxy, and syringlyl was indicated by the existence of peaks in the regions 3300 cm-1, 2900 − 2800(2928) cm-1, and 860 − 830 cm-1 across all spectra, reflecting the presence of the main functional groups in lignins [ 37 ] . The spectrum of extracted lignins, on the other hand, also showed a high-intensity OH band. The high OH intensity may be attributed to hemicellulose that was not completely removed during the fractionation process. All lignins showed a broad band at 3410–3460 cm-1, assigned to hydroxyl groups in phenolic and aliphatic structures, alongside bands at 2938 and 2842 cm-1, primarily due to CH stretching in aromatic methoxyl groups and Methyl and Methylene groups on side chains [ 38 ] . The vibrations of the aromatic framework at 1600 and 1454 cm-1, along with the C-H deformation coupled with the aromatic ring vibration at 1462 cm-1, were observed in all lignins; however, the intensity of the bands differed. The asymmetry and thickening of the stronger bands at 1705 and 1600 cm-1, which are induced by the mild absorptions at approximately 1650 cm-1, may be the result of both protein impurities and water that have been connected to lignin. Owing to the complexity of the bands, which often include contributions from multiple vibration modes, studying the spectral region below 1400 cm-1 is more difficult. This region encompasses vibrations specific to unique monolignol units, facilitating the structural study of lignin [ 39 ] . All lignin samples exhibited spectra in which the vibrations were associated with the guaiacyl unit (1269 cm-1), although the intensities of the bands varied significantly from sample to sample. The pentose and hexose units found in hemicellulose are represented by the C-O-C linkage in the range of 1030–1037 cm-1. The complex vibration following the aromatic C-H deformation at 1035 cm-1 in polysaccharides is characterised by the bending of the C-OH, C-O, and C-C. Vibrations from carbohydrates are also associated with other vibrations in the 1000–1300 cm-1 region of the spectra [ 40 ] . The sample set created for this investigation contained a high lignin concentration, as well as some very small contaminants in the form of protein, water, and hemicellulose, according to the results of the analysis of the main components. 3.4 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) TGA has often been used to assess the thermal stability and degradation of organic polymers in nitrogen. The TGA curves depict the weight-loss rate of the materials as a function of temperature during thermal degradation. The thermal stability assessment of lignin extracted from different sources enables the identification of the best-extracted lignin. Weight loss is indicated by the degradation of the thermal data, and its rate is shown by the first derivative (DTG). The apex of this curve (DTGmax) serves as an indicator of thermal degradation and can be used to assess the thermal stability characteristics of various materials [ 41 ] . The structure of the lignin molecule is mostly composed of aromatic rings with varying branching; these chemical linkages result in a broad range of degradation temperatures ranging from 100 to 800°C [ 42 ] . At 800°C, the production of highly condensed aromatic structures that produce char resulted in 40–45 weight per cent of all lignin samples remaining un-volatilised, as illustrated in Fig. 5 . The degradation of lignin samples is categorised into three phases [ 33 ] . The initial phase of weight reduction occurs between 30–120°C due to the evaporation of absorbed water. The decomposition of carbohydrates in lignin samples generates volatile gases, including CO, CO2, and CH4, during stage two, which occurs at temperatures ranging from 180 to 350°C. At temperatures above 350°C, the deterioration reached its climax. At this stage, gaseous components and degraded volatile lignin components, such as phenolics, alcohols, and aldehyde acids, are removed. Thermal degradation, as shown by the TGA curve, did not begin until a certain amount of heat energy was absorbed by the materials. Heat activated the structural breakdown and degradation processes, resulting in the disintegration of the molecular chains. It is probable that the source of lignin has an impact on its thermal properties. Overall, the char output and thermal stability of lignin extracted from bamboo sawdust were the highest (41.1%), followed by those of lignin extracted from eucalyptus sawdust (39.22%), wheat straw (38.04%), and cotton stalk (36.45%). According to Fig. 6 , DTGmax ranged from 380 to 400°C for all lignin samples. This area is likely to experience pyrolytic deterioration. Inter-unit connections are broken during this breakdown process, and monomers and phenol derivatives are released into vapour phase. At temperatures beyond 500°C, aromatic rings begin to disintegrate, which is another connection to the process [ 42 , 44 ] . 3.5 UV-Visible Spectrophotometry The UV absorbance properties of the lignin samples were assessed using UV-visible spectrophotometry. The obtained spectra showed strong UV absorption, indicating the presence of conjugated chromophores in the lignin samples. This analytical method entails comparing the amounts of distinct wavelengths of UV or visible light absorbed or transmitted by a sample against those of a reference or blank sample. This light-based method requires a constant broadband light source. A single xenon lamp is commonly used as a high-intensity light source in both the UV and visible spectra. Figure 7 compares the lignin absorption of cotton, wheat, bamboo, and eucalyptus straws. According to this study, bamboo sawdust lignin is the best, with the highest absorption in the UV-B and UV-A regions, with the best UV-B absorbance (maximum at 290 nm). This is consistent with the research evidence on the general UV absorbance of lignin, driven by its aromatic and conjugated phenolic structures, which efficiently dissipate UV energy through π-π* transitions. In particular, the absorption of lignin in the UV-B region (280–320 nm) is associated with the syringyl-to-guaiacyl (S/G) ratio, with syringyl-rich lignins, which have a higher rate of electron delocalisation, exhibiting the ability to block UV-B [18, 50]. The lignin of cotton stalk, Wheat and Eucalyptus also had the highest and lowest absorption at UV-B and UV-A, respectively, as shown in Table 1 and the absorption spectrum ranges of these four types of lignin. 3.6 Comparative Analysis of UV Absorbance Properties of Different Types of Lignin To further assess their potential as UV-blocking substances, the UV absorbance qualities of four extracted lignin samples were compared with those of conventional metal oxides, including titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO). This analysis highlights the advantages of lignin, including its biodegradability, availability, affordability, and non-toxic nature, making it an attractive alternative to metal oxides for UV protection. Inorganic UV filters made of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide work by scattering, reflecting, and/or absorbing UV radiation to prevent DNA damage in skin cells. While titanium dioxide offers full-spectrum protection from UV light (280–400 nm) and has an absorbance profile that covers a wide range of the UV spectrum, ensuring significant protection [ 46 , 50 ] , the ZnO protective range is maximised in the UVA spectrum [ 51 ] , serving as an adjunct to UVB filters, thereby enabling formulations that deliver comprehensive all-day protection. As shown in Table 3 , bamboo sawdust and cotton straw lignin exhibited the highest UV-B absorbance, followed by wheat straw, while eucalyptus sawdust lignin showed negligible absorbance. Table 4 presents a direct comparison of the UV-B and UV-A absorbance of these lignin samples with traditional metal oxide UV filters, demonstrating that bamboo lignin’s UV-B absorbance at 290 nm (24.11% yield) surpasses that of TiO₂ and ZnO, which typically show peak absorptions at 300–350 nm and 370 nm, respectively [ 18 ] . These results indicate that bamboo lignin is a viable, sustainable alternative to synthetic UV filters, consistent with the literature showing that the addition of 5–10 wt% lignin in sunscreen formulations can increase SPF by 40–100% through synergistic effects with organic UV absorbers [ 18 , 26 ] . Table 3 UV-B and UV-A absorbance ranges of lignin extracted from different lignocellulosic biomass sources. S.No. Type of Lignin UV-B Absorbance Range UV-A Absorbance Range 1. Bamboo Sawdust lignin 2.69–2.30 High 2.30–0.69 2. Cotton Straw lignin 2.69–2.30 High 1.88 − 0.57 3. Wheat Straw lignin 2.00–1.53 Significant 1.50–0.52 4. Eucalyptus Sawdust lignin 0.19 − 0.06 (Negligible) 0.06 to -0.11 (Negligible) Table 4 Comparison of UV-B and UV-A absorbance of extracted lignin samples and literature-derived values for traditional metal oxide UV filters Material UV-B Absorbance UV-A Absorbance Titanium dioxide * (1.3) (1.3 − 0.2) Zinc oxide ** (0.8 − 0.7) (0.7 − 0.6) Bamboo Sawdust lignin (2.69–2.30) (2.30–0.69) Cotton Straw lignin (2.69–2.30) (1.88 − 0.61) Wheat Straw lignin (2.00-1.53) (1.50–0.52) Eucalyptus Sawdust lignin (0.19 − 0.06) Negligible (0.06 to -0.11) Negligible Note: TiO₂ and ZnO data sourced from [46] and [47] , respectively, as these materials were not experimentally tested in this study. Lignin data are original measurements. * [46] ** [47] 3.7 Implications of Results and Practical Applications In this study, lignin was separated from four rich sources of Indian biomass, and their structural and functional characteristics were different, as evidenced by extensive characterisation. It is remarkable that bamboo sawdust lignin showed the best yield (24.11%) and UV absorbance in the UV-B region, which is also connected with a higher percentage of syringyl units shown by FTIR analysis [ 21 , 51 ] . This implies that lignin derived from bamboo can be especially useful as a natural UV-blocker UV-protective coating in food packaging and non-food packaging, such as sunscreen and windows, providing a sustainable alternative to synthetic filters (Table S2) [ 18 , 51 , 52 ] . The fact that we obtained such results and not as was in the case of earlier research which concentrated either on single feedstocks or commercial lignins, brings into focus the role of feedstock selection in the functioning of lignin as an optimiser [ 19 , 51 ] . However, due to their low yields and low UV absorbance compared to the other two lignins, wheat straw and cotton stalk lignin exhibited poor performance, but their thermal stability trends indicate that these lignins can be utilised in non-combustible bio-composites. To provide the practical context of the importance of our findings, Tables 5 and 6 summarise important previous research on lignin extraction from various lignocellulosic biomasses and their reported use as UV filters. As shown in Tables 5 and 6 , previous studies have mainly focused on a single biomass type or applied alternative extraction methods that have not been directly compared in terms of UV-blocking capability. Conversely, our work systematically compares four sources of rich Indian biomasses using a standardised Klason technique, providing novel information on how to create sustainable UV-protective materials based on feedstock choice. Table 5 This summary provides a concise overview of the key findings and differences from your work in each study. S.No. Country Key Findings How Our Work Differs References 1 Japan Lignin-derived carbon quantum dots (CQDs) from bamboo waste show strong fluorescence and high Fe³⁺ sensitivity. Focus on CQDs from Moso bamboo waste, not UV filter properties. [53] 2 China Efficient lignin extraction from wheat straw using a deep eutectic solvent with high purity and extraction efficiency. The focus on lignin extraction from wheat straw, lacks details on UV filter applications. [54] 3 Portugal Levulinic acid-based solvents provide superior lignin extraction efficiency and selectivity. Focus on solvent-based lignin extraction for fractionation, not specifically for UV filter use. [55] 4 Greece Isolated and characterized lignin from hydrothermally pretreated forestry and agro-industrial waste biomass. Focus on surface lignin extraction from biomass, potential for UV filter applications. [56] 5 China Developed UV-blocking composite films using spruce Kraft lignin and nanocellulose. Focus on UV-blocking films, highlighting lignin's potential as a UV filter. [45] 6 Nigeria Lignin extraction from brewers' spent grain (BSG) using acid solutions, with high sulfuric acid yield. Lignin's structural properties suggest potential UV filter applications. [57] 7 USA Lignin enhances UV protection in polymer coatings, with 93% UV blocking efficiency. Lignin from softwood/hardwood as a UV-protective additive in coatings. [58] 8 China Lignin decolorization for natural sunscreen application due to UV-absorbing properties. Decolorized alkali lignin shows potential for natural sunscreen application. [59] 9 China Ultrafiltration-based lignin extraction yielding UV-blocking nanoparticles with 95% UVB absorption. Focus on UV-blocking nanoparticles for eco-friendly sunscreens. [60] 10 USA Lignin extraction from pine sawdust and pistachio shells, yielding phenolic monomers. Focus on lignin extraction from pine/pistachio for phenolic compounds, not UV filter use. [61] 11 Mexico Optimized lignin extraction from sugarcane bagasse using deep eutectic solvents. Focus on lignin extraction from sugarcane bagasse, potential for UV filter applications. [62] 12 China Lignin extraction from corncob residue using deep eutectic solvent for nanoparticle preparation. Focus on lignin nanoparticle preparation from corncob for potential UV filter use. [63] 13 Estonia Protic ionic liquids (PILs) for environmentally friendly lignin extraction from ash tree. Lignin's properties suggest potential use as a UV filter. [64] 14 China Lignin from aspen, poplar, and corn stover improves UV-blocking properties in composite films. Biomass-derived lignin enhances UV-blocking in films without compromising other properties. [65] 15 Thailand BG-lignin from sugarcane bagasse enhances UV absorption in PLA composite films. Significant UV absorption in PLA films, making it a promising UV filter. [66] 16 China Identified lignin structural features that enhance UV protection. Study explores structure-activity relationship for UV protection from lignocellulosic biomass. [67] 17 India Lignin from invasive weeds with high thermal stability and molecular weight. Lignin extraction from invasive weeds shows potential for UV filter application. [68] 18 China Delignified corncob residue used for biodegradable UV-blocking films. Focus on UV-blocking films from lignin extracted from corncob residue. [69] 19 Thailand Spherical lignin particles (SLPs) from softwood kraft lignin improve UV shielding in PVA films. SLPs incorporated in PVA films show potential for UV protection. [70] 20 Korea Light-colored lignin nanoparticles from rice husks boost SPF and UVA protection in creams. Lignin nanoparticles from rice husks offer broad-spectrum UV protection in sunscreens. [71] Table 6 Compares different studies on lignin extraction and its application as a UV filter, highlighting differences in biomass sources and extraction methods. S.No. Country Key Findings How our work differs References 1 France Lignin is a renewable alternative to synthetic UV filters. Reducing particle size to 100–200 nm increased SPF from 7.5 to 42 at 5 wt%. Various biomass sources were used for sunscreen formulations. Focuses on wheat straw lignin, not from cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust. Transitioning to nanoparticles significantly increases SPF. [72] 2 Russia Light-colored lignin from coconut husk improved SPF performance in commercial sunscreens, promoting its use as a sustainable natural UV blocker in cosmetics. Focuses on lignin from coconut husk, not wheat straw, cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust. [21] 3 China Glyoxylic acid-stabilized lignin from lignocellulosic biomass achieved SPF values of 37.2 and 58.74 at 3% and 4% LNPs, respectively. Promotes use of cellulose residue for papermaking. Focuses on lignin from kenaf stalk, not comparing UV absorption from wheat straw, cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust lignin. [73] 4 India Eco-friendly lignin nanocomposite films from wheat straw with 3% and 4% lignin nanoparticles achieved SPF values of 37.2 and 58.74 and showed 99.999% pathogen reduction. Focuses on wheat straw lignin for UV protective films but does not compare UV absorption from other biomass sources like cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust. [74] 5 China Lignin extracted using scCO2 from eucalyptus sawdust increased UV resistance in PVOH films, reducing UV transmittance from 70% to below 20%. Tensile strength increased by 79.2%. Focuses on eucalyptus sawdust lignin extraction and UV resistance, without data on lignin from wheat, cotton, or bamboo. [75] Moreover, these results are in line with recent reports on the valorization of technical lignins for use in advanced coating material production; however, our comparative approach offers novel insights into the dependence between agri-food biomass origin and end-use appropriateness [ 18 , 76 , 77 ] . The practical usefulness of our work plays a significant role in the development of environmentally friendly materials in the cosmetics, packaging, and polymer industries [ 18 , 21 , 51 ] . This study also shows that locally available, low-to zero-priced biomass which is even considered waste in the agricultural and food industry, can be converted into lignin with specific properties, contributing to the shift towards circular and sustainable bioeconomy models in India and other regions [ 18 ] . However, the lack of direct quantification of acid-soluble lignin has a slight effect on absolute lignin yields, but the trends between the four biomasses are still valid, as ASL fractions tend to be proportional to the total lignin content. Subsequent efforts will involve ASL quantification through UV-Vis spectrophotometry at 205 nm to increase accuracy [ 49 , 52 , 78 ] . In addition, UV absorbance was determined in solution, but the performance of the actual product formulation has yet to be analysed [ 21 , 76 ] . Overall, our results indicate that proper screening and description of biomass feedstocks will enable lignin to realise its potential in high-value, sustainable uses [ 18 , 21 ] . Future research directions should include increasing the extraction scale, commercial integration of lignin into products, and evaluation of long-term performance and safety [ 50 ] . 4. Conclusion The conclusion of this study revealed that lignin prepared from four common agri-food biomass residues in India, including wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust, and eucalyptus sawdust, shows unique structural, thermal, and functional characteristics that have a direct relationship with the biomass source. The yield of lignin differed considerably, with bamboo sawdust giving the best yield (24.11%), followed by eucalyptus sawdust (21.42%), wheat straw (17.31%), and cotton stalk (15.25%). The FTIR and XRD results confirmed the typical aromatic and phenolic features of lignin, and all samples were predominantly amorphous, with functional groups identified by UV absorption (e.g. hydroxyl, methoxyl, and syringyl/guaiacyl units). Thermal stability analysis through TGA showed that bamboo lignin had the highest char yield (41.10%), followed by eucalyptus (39.22%), wheat straw (38.04%), and cotton stalk (36.45%), which is the best property of high thermal stability that can be desired in the advanced formulation of coating materials. UV-visible spectrophotometry showed that all lignin samples had strong UV absorption, with bamboo lignin having the highest UV-B absorbance (peak at 290 nm), which was higher than the UV-B absorbance of commercial TiO2 and ZnO filters. This proves that bamboo lignin is the most promising natural UV-blocking agent among the tested biomasses. These results highlight lignin, especially bamboo sawdust, as an alternative, sustainable, non-toxic, and biodegradable UV filter to traditional metal oxide filters. This research supports SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and 13 (Climate Action) by promoting agricultural biomass valorization, reducing reliance on fossil-based UV filters, and enabling pathways to sustainable bioeconomic material systems within a circular framework. Declarations Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge and thank the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Qa­ssim University for financial support (QU-APC-2026). Funding: This work was funded through the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Qassim University for financial support (QU-APC-2026). Ethical Approval: Not applicable. Authors’ contributions: Yogeshwar Vats: Conceptualization, drafting of the introduction, section; Rashid Mumtaz Khan : preparation of the methodology; Sayed Sartaj Sohrab : drafted literature review and tables and Bhupendra P. 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University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rashid","middleName":"Mumtaz","lastName":"Khan","suffix":""},{"id":606285135,"identity":"36e972c9-87ba-4780-be20-40eb2e5bd3b6","order_by":2,"name":"Sayed Sartaj Sohrab","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sayed","middleName":"Sartaj","lastName":"Sohrab","suffix":""},{"id":606285139,"identity":"74b56a27-8379-429b-a3e1-040177defa9e","order_by":3,"name":"Bhupendra Pratap Singh","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyA+AEQ89sfbDz4Acnj4iNUix3DmTDKIw8NGjBaQLmOGGwlmEiAmQS3m0u0PDxf8upPY2HMgrfJrjp0MGwPzw0c38GixnHPG4PDMvmeJzeyNx27LbksGOozN2DgHn8Nu5DAc5u05nNjGcyDttuQ2ZqAWHjZp/FrSH4C19EgkmBVLbqsnRkuCwWGeH4eNJYBaGD9uO0xYC9gvvA2H5Qx4ziRLM247zsPGTMAvwBB7/Jnnz2EeA/b2gx9/bqu252dvfvgYnxYGUFwwtkHYzDxgEp9ymBaGPxA24w9CqkfBKBgFo2BEAgBtIVE/I7YppQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Central University of Haryana","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bhupendra","middleName":"Pratap","lastName":"Singh","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-22 13:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8939430/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8939430/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104837314,"identity":"0743a5ac-303e-4810-ac0d-ec903738b611","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 17:57:56","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":191214,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/462b37bf0e46c4a353a8aef6.png"},{"id":104837201,"identity":"ce691757-7c30-4a26-82cd-42b968fb79c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 17:57:06","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":414967,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure 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legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/726b95c1ad6e2ecb20cdb431.png"},{"id":104837178,"identity":"75bb008e-a67e-4b75-b6cb-a3565317e5cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 17:56:54","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":94434,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/ec9a997cb355d48f2978f711.png"},{"id":104836960,"identity":"0bd9d0c1-3c08-4554-9c6a-6eeb542c3b0f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 17:56:24","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":171409,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/544f54393207da9f0031a3fb.png"},{"id":104837255,"identity":"ec2da9dc-04f1-42cd-9167-db0438a208ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 17:57:24","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37630,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/ed599b8442020addb17e4df7.png"},{"id":105033744,"identity":"d4468ae5-e533-4d21-bf9b-64250fb53cd5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 07:21:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2317437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/417e3a1f-4187-4c42-a4b2-f22ccad24d70.pdf"},{"id":104837331,"identity":"225fd08e-3a88-4b9e-81fd-4052355592ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 17:58:02","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":20737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryAttachment21.06.25.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8939430/v1/a5d6a893227c85920e63cad5.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Valorisation of waste lignocellulosic biomass into UV-absorbing lignin: comparative extraction and characterization","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLignin is an intricate biomacromolecule that plays an important role in the plant cell wall in structural support and defense mechanisms. It is the second-most-abundant biopolymer on the planet, surpassed only by cellulose \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Lignin is mostly found in the main cell walls of plant vascular tissue. It provides rigidity, toughness, and impermeability to water and pathogens. It is mainly made up of three basic monolignol subunits: p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol. These monolignols are polymerized for incorporation into the lignin polymer as p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G) and syringyl (S) units that are bonded together by different forms of chemical bonds to create the complex lignin structure \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Lignin structure is very heterogeneous, mainly because of the oxidative bonding of the monolignols in the lignification process. Additionally, the existence of functional groups such as hydroxyl, methoxyl, and carbonyl groups enhances the chemical composition of lignin \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, forming a complex, irregular three-dimensional structure \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Lignin is a heterogeneous material that is difficult to characterize and analyze. Nevertheless, the development of spectroscopic and microspectroscopic technologies has played a significant role in understanding lignin structure and composition. Moreover, lignin composition may differ among plant sources. For example, the lignin structures of softwood and hardwood species vary, for example, with high levels of specific monolignols and linkages \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, making it a highly flexible biopolymer with numerous potential uses in sustainable biomass applications. Traditionally, lignin has been considered a waste product in both pulping and bioethanol production. Nonetheless, in recent years, with insights into the structure and composition of lignin, the focus on the valorisation of lignin to produce renewable chemicals and biofuels has increased, creating an appealing feedstock for several applications and generating interest in research in this sphere \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIts extraction and utilisation can make biomass conversion processes more economically viable and sustainable and have the positive impact of converting renewable resources into a more efficient and less harmful use. Lignin as a significant part of biomass can be easily isolated and reclaimed in the biomass fractionation process and further used \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These processes entail various pretreatment and separation methods. Techniques commonly used for lignin isolation include dilute acid pretreatment, alkaline extraction, and organosolv procedures \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These techniques facilitate the separation of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose by streamlining the arrangement of lignocellulosic biomass. Using these chemical and biochemical processes, lignin can be converted into several highly valuable chemicals, such as phenols, aromatic compounds, and platform chemicals \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This will reduce dependence on fossil fuels and help build a more environmentally friendly and sustainable economy. Biofuels derived from lignin have also become a potentially viable alternative to fossil fuels and can be depolymerised and transformed into liquid biofuels, including bio-oil, which can be converted into transportation fuels. The use of lignin-based biofuels reduces greenhouse gas emissions and provides a renewable and sustainable source of energy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen lignin is used in other processes, including biomaterials and biofuels, it helps retain carbon that would otherwise be emitted into the atmosphere \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. There are numerous other applications of lignin beyond liquid biofuels, including its use in the materials and energy industries and environmental applications. The most evident of these properties is that lignin exhibits a very high UV absorption capacity, which we discuss in this research paper. Many applications have shown interest in lignin-based materials as effective UV absorbers, including sunscreens, coatings, and plastics as additives, because of this property \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The UV absorption properties of lignin can be attributed to its aromatic structure and the presence of conjugated π-bonds within its chemical composition \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The aromatic rings of lignin can absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which can damage the skin and cause cancer. This supports the idea that lignin can be used as a component of sunscreens and other products to prevent UV radiation. The conjugated pi-bonds caused by the overlapping of the p-orbitals in the aromatic rings help capture UV light over a wide range of wavelengths. Therefore, as a renewable resource, lignin can be an important feedstock for the manufacture of renewable chemicals and sustainable materials and can open the door to various industries by examining the opportunities it offers through UV absorption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe\u0026ensp;objectives of this study are (i) extraction of lignin from wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust, and eucalyptus sawdust using optimized Klason technique, (ii) describe the structural and thermal properties of lignin, and (ii) compare the efficacy of a UV absorber to the traditional UV filters (TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and ZnO) with a view to identifying more sustainable alternatives to UV filters. In this study, the Klason Lignin isolating process was utilised to extract lignin from four biomasses, and isolating the lignin made it possible to thoroughly characterise the structure and functionality of the lignin, which is necessary to determine its capacity as a sustainable UV-blocking agent. Furthermore, lignin extraction is a crucial goal in biorefinery operations, as it facilitates the separation and valorization of distinct biomass components, namely cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, all of which may be used to achieve various high-value uses \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The lignin isolated was particularly studied in terms of its capacity to absorb UV rays and was compared with the cross-feedstock to find the most promising source of eco-friendly UV-protective materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour biomass sources, wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo, and eucalyptus (hardwood), were selected based on their lignin composition and availability. Wheat straw and cotton stalks are agricultural residues with lower lignin content and high availability, whereas bamboo (woody grass) and eucalyptus (hardwood) are lignin-rich woody biomasses with different monolignol ratios (high syringyl units in hardwoods) \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This diversity can be used to assess the UV-blocking potential of lignin in different biomass types, which has not been done previously, which concentrated on individual feedstocks \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, all four biomasses are indigenously available in India (Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e), and the high and widespread availability of these biomasses not only ensures a sustainable and economical supply of raw materials for lignin extraction but also enhances the practical relevance of this research for developing scalable, eco-friendly UV-blocking materials in alignment with sustainable resource utilisation goals \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The selection of these four particular biomasses will also promote the concept of \"closing the loop\" within the circular economy framework and facilitate the advancement of lignin-based products derived from agricultural residues and processes, fostering collaboration and innovation within the economy and paving the way for an environmentally friendly future \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The continuous exploration of lignin properties and the development of innovative technologies will unlock new avenues for its sustainable utilisation and contribute to a greener future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Chemicals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSulphuric acid (98.08% pure), Sodium Hydroxide pellets, N-N, and Dimethyl formamide were acquired from HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd. (Mumbai, India). Whatman Filter papers (Diameter-125mm) were procured from GE Healthcare Life Sciences (Bangalore, India). Millipore water was used in all experiments for cleaning, rinsing, and other biomass activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Biomass Collection and Pre-treatment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiomasses of two agricultural residues, viz., (1) Wheat straw (WS) and (2) Cotton stalk (CS) were collected from nearby fields of Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Bio-Energy (SSS NIBE), Kapurthala, Punjab, India whereas remaining two woody residues (3) Bamboo sawdust (BS) and (4) Eucalyptus sawdust (ES) were collected from the timber processing workshop which lies inside the campus of SSS NIBE. All samples were processed and authenticated at the Chemical Conversion Division (CCD) of the SSS-NIBE, Kapurthala, Punjab, India. Bamboo and eucalyptus sawdust were sourced from Bambusa balcooa and Eucalyptus hybrid varieties, respectively, while the wheat and cotton varieties used were HD 2967 and PAU Bt 2, respectively. All biomass was pre-treated, including an initial water wash followed by a 3-hour drying in a hot-air oven at 70\u0026ndash;80\u0026deg;C. The dried biomass was subsequently shredded into small fragments and reduced into a powder (particle size\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 mm) using a household mixer grinder (Sujata Dynamix 900 Watts Mixer Grinder) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The biomass was preserved in an airtight container at room temperature to prevent moisture absorption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Lignin extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Klason Lignin Analytical Method was used and refined to separate lignin from each biomass type, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, according to the experimental setup. The method involved hydrolysing 1 g of dry prepared biomass in 15 mL of a 72% sulfuric acid solution while stirring with a glass rod. The sample was spread out, the beaker was sealed with a watch glass, and the mixture was placed in a water bath at 30\u0026deg;C for 2 h. A 1000 mL flask of water should have 300\u0026ndash;400 mL of water added. The material was transferred from the beaker to a flask, and Millipore water was used to dilute the solution to a final volume of 575 mL. The solution was heated in a reflux system for four hours to preserve its volume. Lignin was precipitated by maintaining the flask at a 15\u0026deg; angle for 12 hours. Subsequently, the solution was vacuum-filtered to remove residual acid from the precipitated lignin, followed by multiple washes of the filter with hot water. This approach was utilised to prepare four samples, which were baked for 29 h at 85\u0026deg;C on the lignin-infused filtration paper \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Lignin Estimation and Characterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin was isolated from wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust, and eucalyptus sawdust using the Klason Lignin Analytical Method as per the NREL/TP-510-42618 protocol. The lignin yield was determined using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1) [27]:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin\u0026rsquo; yield\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;A \u0026times; 100/W (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere Lignin\u0026rsquo;s yield\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;lignin content in the wood sample\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Weight of acid-insoluble lignin (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Dry weight of biomass (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo characterise, each technique uses particular parameters for sample preparation and instruments. Regarding X-ray diffraction (XRD), powdered lignin samples were placed on glass slides which were then analysed using a Panalytical X\u0026rsquo; Pert Pro powder diffractometer with a vertical theta-theta goniometer in the 2θ range of 5\u0026ndash;80\u0026deg; to determine the crystallinity and amorphous content. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was conducted by adding 200 mg of potassium bromide (KBr) with 2 mg of extracted lignin to create pellets, and a spectrum was recorded using a PerkinElmer Spectrum two spectrometer throughout the range of 400\u0026ndash;4000 cm-1 at a resolution of 4 cm-1. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by heating a 5\u0026ndash;10 mg lignin sample inside an alumina crucible between 30\u0026deg;C and 800\u0026deg;C at 10\u0026deg;C/min under a nitrogen atmosphere using a PerkinElmer STA 6000 thermal gravimetric analyser. To determine UV absorption using UV-visible spectrophotometry, 10 mg of lignin was solubilised in 25 mL of N, N-dimethylformamide, yielding a concentration of 0.4 mg/mL. The solution was filtered and measured in a PerkinElmer double-beam UV-Vis spectrophotometre between 280 and 400 nm (absorbance values reached 3.2 A). To be consistent in the comparison of the lignin properties using the four biomasses, the characterisation employs systematic analytical techniques to obtain attractive sources of sustainable UV protection and other high-value products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Estimation of lignin\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtracted lignin was investigated in the present study with four different kinds of lignocellulosic biomass (bamboo sawdust, cotton stalk, eucalyptus sawdust and wheat straw), and the yield of lignin was calculated as shown in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1). The resultant yield was the percentage of lignin recovered from each biomass source after its extraction. Lignin yield was the main factor differentiating the biomass sources. Among the raw materials,\u0026ensp;bamboo sawdust yielded the highest lignin yield (24.11%). This suggests that bamboo sawdust is a lignin-rich raw material that can efficiently separate lignin. Lignin contents of 15.25%, 21.42%, and 17.31% were recovered from cotton stalks, eucalyptus sawdust and 17.31% from wheat straw, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariations in the lignin yield among the different biomass sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypes of waste lignocellulosic biomass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield of lignin obtained (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBamboo sawdust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEucalyptus sawdust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat straw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton stalk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total lignin content was estimated as the aggregate of acid-insoluble lignin (AIL) and acid-soluble lignin (ASL), with ASL derived from literature values for analogous biomasses. ASL typically accounts for 1\u0026ndash;4% of the total lignin in herbaceous and woody biomass, depending on the feedstock and hydrolysis conditions. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the measured acid-insoluble lignin, estimated ASL, and estimated total lignin content for each biomass sample. The natural constitution and structure of lignocellulosic biomass sources are responsible for the variability in lignin output, as different biomass sources have varying lignin content within their cellulosic matrix, and the efficiency of the extraction process can also affect the yield. The lower yield of lignin from cotton stalks compared to the other three extracted lignins may be attributed to factors such as the accessibility of lignin within the biomass, the presence of other components such as hemicellulose and cellulose, and the extraction process employed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated Acid-soluble lignin (ASL) and estimation of total lignin content for each biomass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiomass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcid-Insoluble Lignin (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated ASL (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated Total Lignin (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat straw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u0026ndash;2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.0\u0026ndash;19.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[41] [29]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton stalk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u0026ndash;1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8\u0026ndash;17.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[28] [29]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBamboo sawdust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.1\u0026ndash;27.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[28] [29]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEucalyptus sawdust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u0026ndash;2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3\u0026ndash;24.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[30] [31]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 X-Ray Diffraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eXRD analysis was performed to analyse the crystalline structure, molecular arrangement, and orientation of the lignin samples. By subjecting lignin samples to X-ray radiation, XRD measures the scattering pattern of X-rays as they interact with lignin molecules. The crystallinity and structural traits of lignin can be assessed from the produced diffraction pattern. However, lignin is generally considered to be predominantly amorphous. However, lignin can exhibit limited crystallinity in some cases, and its degree of crystallinity is typically lower than that of other biopolymers such as cellulose. The structural analyses of lignins were examined using XRD at 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;80\u0026deg;, the structural analyses of lignins were examined (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Lignin shows peaks at 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31.82\u0026deg; and 45.54\u0026deg;, reflecting its crystalline structure \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, while the XRD patterns of our four lignin samples show a weak and slightly broad peak centred around 22.6\u0026deg;, indicating the presence of an amorphous pattern \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, the amorphous structure of lignin was attributed to the characteristic peak of lignin, which was located at 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.6\u0026deg;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR spectroscopy was used to characterise the functional groups in lignin samples. The functional group analysis for each of the four lignin types is shown in the third figure: wheat straw lignin, eucalyptus sawdust lignin, cotton stalk lignin, and bamboo sawdust lignin. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows that lignin isolated from waste lignocellulosic biomass has spectra nearly identical to those of commercial lignin, which is consistent with previous research \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The presence of hydroxyl, methoxy, and syringlyl was indicated by the existence of peaks in the regions 3300 cm-1, 2900\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2800(2928) cm-1, and 860\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;830 cm-1 across all spectra, reflecting the presence of the main functional groups in lignins \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The spectrum of extracted lignins, on the other hand, also showed a high-intensity OH band. The high OH intensity may be attributed to hemicellulose that was not completely removed during the fractionation process. All lignins showed a broad band at 3410\u0026ndash;3460 cm-1, assigned to hydroxyl groups in phenolic and aliphatic structures, alongside bands at 2938 and 2842 cm-1, primarily due to CH stretching in aromatic methoxyl groups and Methyl and Methylene groups on side chains \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The vibrations of the aromatic framework at 1600 and 1454 cm-1, along with the C-H deformation coupled with the aromatic ring vibration at 1462 cm-1, were observed in all lignins; however, the intensity of the bands differed. The asymmetry and thickening of the stronger bands at 1705 and 1600 cm-1, which are induced by the mild absorptions at approximately 1650 cm-1, may be the result of both protein impurities and water that have been connected to lignin. Owing to the complexity of the bands, which often include contributions from multiple vibration modes, studying the spectral region below 1400 cm-1 is more difficult. This region encompasses vibrations specific to unique monolignol units, facilitating the structural study of lignin \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. All lignin samples exhibited spectra in which the vibrations were associated with the guaiacyl unit (1269 cm-1), although the intensities of the bands varied significantly from sample to sample. The pentose and hexose units found in hemicellulose are represented by the C-O-C linkage in the range of 1030\u0026ndash;1037 cm-1. The complex vibration following the aromatic C-H deformation at 1035 cm-1 in polysaccharides is characterised by the bending of the C-OH, C-O, and C-C. Vibrations from carbohydrates are also associated with other vibrations in the 1000\u0026ndash;1300 cm-1 region of the spectra \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The sample set created for this investigation contained a high lignin concentration, as well as some very small contaminants in the form of protein, water, and hemicellulose, according to the results of the analysis of the main components.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTGA has often been used to assess the thermal stability and degradation of organic polymers in nitrogen. The TGA curves depict the weight-loss rate of the materials as a function of temperature during thermal degradation. The thermal stability assessment of lignin extracted from different sources enables the identification of the best-extracted lignin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight loss is indicated by the degradation of the thermal data, and its rate is shown by the first derivative (DTG). The apex of this curve (DTGmax) serves as an indicator of thermal degradation and can be used to assess the thermal stability characteristics of various materials \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The structure of the lignin molecule is mostly composed of aromatic rings with varying branching; these chemical linkages result in a broad range of degradation temperatures ranging from 100 to 800\u0026deg;C \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. At 800\u0026deg;C, the production of highly condensed aromatic structures that produce char resulted in 40\u0026ndash;45 weight per cent of all lignin samples remaining un-volatilised, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The degradation of lignin samples is categorised into three phases \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The initial phase of weight reduction occurs between 30\u0026ndash;120\u0026deg;C due to the evaporation of absorbed water. The decomposition of carbohydrates in lignin samples generates volatile gases, including CO, CO2, and CH4, during stage two, which occurs at temperatures ranging from 180 to 350\u0026deg;C. At temperatures above 350\u0026deg;C, the deterioration reached its climax. At this stage, gaseous components and degraded volatile lignin components, such as phenolics, alcohols, and aldehyde acids, are removed. Thermal degradation, as shown by the TGA curve, did not begin until a certain amount of heat energy was absorbed by the materials. Heat activated the structural breakdown and degradation processes, resulting in the disintegration of the molecular chains. It is probable that the source of lignin has an impact on its thermal properties. Overall, the char output and thermal stability of lignin extracted from bamboo sawdust were the highest (41.1%), followed by those of lignin extracted from eucalyptus sawdust (39.22%), wheat straw (38.04%), and cotton stalk (36.45%). According to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, DTGmax ranged from 380 to 400\u0026deg;C for all lignin samples. This area is likely to experience pyrolytic deterioration. Inter-unit connections are broken during this breakdown process, and monomers and phenol derivatives are released into vapour phase. At temperatures beyond 500\u0026deg;C, aromatic rings begin to disintegrate, which is another connection to the process \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 UV-Visible Spectrophotometry\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe UV absorbance properties of the lignin samples were assessed using UV-visible spectrophotometry. The obtained spectra showed strong UV absorption, indicating the presence of conjugated chromophores in the lignin samples. This analytical method entails comparing the amounts of distinct wavelengths of UV or visible light absorbed or transmitted by a sample against those of a reference or blank sample. This light-based method requires a constant broadband light source. A single xenon lamp is commonly used as a high-intensity light source in both the UV and visible spectra. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e compares the lignin absorption of cotton, wheat, bamboo, and eucalyptus straws. According to this study, bamboo sawdust lignin is the best, with the highest absorption in the UV-B and UV-A regions, with the best UV-B absorbance (maximum at 290 nm). This is consistent with the research evidence on the general UV absorbance of lignin, driven by its aromatic and conjugated phenolic structures, which efficiently dissipate UV energy through π-π* transitions. In particular, the absorption of lignin in the UV-B region (280\u0026ndash;320 nm) is associated with the syringyl-to-guaiacyl (S/G) ratio, with syringyl-rich lignins, which have a higher rate of electron delocalisation, exhibiting the ability to block UV-B [18, 50]. The lignin of cotton stalk, Wheat and Eucalyptus also had the highest and lowest absorption at UV-B and UV-A, respectively, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and the absorption spectrum ranges of these four types of lignin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Comparative Analysis of UV Absorbance Properties of Different Types of Lignin\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further assess their potential as UV-blocking substances, the UV absorbance qualities of four extracted lignin samples were compared with those of conventional metal oxides, including titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO). This analysis highlights the advantages of lignin, including its biodegradability, availability, affordability, and non-toxic nature, making it an attractive alternative to metal oxides for UV protection. Inorganic UV filters made of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide work by scattering, reflecting, and/or absorbing UV radiation to prevent DNA damage in skin cells. While titanium dioxide offers full-spectrum protection from UV light (280\u0026ndash;400 nm) and has an absorbance profile that covers a wide range of the UV spectrum, ensuring significant protection \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, the ZnO protective range is maximised in the UVA spectrum \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, serving as an adjunct to UVB filters, thereby enabling formulations that deliver comprehensive all-day protection. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, bamboo sawdust and cotton straw lignin exhibited the highest UV-B absorbance, followed by wheat straw, while eucalyptus sawdust lignin showed negligible absorbance. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents a direct comparison of the UV-B and UV-A absorbance of these lignin samples with traditional metal oxide UV filters, demonstrating that bamboo lignin\u0026rsquo;s UV-B absorbance at 290 nm (24.11% yield) surpasses that of TiO₂ and ZnO, which typically show peak absorptions at 300\u0026ndash;350 nm and 370 nm, respectively \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These results indicate that bamboo lignin is a viable, sustainable alternative to synthetic UV filters, consistent with the literature showing that the addition of 5\u0026ndash;10 wt% lignin in sunscreen formulations can increase SPF by 40\u0026ndash;100% through synergistic effects with organic UV absorbers \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUV-B and UV-A absorbance ranges of lignin extracted from different lignocellulosic biomass sources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of Lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUV-B Absorbance Range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUV-A Absorbance Range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBamboo Sawdust lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u0026ndash;2.30 High\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026ndash;0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton Straw lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u0026ndash;2.30 High\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat Straw lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u0026ndash;1.53 Significant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u0026ndash;0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEucalyptus Sawdust lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.06 (Negligible)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06 to -0.11 (Negligible)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of UV-B and UV-A absorbance of extracted lignin samples and literature-derived values for traditional metal oxide UV filters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaterial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUV-B Absorbance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUV-A Absorbance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTitanium dioxide\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinc oxide\u003cem\u003e**\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBamboo Sawdust lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.69\u0026ndash;2.30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.30\u0026ndash;0.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton Straw lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.69\u0026ndash;2.30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat Straw lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.00-1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.50\u0026ndash;0.52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEucalyptus Sawdust lignin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.06) Negligible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.06 to -0.11) Negligible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: \u003cem\u003eTiO₂ and ZnO data sourced from\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e[46]\u003c/b\u003e \u003cem\u003eand\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e[47]\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cem\u003erespectively, as these materials were not experimentally tested in this study. Lignin data are original measurements.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003cb\u003e[46]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e**\u003c/em\u003e\u003cb\u003e[47]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7 Implications of Results and Practical Applications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, lignin was separated from four rich sources of Indian biomass, and their structural and functional characteristics were different, as evidenced by extensive characterisation. It is remarkable that bamboo sawdust lignin showed the best yield (24.11%) and UV absorbance in the UV-B region, which is also connected with a higher percentage of syringyl units shown by FTIR analysis \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This implies that lignin derived from bamboo can be especially useful as a natural UV-blocker UV-protective coating in food packaging and non-food packaging, such as sunscreen and windows, providing a sustainable alternative to synthetic filters (Table S2) \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The fact that we obtained such results and not as was in the case of earlier research which concentrated either on single feedstocks or commercial lignins, brings into focus the role of feedstock selection in the functioning of lignin as an optimiser \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. However, due to their low yields and low UV absorbance compared to the other two lignins, wheat straw and cotton stalk lignin exhibited poor performance, but their thermal stability trends indicate that these lignins can be utilised in non-combustible bio-composites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo provide the practical context of the importance of our findings, Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e summarise important previous research on lignin extraction from various lignocellulosic biomasses and their reported use as UV filters. As shown in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, previous studies have mainly focused on a single biomass type or applied alternative extraction methods that have not been directly compared in terms of UV-blocking capability. Conversely, our work systematically compares four sources of rich Indian biomasses using a standardised Klason technique, providing novel information on how to create sustainable UV-protective materials based on feedstock choice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis summary provides a concise overview of the key findings and differences from your work in each study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow Our Work Differs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJapan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin-derived carbon quantum dots (CQDs) from bamboo waste show strong fluorescence and high Fe\u0026sup3;⁺ sensitivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on CQDs from Moso bamboo waste, not UV filter properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[53]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEfficient lignin extraction from wheat straw using a\u0026nbsp;deep eutectic solvent with high purity and extraction efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe focus on lignin extraction from wheat straw, lacks details on UV filter applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[54]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePortugal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevulinic acid-based solvents provide superior lignin extraction efficiency and selectivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on solvent-based lignin extraction for fractionation, not specifically for UV filter use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[55]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreece\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsolated and characterized lignin from hydrothermally pretreated forestry and agro-industrial waste biomass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on surface lignin extraction from biomass, potential for UV filter applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[56]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeveloped UV-blocking composite films using spruce Kraft lignin and nanocellulose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on UV-blocking films, highlighting lignin's potential as a UV filter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[45]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin extraction from brewers' spent grain (BSG) using acid solutions, with high sulfuric acid yield.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin's structural properties suggest potential UV filter applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[57]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin enhances UV protection in polymer coatings, with 93% UV blocking efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin from softwood/hardwood as a UV-protective additive in coatings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[58]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin decolorization for natural sunscreen application due to UV-absorbing properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecolorized alkali lignin shows potential for natural sunscreen application.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[59]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltrafiltration-based lignin extraction yielding UV-blocking nanoparticles with 95% UVB absorption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on UV-blocking nanoparticles for eco-friendly sunscreens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[60]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin extraction from pine sawdust and pistachio shells, yielding phenolic monomers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on lignin extraction from pine/pistachio for phenolic compounds, not UV filter use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[61]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMexico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimized lignin extraction from sugarcane bagasse using deep eutectic solvents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on lignin extraction from sugarcane bagasse, potential for UV filter applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[62]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin extraction from corncob residue using deep eutectic solvent for nanoparticle preparation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on lignin nanoparticle preparation from corncob for potential UV filter use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[63]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstonia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtic ionic liquids (PILs) for environmentally friendly lignin extraction from ash tree.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin's properties suggest potential use as a UV filter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[64]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin from aspen, poplar, and corn stover improves UV-blocking properties in composite films.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiomass-derived lignin enhances UV-blocking in films without compromising other properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[65]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThailand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBG-lignin from sugarcane bagasse enhances UV absorption in PLA composite films.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant UV absorption in PLA films, making it a promising UV filter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[66]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified lignin structural features that enhance UV protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy explores structure-activity relationship for UV protection from lignocellulosic biomass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[67]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin from invasive weeds with high thermal stability and molecular weight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin extraction from invasive weeds shows potential for UV filter application.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[68]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelignified corncob residue used for biodegradable UV-blocking films.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus on UV-blocking films from lignin extracted from corncob residue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[69]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThailand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpherical lignin particles (SLPs) from softwood kraft lignin improve UV shielding in PVA films.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSLPs incorporated in PVA films show potential for UV protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[70]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKorea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight-colored lignin nanoparticles from rice husks boost SPF and UVA protection in creams.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin nanoparticles from rice husks offer broad-spectrum UV protection in sunscreens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[71]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompares different studies on lignin extraction and its application as a UV filter, highlighting differences in biomass sources and extraction methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow our work differs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin is a renewable alternative to synthetic UV filters. Reducing particle size to 100\u0026ndash;200 nm increased SPF from 7.5 to 42 at 5 wt%. Various biomass sources were used for sunscreen formulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocuses on wheat straw lignin, not from cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust. Transitioning to nanoparticles significantly increases SPF.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[72]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRussia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight-colored lignin from coconut husk improved SPF performance in commercial sunscreens, promoting its use as a sustainable natural UV blocker in cosmetics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocuses on lignin from coconut husk, not wheat straw, cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[21]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlyoxylic acid-stabilized lignin from lignocellulosic biomass achieved SPF values of 37.2 and 58.74 at 3% and 4% LNPs, respectively. Promotes use of cellulose residue for papermaking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocuses on lignin from kenaf stalk, not comparing UV absorption from wheat straw, cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust lignin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[73]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEco-friendly lignin nanocomposite films from wheat straw with 3% and 4% lignin nanoparticles achieved SPF values of 37.2 and 58.74 and showed 99.999% pathogen reduction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocuses on wheat straw lignin for UV protective films but does not compare UV absorption from other biomass sources like cotton straw, bamboo sawdust, or eucalyptus sawdust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[74]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin extracted using scCO2 from eucalyptus sawdust increased UV resistance in PVOH films, reducing UV transmittance from 70% to below 20%. Tensile strength increased by 79.2%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocuses on eucalyptus sawdust lignin extraction and UV resistance, without data on lignin from wheat, cotton, or bamboo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e[75]\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, these results are in line with recent reports on the valorization of technical lignins for use in advanced coating material production; however, our comparative approach offers novel insights into the dependence between agri-food biomass origin and end-use appropriateness \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The practical usefulness of our work plays a significant role in the development of environmentally friendly materials in the cosmetics, packaging, and polymer industries \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This study also shows that locally available, low-to zero-priced biomass which is even considered waste in the agricultural and food industry, can be converted into lignin with specific properties, contributing to the shift towards circular and sustainable bioeconomy models in India and other regions \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. However, the lack of direct quantification of acid-soluble lignin has a slight effect on absolute lignin yields, but the trends between the four biomasses are still valid, as ASL fractions tend to be proportional to the total lignin content. Subsequent efforts will involve ASL quantification through UV-Vis spectrophotometry at 205 nm to increase accuracy \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, UV absorbance was determined in solution, but the performance of the actual product formulation has yet to be analysed \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Overall, our results indicate that proper screening and description of biomass feedstocks will enable lignin to realise its potential in high-value, sustainable uses \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Future research directions should include increasing the extraction scale, commercial integration of lignin into products, and evaluation of long-term performance and safety \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe conclusion of this study revealed that lignin prepared from four common agri-food biomass residues in India, including wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust, and eucalyptus sawdust, shows unique structural, thermal, and functional characteristics that have a direct relationship with the biomass source. The yield of lignin differed considerably, with bamboo sawdust giving the best yield (24.11%), followed by eucalyptus sawdust (21.42%), wheat straw (17.31%), and cotton stalk (15.25%). The FTIR and XRD results confirmed the typical aromatic and phenolic features of lignin, and all samples were predominantly amorphous, with functional groups identified by UV absorption (e.g. hydroxyl, methoxyl, and syringyl/guaiacyl units). Thermal stability analysis through TGA showed that bamboo lignin had the highest char yield (41.10%), followed by eucalyptus (39.22%), wheat straw (38.04%), and cotton stalk (36.45%), which is the best property of high thermal stability that can be desired in the advanced formulation of coating materials. UV-visible spectrophotometry showed that all lignin samples had strong UV absorption, with bamboo lignin having the highest UV-B absorbance (peak at 290 nm), which was higher than the UV-B absorbance of commercial TiO2 and ZnO filters. This proves that bamboo lignin is the most promising natural UV-blocking agent among the tested biomasses. These results highlight lignin, especially bamboo sawdust, as an alternative, sustainable, non-toxic, and biodegradable UV filter to traditional metal oxide filters. This research supports SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and 13 (Climate Action) by promoting agricultural biomass valorization, reducing reliance on fossil-based UV filters, and enabling pathways to sustainable bioeconomic material systems within a circular framework.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors gratefully acknowledge and thank the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Qa\u0026shy;ssim University for financial support (QU-APC-2026).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis work was funded through the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Qassim University for financial support (QU-APC-2026).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYogeshwar Vats:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualization, drafting of the introduction, section;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRashid Mumtaz Khan\u003c/strong\u003e: preparation of the methodology;\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eSayed Sartaj Sohrab\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003edrafted literature review and tables\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eand\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Bhupendra P. Singh:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePreparation of the methodology section, drafting the conclusion, and overall improvement of the manuscript\u0026rsquo;s quality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eClinical trial number is not applicable for current manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that\u0026nbsp;all the authors have consent to publish the current manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003c/strong\u003e On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that all the authors have consent to participate.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZakzeski, J., Bruijnincx, P. 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(2017).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Lignin, Agri-food residues, Biomass valorization, UV-blocking biopolymer, Sustainable agriculture","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8939430/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8939430/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgro-industrial lignocellulosic waste streams are widely available and under-utilised sources of biomass which can be valorised for the production of high-value bio-derived\u0026ensp;materials. The non-edible aromatic biopolymer lignin holds great prospects as a renewable UV-protective agent for safer and\u0026ensp;sustainable applications such as coatings and agri-food packaging.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin was isolated\u0026ensp;from four lignocellulosic substrates including wheat straw, cotton stalk, bamboo sawdust and eucalyptus sawdust by the Klason lignin process. In addition, FTIR was used to detect functional groups (guaiacyl, syringyl, carbonyl) of the isolated lignins; XRD for fundamental structure determination, TGA\u0026ensp;for thermal stability and UV\u0026ndash;Vis spectroscopy by which the absorbance of UV radiation was analysed including UV-B spectrum area (290\u0026ndash;320 nm), compared with TiO₂ and ZnO).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignin yield Bamboo sawdust showed the highest lignin yield (24.11%) and was followed by eucalyptus (21.42%), wheat straw (17.31%), and\u0026ensp;cotton stalk (15.25%). FTIR demonstrated consistent\u0026ensp;lignin-associated aromatic and carbonyl functionalities in all samples, however XRD showed differential structural changes of the lignins. The TGA results presented a higher thermal stability for bamboo and eucalyptus lignins, with the other two lignins beginning to decompose at temperatures below 250\u0026deg;C. Moreover, the absorbance in UV range was analyzed by UV\u0026ndash;Vis and it has been observed that bamboo lignin has strong absorption in UV region; particularly compared to the absorbance of TiO₂ and ZnO under tested conditions due to its higher absorbance toward UV-B at wavelengths ranging\u0026ensp;from 290 to 320 nm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results reveal a potential biomass and waste valorization route for functional lignin production from agro-industrial wastes, in which bamboo sawdust is identified as an exceptional feedstock mainly due to its high yield, thermal stability and excellent UV-blocking\u0026ensp;capability. This research paves a way towards the growth of safer and renewable UV absorbing materials and is also built upon socially solid and\u0026ensp;environmentally responsible practices helping humanity and the planet.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Valorisation of waste lignocellulosic biomass into UV-absorbing lignin: comparative extraction and characterization","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-17 17:52:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8939430/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"134217976785527038183616611176837196729","date":"2026-05-06T08:18:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T01:21:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"292183003445607777216860051097838685582","date":"2026-05-05T08:22:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"232293236218208274848865186323092641524","date":"2026-03-18T16:24:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-12T10:48:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-24T09:51:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-24T09:49:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-02-22T13:26:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"560285d6-908b-47dd-9ae6-c051f452ba48","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 17th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"134217976785527038183616611176837196729","date":"2026-05-06T08:18:55+00:00","index":47,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T01:21:19+00:00","index":46,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"292183003445607777216860051097838685582","date":"2026-05-05T08:22:31+00:00","index":45,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":64520034,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":64520035,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":64520036,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-17T17:52:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-17 17:52:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8939430","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8939430","identity":"rs-8939430","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}