Assessment on Physicochemical Quality of Tap and Bottled Water in Mekelle City, Ethiopia

Assessment on Physicochemical Quality of Tap and Bottled Water in Mekelle City, Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessment on Physicochemical Quality of Tap and Bottled Water in Mekelle City, Ethiopia Tenagne Jiru Mergia, Amanual Hadera Tesfay, Gebrekidan Mebrahtu Tesfamariam, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5407797/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Clean drinking water is a basic need for good health and an essential resource for communities around the world. In this study, the levels of six heavy metals, nine major ions and five physicochemical parameters in four different bottled water and two tap water samples from different sources that are consumed in Mekelle were investigated. Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy and UV – spectrophotometry were used for the determination of major anions and levels of major cations were determined. The mean concentration of Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , F − , Cl − , NO 3 − , SO 4 2− , PO 4 3− , EC and pH in water samples were found in the range [(0.82-0.9433), (0.39-0.6693), (0.055–0.2027), (0.0147–0.0213), (0.45-0.6567), (1.63–23.55), (0.01–2.75), (0.117–121.7), (0.073–15.33), (0.0019–0.153), (0.81-16.523), (0.15-6.1033), (0.2366–241.67), (0.0186–0.0286)] mg/L, EC (8.77-898.33 µs/cm) and pH (6.52–7.33), respectively. Not all the selected heavy metals (except Zn) were detected in all bottled water samples. All the heavy metals were detected in both tap water samples except Cr, which was not detected from Gerebsegen source (GS-1). All major anions (except F − and PO 4 3− ) and all major cations were detected in all water samples analyzed. PO 4 3− was not detected in all bottled water samples and F − was not detected in BW1, BW3 and BW4. Major cations (Na + , Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ) and major anions (Cl − , NO 3 − and SO 4 2− ) were found to be higher in BW4 than other bottled water sample. Concentration levels of all the heavy metals and major ions were found to be higher in the tap than bottled water samples. Concentration levels of all major cations (except K + ), all major anions (except PO 4 3− ) and levels of all heavy metals (except Cu) were found to be higher in tap water sample from Aynalem source (AN-1) than from Gerebsegen source. Detected concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr and all major ions in all water samples analyzed were below the maximum permissible level suggested by WHO and ESA. Concentrations of heavy metals: Fe, Cd and Pb in tap water samples from both sources exceeded the maximum permissible limit set by WHO and ESA. Therefore, all tested bottled water samples are safe for drinking. Relevant authorities in Mekelle Municipality should review water treatment processes or mechanisms and implement appropriate drinking water treatment (purification technology). This allows us to reduce the level of harmful substances to protect consumer health. Major cations Major anions Water quality and physicochemical parameters Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Water is one of the most important natural resources on earth [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. It is the most important nutrient for living things in general and humans in particular. Humans as biological and sociocultural beings use water as food for subsistence and as a renewable resource to sustain survival and enable development and civilization. Therefore, access to quality water, rather than access to water itself, has long been a global socio-cultural and economic policy challenge. In this context, providing access to quality water is a vital part of the expired Millennium Development Goals (MDG 2000–2015) (Goal 7; Goal 3) and the current Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2016–2030). ) (Goal 6) was one of the main priorities in United Nations [ 1 ]. However, access to quality water remains a key challenge in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Access to quality water worldwide rose from 76–91% thanks to efforts and programs by the United Nations, various levels of government, and both international and local NGOs, whereas the conditions in sub-Saharan Africa continue to be alarming [ 2 ]. hese interest groups and communities are doing quite poorly. They have failed to enhance the quality of water supplies for cities and peri-urban areas, much less for the wider population [ 4 , 5 ]. Global and regional entities, including the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), European Union (EU), African Union (AU), United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), and United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), have developed strategies, plans, and policies aimed at ensuring that the public has access to sufficient and quality drinking water supplies, in collaboration with national and local governmental bodies [ 5 ]. Improving access to quality drinking water is one of the most important measures to protect and promote public health. Thus, the 4th edition of the WHO Guidelines on Drinking-Water Quality states that the main objective of the guidelines is to “protect public health” [ 6 ]. From this viewpoint, safe and high-quality drinking water is devoid of microbial and chemical dangers, as well as radiation threats, and meets standards for appearance, flavor, and smell [ 1 , 3 – 5 ]. Many minerals in water help provide essential micronutrients, but WHO has never recommended setting minimum levels of essential elements. Deionized water is consumed worldwide [ 6 ]. However, poor mineralization of drinking water can compromise the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) of each essential micronutrient, especially calcium and magnesium, leading to health complications of deficiency [ 7 ]. With 12 large river basins and an annual renewable water volume of 122 billion cubic meters [ 8 ], Ethiopia is regarded as one of the world's fastest developing nations; nonetheless, its population still do not have access to clean water [ 9 ]. The main problems facing UDWS in Ethiopian cities, which rank among the least developed countries in the SSA and the world in terms of access, institutional capacity, etc., include rapid urbanization, high water demand, depleting water supplies, inadequate water management, deteriorating water quality, and deteriorating functionality of current water supply system components, lack of suitable and efficient planning [ 9 ]. One of the fastest-growing towns in Ethiopia is Mek'ele, the capital of the Tigray National Region province. In 2005, the World Bank's Urban Water and Sanitation Project (UWSSP) was implemented to address the city's pressing demand for sufficient, high-quality drinking water. Regretfully, despite some documented gains, the project and its outcomes fall short of meeting the demands of rapidly expanding cities [ 10 ]. In addition to bottled water, which is widely used in metropolitan areas, the city currently delivers water from the ground, another surface water source. Thus, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the quality of four bottled waters and two public water supplies using physicochemical characteristics set by the Ethiopian standardizing organization ESA and the WHO [ 6 , 11 ]. Three issues will be the focus of the evaluation: suitability for mineralization (demineralization), palatability, and health. 2. Methods and Materials 2.1 Descriptions of the Study Area Mekelle, the capital of the Tigray region, lies in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, 780 km north of Addis Ababa. Geographically, it is located around 780 kilometers north of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, at a latitude and longitude of 13°29′N 39°28′E, with an elevation of 2084 meters above sea level (Fig. 1 ). To the north and east, it is encircled by hills, but to the south and west, it is quite flat. With more than 544,000 people living there, the city is growing quickly to the north, northwest, and west [ 12 , 13 ]. Nonetheless, the city's economy is growing quickly [ 14 ]. The terrain of the Mekele region is characterized by flat, hilly and mountainous terrain. Hills lie at the northern and eastern ends of the city and extend further east, exposing limestone and dolerite bedrock [ 13 – 16 ]. In addition, topography and geological conditions are important constraints and limiting factors for the future development and expansion of Mekelle City. Mekelle is north of the equator and its summer (wet season) he occurs in June, July and August and appears irregular, irregular and unevenly distributed throughout the year. An analysis of meteorological records observed at multiple stations indicates that the annual average total precipitation is 575.9 mm/year. Precipitation varies in the study area from year to year and within months of the year [ 16 ]. 2.2 Sampling and Preservation. Four brands of bottled water (BW1, BW2, BW3, and BW4) were chosen for this study and bought at random from supermarkets in various parts of Mekelle city in January 2021. In the city of Mekelle, tap water samples were taken from two sources: Gerebsegen (GS-1) at the Semien Wereda subsite, at the Gerebsegen dam, and Aynalem (AN-1), derived from groundwater, at Hadnet Wereda subsite (Fig. 1 ). The samples were collected and stored in polyethylene plastic bottles after being cleaned for 30 minutes with distilled water and 5% HNO 3 . In order to prevent contamination, all samples taken from the study area were labeled, kept in iceboxes between 4 and 10°C, and then brought to Mekelle University in Ethiopia's School of Earth Science and Geochemical Laboratory of the College of Natural Computational Sciences for analysis [ 17 , 18 ]. 2.3 Analysis of Physical and chemical Parameters in the Water Samples Based on previous work by Gebresilasiee et al., 2021 [ 18 ], water samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Sulfate, Phosphate, and Nitrate using standard analytical methods [ 6 ]. pH and total dissolved solids were measured using a pH meter (HI 99130 HANNA, Romania). Conductivity was measured with a conductivity meter (Multi 3410 m, Germany). Chloride concentrations were determined using argenometric titration. Concentrations of cations Na + and K + were measured with a flame atomic absorption spectrometer, FAAS (JENWAY, PFPT, UK) and concentrations of anions (F - , Cl - , NO 3 - , SO 4 2- and PO 4 3- ) were measured with UV-visible light bottom spectrophotometer (Lambda, CE1021, Australia). The concentrations of metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Mg, and Ca) were determined with an atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS, (Spectra AA50B, VARIAN, Germany) [ 18 ]. 2.4. Data Analysis. In this study, physical characteristics and heavy metal levels were compared to worldwide and national drinking water standards. The relative standard deviation of the triplicate results and the pooled standard deviation were used to evaluate the results' precision. Precision of results was assessed using the pooled standard deviation and the relative standard deviation of triplicate determinations for each water sample (n = 3). For all data aggregated, the percent relative standard deviation (% RSD) values ​​were less than 15%, which indicates that the precision of the results obtained by all methods is excellent to assess the level of each parameter. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Physicochemical parameters In this study, physicochemical parameters, such as; pH, EC, turbidity, total dissolved solids, and total hardness were examined. Table 1 The physicochemical parameter concentrations (mean ± SD, N = 3) of tap and bottled samples Sample, code Mean ± SD pH EC (µs/cm) TDS (mg/L) TH (mg/L) Turb (NTU) BW1 6.63 8.77 ± 0.29 5.86 0.76 0.13 BW2 6.66 16.63 ± 1.11 11.32 0.77 0.01 BW3 6.52 9.31 ± 0.72 6.39 0.57 0.01 BW4 7.01 31 ± 2.65 19.97 2.31 0.34 AN-1(ATS) 6.76 898.33 ± 2.51 642.02 365.33 0.18 GS-1(BUS) 7.37 620.67 ± 2.08 436.88 237.50 0.15 WHO [5] 6.5–8.5 750 500 300 5 ESA [10] 6.5–8.5 1500 1000 300 5 WHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation pH value The measurement of pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of water. The pH of AN-1 tap water (6.76) is in a similar range to the bottled water samples (BW1, BW 2 and BW 3, acidic range) and the pH of GS-1 tap water (7.37) is in the same range as the sample. BW4 bottled water (Table 1 ). Although pH values ​​do not adversely affect human health, according to WHO guidelines, the normal pH range for drinking water is between 6.5 and 8.5 [ 19 ]. The pH values ​​of all analyzed water samples are within the range recommended by WHO and ESA [ 6 , 11 ]. Electrical Conductivity (EC): EC is a measure of dissolved ionic content in water and is a measure of electrical properties [ 20 ]. The highest values ​​of electrical conductivity were found for the drinking water sources Aynalem (AN-1) with 898.33 (± 2.51) µs/cm and Gerebsegen (GS-1) with 620.67 (± 2.08) µs/cm (Table 1 ). These have been documented within WHO and ESA tolerances [ 6 , 11 ]. EC values ​​are much lower than this tolerance limit. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Total dissolved solids is the amount of mobile charged ions, including minerals, salts, or dissolved metals, expressed in mg/L. The average total dissolved solids (TDS) for all water samples ranged from 5.86 to 642.02 mg/L (Table 1 ). All measured tap and bottled water samples recorded TDS concentrations below the ESA limit for drinking water (1000 mg/L), whereas the GS-1 water source recorded below the WHO acceptable limit. [ 6 , 11 ], and these results are consistent with studies conducted in India. Total dissolved solids values ​​ranged from 146 mg/l to 467 mg/l [ 21 ]. The high TDS content in groundwater may be due to the dissolution of weathered material from rock formations [ 22 ]. The occurrence of high TDS values ​​in certain tap water samples is unpleasant for consumers and can cause excessive sedimentation in water heaters, boilers and appliances [ 23 ]. Total Hardness (TH): Water hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved polyvalent metal ions, mainly calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) and magnesium ions (Mg 2+ ) (Table 1 ). These total hardness concentrations, with the exception of AN-1, are within the WHO and ESA maximum permissible limit of 300 mg/L for drinking water [ 6 , 11 ]. High hardness concentrations in tap water may be due to lava rocks, including gypsum and dolomite, which are responsible for water hardness [ 24 ]. Similar findings were observed in Guya village and its surroundings, Tigray in northern Ethiopia. Hardness values ​​varied from 170.00 to 327.50 mg/L [ 25 ]. Turbidity (Turb): Turbidity is a measure of how much water loses its clarity due to the presence of suspended particles. Turbidity values ​​of well water samples varied between 0.13 and 0.34 NTU (Table 1 ). The turbidity values ​​recorded show that all tap and bottled water samples had values ​​that were within the WHO and ESA acceptable limits for drinking water < 5 NTU [ 6 , 11 ]. Similarly, the quality of drinking water in the western part of the Tigray region, Kaftah Humera waleda, especially Kunama Adigosh, Hageres Selam, May Woyini and Habesha Adigosh Kebeles, showed that the turbidity of all tested samples was his maximum of 5 NTU. It shows that it was below the reference value [ 7 ]. Floating soil, sediment, carbonaceous material in organic matter, and the appearance of other invisible organisms increase turbidity. When the water becomes very turbid, it affects the photosynthetic performance of the aquatic plants due to the reduced light input to the well. This increase in water temperature is due to the absorption of sunlight [ 26 ]. Levels of heavy metals Iron (Fe): Iron concentrations in all bottled mineral water samples were below the instrument detection limit. Fe concentrations in tap water samples from the springs of Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GN-1) were 0.9433 (± 0.02) and 0.82 (± 0.05) mg/l, respectively (Table 2 ). The presence of iron in drinking water may be due to the use of iron coagulants, or corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes in the water supply, and iron abundance in the earth's crust. No health-based guideline is set by WHO for iron content in drinking water [ 5 ]. However, drinking water with iron concentrations above 0.3 mg/L may impair drinking-water acceptability, and iron concentrations below 0.3 mg/L may lead to turbidity and discoloration of drinking water [ 3 , 27 , 28 ]. Zinc (Zn): As shown in Table 1 , Zn was detected in all water samples at concentrations ranging from 0.001 to 0.2027 mg/L (Table 2 ). A minimum zinc concentration was detected in BW1, a maximum zinc concentration of 0.2027 mg/l in the Aynalem tap water sample, 0.055 mg/l in the Gerebsegen (GN-1) drinking water source, and high zinc concentrations in tap water than bottled water sample. Similarly, concentrations in tap water can be much higher because of dissolution of zinc from pipes [ 29 ]. Zinc concentrations above 3 mg/L may not be acceptable to consumers. Zinc imparts an undesirable astringent taste to water at a threshold concentration of approximately 4 mg/L (as zinc sulfate). Water containing zinc at concentrations of 3–5 mg/L appears milky and forms a greasy film when boiled [ 30 ]. Zinc concentrations in all water samples analyzed are below the values ​​accepted by the ESA. WHO does not propose health-based guide values ​​for zinc in drinking-water because zinc in drinking-water is harmless to health [ 6 , 11 ]. Table 2 The heavy metal concentrations (mean ± SD, N = 3, mg/L) of Tap and bottled water samples Sample Mean ± SD Fe Cu Zn Cd Cr Pb pH EC (µs/cm) BW 1 BDL BDL 0.001 ± 0.00 BDL BDL BDL 6.63 8.77 ± 0.29 % RSD - - 10.66 - - - 0.679 3.29 BW 2 BDL BDL 0.0021 ± 0.00 BDL BDL BDL 6.66 16.63 ± 1.11 %RSD - - 7.16 - - - 0.654 6.70 BW 3 BDL BDL 0.0014 ± 0.00 BDL BDL BDL 6.52 9.31 ± 0.72 %RSD - - 7.14 - - - 0.998 7.69 BW 4 BDL BDL 0.033 ± 0.00 BDL BDL BDL 7.01 31 ± 2.65 %RSD - - 9.35 - - - 1.28 8.53 AN-1(ATS) 0.9433 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.03 0.2027 ± 0.00 0.0213 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.00 0.66 ± 0.01 6.76 898.33 ± 2.51 %RSD 2.67 6.78 1.03 7.16 0 1.76 0.684 0.28 GS-1(BUS) 0.82 ± 0.05 0.67 ± 0.04 0.055 ± 0.00 0.0147 ± 0.00 BDL 0.45 ± 0.03 7.37 620.67 ± 2.08 %RSD 6.79 6.13 3.63 10.41 - 6.67 2.05 0.34 WHO [5] 0.30 0.50 0.20 0.01 0.05 0.05 6.5–8.5 750 ESA [10] 0.30 2.00 5.00 0.05 0.05 0.05 6.5–8.5 1500 WHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation; BDL-below detection limit Copper (Cu): Copper concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GS-1) springs were estimated to be 0.39 (± 0.03) and 0.67 (± 0.04) mg/L, respectively (Table 2 ). The Cu concentration in the Aynalem well (AN-1) was lower than the maximum value accepted by WHO and ESA. However, Cu concentration in Gerebsegen (GS-1) spring is higher than WHO [ 6 , 11 ]. High levels of copper in drinking water can cause vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea, and copper pipes have been reported to leak copper into drinking water [ 31 ]. Chromium (Cr): Cr was detected only at 0.01 (± 0.00) mg/L in tap water samples from Aynalem Spring (AN-1) (Table 2 ). The chromium concentration in this tap water sample is below the WHO guideline maximum allowable value of 0.05 mg/L [ 5 ]. Excess chromium is toxic, especially in its hexavalent form. Long-term exposure can cause kidney, liver, circulatory and nervous tissue damage [ 32 ]. Cadmium (Cd): Cadmium concentrations were found to be 0.0213 for AN-1 and 0.0147 mg/L for GS-1 (Table 2 ) in tap water samples, but not found in bottled water samples. In both samples, the cadmium concentration exceeded the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg/L set by WHO [ 6 ]. Cadmium usually occurs in combination with zinc and enters water through corrosion of galvanized pipes and fittings [ 33 ]. Cadmium is highly toxic and causes food poisoning. Cadmium in small amounts adversely affects human renal arteries. It biochemically replaces zinc, causing hypertension, kidney damage, etc. [ 34 ]. Lead (Pb): Lead concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GS-1) springs were evaluated as (0.6567 ± 0.01) and 0.45 (± 0.03) mg/L, respectively (Table 2 ). The lead concentration in Aynalem exceeded the WHO limit of 0.01 mg/L [ 6 ]. Potential lead sources in drinking water may be related to the corrosive effects of water on domestic plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, solder fittings, or domestic connections. Exposure to lead concentrations above 0.01 mg/l can cause renal failure, fertility impairment and poor pregnancy outcomes, haematological and neurological problems, permanent damage to the central nervous system, brain and kidneys. It is associated with a variety of effects, including [ 35 ]. 3.2 Levels of major cations Table 3 The concentrations some major ions (mean ± SD, N = 3, mg/L) of tap and bottled water samples Sample Mean ± SD Na + K + Ca 2+ Mg 2+ BW1 1.67 ± 0.11 0.01 ± 0 0.15 ± 0.01 0.083 ± 0.01 % RSD 6.59 0 9.96 6.93 BW 2 1.887 ± 0.02 0.243 ± 0.01 0.26 ± 0.01 0.147 ± 0.01 %RSD 1.10 6.28 3.85 7.87 BW 3 1.63 ± 0.10 0.019 ± 0.00 0.12 ± 0.01 0.073 ± 0.01 %RSD 6.46 9.11 9.90 7.87 BW 4 3.807 ± 0.12 0.029 ± 0.00 0.55 ± 0.02 0.21 ± 0.02 %RSD 3.07 5.97 3.15 9.52 AN-1(ATS) 23.55 ± 0.91 2.59 ± 0.29 121.7 ± 1.15 15.33 ± 1.53 %RSD 3.88 11.09 0.95 9.96 GS-1(BUS) 21.08 ± 0.92 2.75 ± 0.19 76.33 ± 1.53 12.67 ± 1.15 %RSD 4.35 7.10 2.001 9.12 WHO [5] 200.00 10.00 100.00 50.00 ESA [10] 200.00 1.50 75.00 50.00 WHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation Calcium (Ca + 2 ): Calcium concentrations in bottled water samples ranged from 0.117 to 0.55 mg/L (Table 3 ). Calcium was detected at higher concentrations in tap water than in bottled water samples. Calcium concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GS-1) springs were estimated to be 121.7 (± 1.15) and 76.33 (± 1.53) mg/L, respectively, which are within acceptable limits. Limitations of WHO and ESA [ 6 , 11 ]. WHO does not propose health-based guideline values ​​for calcium. Magnesium (Mg + 2 ): Magnesium concentrations in the bottled water samples ranged from 0.073 to 0.21 mg/L (Table 3 ). Magnesium was detected at higher concentrations in tap water samples than in bottled water samples. Magnesium concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen springs were estimated to be 15.33 (± 1.53) and 12.67 (± 1.15) mg/L, respectively, which are within acceptable levels. WHO and ESA [ 6 , 11 ]. WHO does not propose health-based guideline values ​​for magnesium. Sodium (Na + ): Sodium was detected in all water samples at concentrations ranging from 1.63 to 23.55 mg/L (Table 3 ). Aynalem (AN-1) 23.55 ± 0.91 and Gerebsegen (GS-1) 21.08 ± 0.92 mg/L tap water samples detected higher concentrations of sodium than bottle samples. These concentrations are below the WHO and ESA permissible limits [ 6 , 11 ]. Sodium concentrations in drinking water are usually less than 20 mg/L, but in some countries can be significantly higher. Be aware that some water softeners can significantly increase the sodium content of your drinking water. No clear conclusions can be drawn about the possible relationship between sodium in drinking water and the development of hypertension. Therefore, no guidance values ​​for health are proposed. However, concentrations above 200 mg/L may result in unacceptable taste [ 36 ]. Potassium (K+): Potassium concentrations in water samples ranged from 0.01 to 2.75 mg/L (Table 3 ). The highest concentrations were determined as 2.75 ± 0.19 for Gerebsegen (GS-1) and 2.59 ± 0.29 mg/l for Aynalem (AN-1). Both are drinking water sources are within WHO limits and ESA allowable limits [ 6 , 11 ]. Potassium intake from drinking water poses few health hazards in healthy individuals. Potassium toxicity from ingestion is rare because potassium is rapidly excreted without pre-existing renal damage, and a single dose of large doses usually induces vomiting. Therefore, no health- based guideline values are proposed for potassium by WHO [ 37 ]. 3.3 Levels of some common anions Fluoride (F − ): In bottled water samples, fluoride concentrations were below the detection limit of the instrument (Table 4 ). Bottled water sample (BW2), tap water samples AN-1 and GS-1 are samples containing fluoride ion concentrations of 0.002 ± 0.00, 0.15 (± 0.01) and (0.13 ± 0.01) mg/L, respectively. Fluoride concentrations in all samples were below the maximum permissible value of 1.5 mg/L set by WHO and ESA [ 6 , 11 ]. At fluoride concentrations exceeding WHO limits, chronic exposure is associated with the development of dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal fluorosis [ 3 , 28 , 38 ]. Chloride (Cl − ): The chloride content of the water samples ranged from 0.81 to 16.523 mg/L water samples (Table 4 ). This is within WHO and ESA tolerance [ 6 , 11 ]. The AN-1 and GS-1 tap water samples (16.52 (± 1.50) and 15.67 (± 1.26) mg/L, respectively, showed higher chloride concentrations than the bottled water samples. Chlorides in drinking water come from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents, urban effluents containing antifreeze salts, and salt injections. No health-based guidelines have been proposed for chlorides in drinking water. However, chloride concentrations above about 250 mg/L can lead to a pronounced taste in water [ 39 ]. Table 4 The concentrations some major anions (mean ± SD, N = 3, mg/L) of tap and bottled water samples Sample Mean ± SD F − Cl − NO 3 − SO 4 2− PO 4 3− BW1 BDL 0.81 ± 0.08 0.15 ± 0.01 0.237 ± 0.01 BDL % RSD - 9.80 6.67 4.88 BW2 0.002 ± 0.00 0.903 ± 0.04 0.237 ± 0.01 0.32 ± 0.02 BDL %RSD 5.97 4.19 4.88 5.41 BW3 BDL 0.92 ± 0.02 0.87 ± 0.02 0.243 ± 0.01 BDL %RSD - 1.88 1.99 6.28 BW4 BDL 2.55 ± 0.03 1.767 ± 0.04 0.53 ± 0.02 BDL %RSD - 1.04 2.36 3.27 AN-1(ATS) 0.15 ± 0.01 16.52 ± 1.50 6.103 ± 0.61 241.67 ± 1.15 0.019 ± 0.00 %RSD 9.96 9.09 9.93 0.48 12.37 GS-1(BUS) 0.13 ± 0.01 15.67 ± 1.26 4.75 ± 0.46 169 ± 1.73 0.029 ± 0.00 %RSD 12.05 8.07 9.71 1.02 8.06 WHO [5] 1.5 250.00 45.00 250.00 2.00 ESA [10] 250.00 50.00 250.00 2.00 WHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation; BDL-below detection limit Nitrate (NO 3 − ): The nitrate concentrations of the water samples analyzed ranged from 0.15 to 6.1033 mg/L (Table 4 ). The highest values ​​were 6.103 (± 0.61) for AN-1 and 4.75 (± 0.46) mg/L for GS-1 as bottled water samples. All water samples were found to contain nitrates below the WHO limit of 45 mg/L for safe drinking water [ 5 ]. Guide values ​​for nitrate are based on short-term effects, but they also serve as a protection against long-term effects. The main source of nitrate is agricultural activities [ 40 ]. Sulfate (SO 4 2− ): A wide concentration range from 0.2366 mg/L to 241.67 mg/L was obtained for sulfate (Table 4 ). Highest values ​​were measured in drinking water samples from tap water at AN-1, 241.67 (± 1.15) and GS-1, 169 (± 1.73) mg/L, than bottled water samples. These are within the WHO and ESA tolerance limits of 250 mg/L [ 6 , 11 ]. The presence of sulfates in drinking water can cause a pronounced taste, and very high levels can have laxative effects in untrained consumers [ 35 ]. Taste thresholds have been found to range from 250 mg/L for sodium sulfate to 1000 mg/L for calcium sulfate. It is generally assumed that taste disturbances are minimal at concentrations below 250 mg/L [ 41 ]. Phosphate (PO 4 3− ): As shown in Table 4 , phosphate concentrations were 0.019 (± 0.00) and (0.029 ± 0.00) mg/L in all bottled mineral water samples and AN-1 and GS-1 tap water samples have been recorded and are within the WHO and ESA permissible limits of 250 mg/L [ 6 , 11 ]. WHO does not propose health-related guideline values ​​for phosphate. 3.4 Statistical data analysis of ions In addition to comparing data to selected national (ESA) and WHO water quality standards, all data were statistically analyzed by evaluating mean, %standard deviation, and variance. Microsoft Excel 2010 and IBM SPSS Statistics version 20 were used for statistical analysis tools. One-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) and multivariate comparisons were performed. Metals The mean differences of the metals in the tap waters have significant difference at (p < 0.05) significance level. Cation , pH and EC : BW1, BW4, AN-1, and GS-1 Na + show significant mean differences. K + ions in bottled water are significantly different from those in AN-1 and GS-1. However, there is no significant difference in ions between AN-1 and GS-1 water. Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ in tap water are very different from these ions in mineral water. These ions also have significant mean differences in AN-1 and GS-1 water. The pH of BW4, AN-1, and GS-1 show significant differences from the pH of the rest of the water samples. Similarly, there are significant differences between AN-1 and GS-1. There is no significant EC difference between water samples BW1 and BW3. Anions At this confidence interval, the mean difference in bottled water anions is significantly different from the AN-1 and GS-1 anions. NO 3 - in BW4 is also very different from other samples. There is not much difference between bottled water. Anions in tap water make a big difference. 3.5 Comparison tap water samples and labeled values To ascertain whether the true mean and the measured mean for a particular analytical data set differ significantly, a t-test is frequently employed. The true and measured means do not differ significantly, as Table 5 illustrates. All of the samples (BW1, BW2, BW3, and BW4) that were examined in this investigation had labels for Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Cl − , and pH (Table 4 ). A t-test with two degrees of freedom and a 95% confidence level is used to compare these species. With two degrees of freedom and a 95% confidence level, the crucial t-value is 4.30. Therefore, for all analysts compared, there are significant discrepancies between the values highlighted and the results achieved in this investigation, with the exception of Na + and Cl- in BW1, K + in BW2, and pH in BW4. Table 5 Comparison with the labeled values of bottled water samples (mg/L) Sample Parameters Na + K + Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Cl − pH Uk1 Labeled value 1.55 0.25 0.7 0.2 0.71 7.0 Present result 1.67 ± 0.11 0.01 ± 0 0.153 ± 0.015 0.083 ± 0.006 0.81 ± 0.079 6.63 ± 0.045 t-value 1.89 63.16 33.78 2.19 14.24 Uk2 Labeled value 2.12 0.26 1.18 0.31 4.25 7.01 Present result 1.887 ± 0.021 0.243 ± 0.015 0.26 ± 0.01 0.147 ± 0.012 0.903 ± 0.038 6.66 ± 0.044 t-value 19.22 1.96 159.35 23.53 152.56 13.78 Uk3 Labeled value 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.5 7.01 Present value 1.63 ± 0.105 0.019 ± 0.002 0.117 ± 0.012 0.07 ± 0.006 0.92 ± 0.017 6.52 ± 0.065 t-value 5.44 156.75 11.98 210.73 42.79 13.06 Uk4 Labeled value 1.30 0.27 0.73 0.13 0.93 7.02 Present result 3.807 ± 0.117 0.029 ± 0.02 0.55 ± 0.017 0.21 ± 0.02 2.55 ± 0.026 7.11 ± 0.091 t-value 37.11 20.87 18.34 6.93 107.92 1.71 WHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation 4. CONCLUSION Drinking water safety can be affected by physical, chemical, and microbiological contaminants. Such pollutants can lead to an array of health problems. Therefore, analysis of drinking water for physical and chemical parameters containing trace metals is of great importance. In this study, five physical parameters, six heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cd) and nine major ions (Cl − , NO 3 − , SO 4 2− , F − , PO 4 3− , Na + ) values ​​of K + , Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ ) in four bottled water samples (BW1, BW2, BW3, BW4) from Mekelle city, Ethiopia, and tap water samples from two different sources of Mekelle city (AN-1 and GS-1). All selected heavy metals (except Zn) were detected in all bottled water samples and both tap water samples (except Cr) detected heavy metals. Most major anions (except F − and PO 4 3− ) and all major cations were detected in both water samples analyzed. PO 4 − 3 was also undetectable in all bottled water samples. F − was not detected in BW1, BW3, BW4. Major cations (Na + , Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ ), major anions (Cl − , NO 3 − SO 4 2− ) were obtained at higher concentrations in BW4 than in other bottled water samples. Concentrations of all heavy metals and major ions were assessed to be higher in tap water than in bottled water samples. Concentration values ​​for all major cations (except K + ), all major anions (except PO 4 3− ), and all heavy metals (except Cu) were higher in the Aynalem spring tap water sample appreciated spring in Gerebsegen. There were significant differences in the composition of the bottled water samples analyzed. However, all measured parameters in all bottled water samples are with the concentration limit of WHO are safe for human consumption. Both tap water samples were found not to meet WHO and ESA guidelines for drinking water. Concentration values ​​of Cd, Pb, and Fe in both tap water samples exceeded the maximum permissible limits set by WHO. Relevant authorities in Mekelle Municipality should review water treatment processes or mechanisms and implement appropriate drinking water treatment (purification technology) that can reduce the level of harmful substances to protect consumer health. All bottled water sold must be monitored and tested for quality and licensed by the appropriate authorities in Tigray State. It is hereby recommended that both local and central governments increase their budget allocations for water supply to complement the World Bank projects. In addition, the necessary personnel competencies Declarations Acknowledgement The authors are highly indebted to acknowledge Mekelle University. They are also thankful to the College of Natural and Computational Sciences for allowing us to carry out the analyses. Authors’ contributions GGB, TJM, GMT, KGG, and AHT conceived the study's problem. All authors prepared the research proposal and developed the experiment's design. GGB and TJM prepared the first draft of the manuscript, and DBS and KGG reviewed it to produce the final draft. Funding College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekelle University supported this study. Availability of data The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Ethics and Consent to Participate Declarations Not applicable Consent to Publish Declaration: Not applicable Conflict of Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References UNICEF (2015). Briefing note: El Nin ˜o’s impact on children-A wake-up call. http://www.unicef.org.uk/Documents/Media/112015%20El%20Nino%20Briefing%20Note.pdf. Emenike, C.P., Tenebe, I.T., Omole, D.O., Ngene, B.U., Oniemayin, B.I., Maxwell, O., Onoka, B.I. (2017). Accessing safe drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa: issues and challenges in South-West Nigeria. Sustain Cities Soc, 30,263–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.01.005 Senila, M. 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New York, NY, United States: Millenium city Initiatives, Columbia University. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8GM8F57. Ephrem, G.G., Kifle, W., Gebremedihin, B. (2013). Engineering Geological and Geotechnical Appraisal of Nothern Mekelle Town, Tigray. American Scientific Research:Journal of Engineering. Technology and Sciences (ASRJETS). 5(1). 26-53, ISSN (Online) 2313-4402, ISSN (Online) 2313-4402. American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Waste Water (2012). American Public Health Association Press, Washington, DC, USA, 22 nd edition. Kiros Gebremichail Gebresilasie, Goitom Gebreyohannes Berhe, Amanual Hadera Tesfay, Samuel Estifanos Gebre (2021) Assessment of Some Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metals in Hand-Dug Well Water Samples of Kafta Humera Woreda, Tigray, Ethiopia, Tnternational Journal of Analytical Chemistry, ID 8867507, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8867507 Bhatnagar, A.,Devi, P., (2013). 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ISBN: 9781780400044 (Paperback); 9781780400747 (eBook) Marin Senila, (2023). Metal and metalloid monitoring in water by passive sampling – A review, Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, vol. 42, no. 1, 2023, pp. 20230065. https://doi.org/10.1515/revac-2023-0065 Temitope, D., Timothy, O. (2017). Ensuring water availability in Mekelle City, Northern Ethiopia: evaluation of the water supply sub-project. Applied Water Science , 7, 4165–4168 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-017-056. Samantara, M.K., Padhi, R.K., Sowmya, M., Kumaran, P., Satpathy, K.K. (2017). Heavy metal contamination, major ion chemistry and appraisal of the groundwater status in coastal aquifer, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 5, 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2017.04.001. Gonzalez, S., Lopez-Roldan, R.,Cortina, J.L. (2013). Presence of metals in drinking water distribution networks due to pipe material leaching: a review. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 95(6), 870-889. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2013.840372. Izah, S.C., Chakrabarty, N., Srivastav, A.L. (2016). A review on heavy metal concentration in potable water sources in Nigeria: Human health effects and mitigating measures. Exposure and Health, 8(2),285-304. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ftoxics5010001. Abdulhussain, I.A., Zahei, A.O., Dakhil, R.M. (2011). Determination Of Heavy Metals Concentration In Drinking Water From Different Sources Of Basrah City. Kufa Journal of engineering, 3(1), 49-61. https://journal.uokufa.edu.iq/index.php/kje/article/view/1269. Sharma, H., Rawal, N., Mathew, B.B. (2015). The characteristics, toxicity and effects of cadmium. International journal of nanotechnology and nanoscience, 3,1-9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305778858. Kumar, M., Puri, A. (2012). A review of permissible limits of drinking water. Indian journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 16(1),40. https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5278.99696. Sivakumar, D., Kandaswamy, A.N., Priya, V.K., Hemalatha, S. (2015). Suitability of groundwater in and around Tannery industrial belt. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 8(02), 292-297. SSN: 0974-2115. Conti, G.O., Fiore, M. (2013). Potassium (K). Health Effects of Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water,82. eISBN: 9781780405988. Liu, G., Ye, Q., Chen, W., Zhao, Z., Li, L., Lin, P. (2015). Study of the relationship between the lifestyle of residents residing in fluorosis endemic areas and adult skeletal fluorosis. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 40(1), 326-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2015.06.022. John, O.O., Nwamaka, O.O., Rukeme, E., Osikemekha A.A., Victoria, O. (2022). Water quality evaluation using physicochemical and biological indices to characterize the integrity of the Orogodo River in sub-Saharan Africa, 3.1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvc.2022.961369. Joseph, A.C. (2017). WHO guidelines for drinking water quality: first addendum to the fourth edition. Journal‐American Water Works Association, 109(7),44-51. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0087. Odiana, S., Edosomwan, E.U., (2020). Qualitative Assessment of Bottled Water Sold in Benin City Nigeria Using Physico-Chemical Indicators. African Scientist, 20(3). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5407797","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":444215716,"identity":"1acc0ff0-1e5a-46f7-b2b5-897d7ebd7596","order_by":0,"name":"Tenagne Jiru Mergia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle City Education Office, Tigrai Regional State Education Bureau","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tenagne","middleName":"Jiru","lastName":"Mergia","suffix":""},{"id":444215717,"identity":"c18c528d-a84e-4f70-a27e-7eaa0915b8c3","order_by":1,"name":"Amanual Hadera Tesfay","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"] College of Natural and Computational Sciences - Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amanual","middleName":"Hadera","lastName":"Tesfay","suffix":""},{"id":444215721,"identity":"f2db795c-865f-45cf-a45f-62c8c8d6f93a","order_by":2,"name":"Gebrekidan Mebrahtu Tesfamariam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"] College of Natural and Computational Sciences - Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gebrekidan","middleName":"Mebrahtu","lastName":"Tesfamariam","suffix":""},{"id":444215723,"identity":"b7295df9-16db-4c9c-ac0e-47daef694751","order_by":3,"name":"Desta Berhe Sbhatu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle Institute of Technology – Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Desta","middleName":"Berhe","lastName":"Sbhatu","suffix":""},{"id":444215726,"identity":"ddc6c014-51a5-4aae-a03f-6a967776302a","order_by":4,"name":"Kiros Gebremichail Gebresilasie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tsegede Wereda Education Office, Tigrai Regional State Education Bureau","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kiros","middleName":"Gebremichail","lastName":"Gebresilasie","suffix":""},{"id":444215728,"identity":"09cec06f-57aa-4d12-88a2-55de251e02f4","order_by":5,"name":"Goitom Gebreyohannes Berhe","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"] College of Natural and Computational Sciences - Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Goitom","middleName":"Gebreyohannes","lastName":"Berhe","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-11-07 07:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5407797/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5407797/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80890510,"identity":"d9c874db-d52a-4d95-9f75-29aa9a74160f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 10:04:42","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139835,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMekelle city with administration sub-cities, (based on Andrea Castro, 2009) [15]\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5407797/v1/50fd1101a11f20bca3009342.png"},{"id":80891763,"identity":"03b267e8-69ab-43a5-baff-229eae10c50b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 10:28:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1400831,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5407797/v1/0cad4ab1-e317-44d9-800c-e6854e4c9b8d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessment on Physicochemical Quality of Tap and Bottled Water in Mekelle City, Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater is one of the most important natural resources on earth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. It is the most important nutrient for living things in general and humans in particular. Humans as biological and sociocultural beings use water as food for subsistence and as a renewable resource to sustain survival and enable development and civilization. Therefore, access to quality water, rather than access to water itself, has long been a global socio-cultural and economic policy challenge. In this context, providing access to quality water is a vital part of the expired Millennium Development Goals (MDG 2000\u0026ndash;2015) (Goal 7; Goal 3) and the current Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2016\u0026ndash;2030). ) (Goal 6) was one of the main priorities in United Nations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. However, access to quality water remains a key challenge in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Access to quality water worldwide rose from 76\u0026ndash;91% thanks to efforts and programs by the United Nations, various levels of government, and both international and local NGOs, whereas the conditions in sub-Saharan Africa continue to be alarming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. hese interest groups and communities are doing quite poorly. They have failed to enhance the quality of water supplies for cities and peri-urban areas, much less for the wider population [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal and regional entities, including the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), European Union (EU), African Union (AU), United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), and United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), have developed strategies, plans, and policies aimed at ensuring that the public has access to sufficient and quality drinking water supplies, in collaboration with national and local governmental bodies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Improving access to quality drinking water is one of the most important measures to protect and promote public health. Thus, the 4th edition of the WHO Guidelines on Drinking-Water Quality states that the main objective of the guidelines is to \u0026ldquo;protect public health\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom this viewpoint, safe and high-quality drinking water is devoid of microbial and chemical dangers, as well as radiation threats, and meets standards for appearance, flavor, and smell [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Many minerals in water help provide essential micronutrients, but WHO has never recommended setting minimum levels of essential elements. Deionized water is consumed worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. However, poor mineralization of drinking water can compromise the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) of each essential micronutrient, especially calcium and magnesium, leading to health complications of deficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith 12 large river basins and an annual renewable water volume of 122\u0026nbsp;billion cubic meters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], Ethiopia is regarded as one of the world's fastest developing nations; nonetheless, its population still do not have access to clean water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The main problems facing UDWS in Ethiopian cities, which rank among the least developed countries in the SSA and the world in terms of access, institutional capacity, etc., include rapid urbanization, high water demand, depleting water supplies, inadequate water management, deteriorating water quality, and deteriorating functionality of current water supply system components, lack of suitable and efficient planning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the fastest-growing towns in Ethiopia is Mek'ele, the capital of the Tigray National Region province. In 2005, the World Bank's Urban Water and Sanitation Project (UWSSP) was implemented to address the city's pressing demand for sufficient, high-quality drinking water. Regretfully, despite some documented gains, the project and its outcomes fall short of meeting the demands of rapidly expanding cities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to bottled water, which is widely used in metropolitan areas, the city currently delivers water from the ground, another surface water source. Thus, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the quality of four bottled waters and two public water supplies using physicochemical characteristics set by the Ethiopian standardizing organization ESA and the WHO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Three issues will be the focus of the evaluation: suitability for mineralization (demineralization), palatability, and health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods and Materials","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Descriptions of the Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMekelle, the capital of the Tigray region, lies in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, 780 km north of Addis Ababa. Geographically, it is located around 780 kilometers north of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, at a latitude and longitude of 13\u0026deg;29\u0026prime;N 39\u0026deg;28\u0026prime;E, with an elevation of 2084 meters above sea level (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). To the north and east, it is encircled by hills, but to the south and west, it is quite flat. With more than 544,000 people living there, the city is growing quickly to the north, northwest, and west [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Nonetheless, the city's economy is growing quickly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe terrain of the Mekele region is characterized by flat, hilly and mountainous terrain. Hills lie at the northern and eastern ends of the city and extend further east, exposing limestone and dolerite bedrock [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14 CR15\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, topography and geological conditions are important constraints and limiting factors for the future development and expansion of Mekelle City. Mekelle is north of the equator and its summer (wet season) he occurs in June, July and August and appears irregular, irregular and unevenly distributed throughout the year. An analysis of meteorological records observed at multiple stations indicates that the annual average total precipitation is 575.9 mm/year. Precipitation varies in the study area from year to year and within months of the year [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Sampling and Preservation.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour brands of bottled water (BW1, BW2, BW3, and BW4) were chosen for this study and bought at random from supermarkets in various parts of Mekelle city in January 2021. In the city of Mekelle, tap water samples were taken from two sources: Gerebsegen (GS-1) at the Semien Wereda subsite, at the Gerebsegen dam, and Aynalem (AN-1), derived from groundwater, at Hadnet Wereda subsite (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The samples were collected and stored in polyethylene plastic bottles after being cleaned for 30 minutes with distilled water and 5% HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. In order to prevent contamination, all samples taken from the study area were labeled, kept in iceboxes between 4 and 10\u0026deg;C, and then brought to Mekelle University in Ethiopia's School of Earth Science and Geochemical Laboratory of the College of Natural Computational Sciences for analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Analysis of Physical and chemical Parameters in the Water Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on previous work by Gebresilasiee et al., 2021 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], water samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Sulfate, Phosphate, and Nitrate using standard analytical methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. pH and total dissolved solids were measured using a pH meter (HI 99130 HANNA, Romania). Conductivity was measured with a conductivity meter (Multi 3410 m, Germany). Chloride concentrations were determined using argenometric titration. Concentrations of cations Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e and K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e were measured with a flame atomic absorption spectrometer, FAAS (JENWAY, PFPT, UK) and concentrations of anions (F\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, Cl\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e, SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2-\u003c/sup\u003e and PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3-\u003c/sup\u003e) were measured with UV-visible light bottom spectrophotometer (Lambda, CE1021, Australia). The concentrations of metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Mg, and Ca) were determined with an atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS, (Spectra AA50B, VARIAN, Germany) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data Analysis.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, physical characteristics and heavy metal levels were compared to worldwide and national drinking water standards. The relative standard deviation of the triplicate results and the pooled standard deviation were used to evaluate the results' precision. Precision of results was assessed using the pooled standard deviation and the relative standard deviation of triplicate determinations for each water sample (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3). For all data aggregated, the percent relative standard deviation (% RSD) values ​​were less than 15%, which indicates that the precision of the results obtained by all methods is excellent to assess the level of each parameter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Physicochemical parameters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, physicochemical parameters, such as; pH, EC, turbidity, total dissolved solids, and total hardness were examined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physicochemical parameter concentrations (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3) of tap and bottled samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample, code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC (\u0026micro;s/cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTDS (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTH (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurb (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAN-1(ATS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e898.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e642.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e365.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGS-1(BUS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e620.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e436.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e237.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO\u003csup\u003e[5]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESA\u003csup\u003e[10]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eWHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003epH value\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measurement of pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of water. The pH of AN-1 tap water (6.76) is in a similar range to the bottled water samples (BW1, BW 2 and BW 3, acidic range) and the pH of GS-1 tap water (7.37) is in the same range as the sample. BW4 bottled water (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Although pH values ​​do not adversely affect human health, according to WHO guidelines, the normal pH range for drinking water is between 6.5 and 8.5 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The pH values ​​of all analyzed water samples are within the range recommended by WHO and ESA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eElectrical Conductivity\u003c/b\u003e (EC): EC is a measure of dissolved ionic content in water and is a measure of electrical properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The highest values ​​of electrical conductivity were found for the drinking water sources Aynalem (AN-1) with 898.33 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.51) \u0026micro;s/cm and Gerebsegen (GS-1) with 620.67 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.08) \u0026micro;s/cm (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). These have been documented within WHO and ESA tolerances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. EC values ​​are much lower than this tolerance limit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTotal Dissolved Solids\u003c/b\u003e (TDS): Total dissolved solids is the amount of mobile charged ions, including minerals, salts, or dissolved metals, expressed in mg/L. The average total dissolved solids (TDS) for all water samples ranged from 5.86 to 642.02 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). All measured tap and bottled water samples recorded TDS concentrations below the ESA limit for drinking water (1000 mg/L), whereas the GS-1 water source recorded below the WHO acceptable limit. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], and these results are consistent with studies conducted in India. Total dissolved solids values ​​ranged from 146 mg/l to 467 mg/l [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The high TDS content in groundwater may be due to the dissolution of weathered material from rock formations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. The occurrence of high TDS values ​​in certain tap water samples is unpleasant for consumers and can cause excessive sedimentation in water heaters, boilers and appliances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTotal Hardness\u003c/b\u003e (TH): Water hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved polyvalent metal ions, mainly calcium ions (Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e) and magnesium ions (Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). These total hardness concentrations, with the exception of AN-1, are within the WHO and ESA maximum permissible limit of 300 mg/L for drinking water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. High hardness concentrations in tap water may be due to lava rocks, including gypsum and dolomite, which are responsible for water hardness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar findings were observed in Guya village and its surroundings, Tigray in northern Ethiopia. Hardness values ​​varied from 170.00 to 327.50 mg/L [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTurbidity\u003c/b\u003e (Turb): Turbidity is a measure of how much water loses its clarity due to the presence of suspended particles. Turbidity values ​​of well water samples varied between 0.13 and 0.34 NTU (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The turbidity values ​​recorded show that all tap and bottled water samples had values ​​that were within the WHO and ESA acceptable limits for drinking water\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5 NTU [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, the quality of drinking water in the western part of the Tigray region, Kaftah Humera waleda, especially Kunama Adigosh, Hageres Selam, May Woyini and Habesha Adigosh Kebeles, showed that the turbidity of all tested samples was his maximum of 5 NTU. It shows that it was below the reference value [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Floating soil, sediment, carbonaceous material in organic matter, and the appearance of other invisible organisms increase turbidity. When the water becomes very turbid, it affects the photosynthetic performance of the aquatic plants due to the reduced light input to the well. This increase in water temperature is due to the absorption of sunlight [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLevels of heavy metals\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIron\u003c/b\u003e (Fe): Iron concentrations in all bottled mineral water samples were below the instrument detection limit. Fe concentrations in tap water samples from the springs of Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GN-1) were 0.9433 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02) and 0.82 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05) mg/l, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of iron in drinking water may be due to the use of iron coagulants, or corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes in the water supply, and iron abundance in the earth's crust. No health-based guideline is set by WHO for iron content in drinking water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. However, drinking water with iron concentrations above 0.3 mg/L may impair drinking-water acceptability, and iron concentrations below 0.3 mg/L may lead to turbidity and discoloration of drinking water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eZinc\u003c/b\u003e (Zn): As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, Zn was detected in all water samples at concentrations ranging from 0.001 to 0.2027 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A minimum zinc concentration was detected in BW1, a maximum zinc concentration of 0.2027 mg/l in the Aynalem tap water sample, 0.055 mg/l in the Gerebsegen (GN-1) drinking water source, and high zinc concentrations in tap water than bottled water sample. Similarly, concentrations in tap water can be much higher because of dissolution of zinc from pipes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Zinc concentrations above 3 mg/L may not be acceptable to consumers. Zinc imparts an undesirable astringent taste to water at a threshold concentration of approximately 4 mg/L (as zinc sulfate). Water containing zinc at concentrations of 3\u0026ndash;5 mg/L appears milky and forms a greasy film when boiled [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Zinc concentrations in all water samples analyzed are below the values ​​accepted by the ESA. WHO does not propose health-based guide values ​​for zinc in drinking-water because zinc in drinking-water is harmless to health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe heavy metal concentrations (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, mg/L) of Tap and bottled water samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC (\u0026micro;s/cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.66\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.679\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0021\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.654\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0014\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAN-1(ATS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9433\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2027\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0213\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e898.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGS-1(BUS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.055\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0147\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e620.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.41\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO\u003csup\u003e[5]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESA\u003csup\u003e[10]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation; BDL-below detection limit\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCopper\u003c/b\u003e (Cu): Copper concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GS-1) springs were estimated to be 0.39 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03) and 0.67 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) mg/L, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The Cu concentration in the Aynalem well (AN-1) was lower than the maximum value accepted by WHO and ESA. However, Cu concentration in Gerebsegen (GS-1) spring is higher than WHO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. High levels of copper in drinking water can cause vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea, and copper pipes have been reported to leak copper into drinking water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eChromium\u003c/b\u003e (Cr): Cr was detected only at 0.01 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00) mg/L in tap water samples from Aynalem Spring (AN-1) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The chromium concentration in this tap water sample is below the WHO guideline maximum allowable value of 0.05 mg/L [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Excess chromium is toxic, especially in its hexavalent form. Long-term exposure can cause kidney, liver, circulatory and nervous tissue damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCadmium\u003c/b\u003e (Cd): Cadmium concentrations were found to be 0.0213 for AN-1 and 0.0147 mg/L for GS-1 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) in tap water samples, but not found in bottled water samples. In both samples, the cadmium concentration exceeded the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg/L set by WHO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Cadmium usually occurs in combination with zinc and enters water through corrosion of galvanized pipes and fittings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Cadmium is highly toxic and causes food poisoning. Cadmium in small amounts adversely affects human renal arteries. It biochemically replaces zinc, causing hypertension, kidney damage, etc. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLead\u003c/b\u003e (Pb): Lead concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GS-1) springs were evaluated as (0.6567\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and 0.45 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03) mg/L, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The lead concentration in Aynalem exceeded the WHO limit of 0.01 mg/L [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Potential lead sources in drinking water may be related to the corrosive effects of water on domestic plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, solder fittings, or domestic connections. Exposure to lead concentrations above 0.01 mg/l can cause renal failure, fertility impairment and poor pregnancy outcomes, haematological and neurological problems, permanent damage to the central nervous system, brain and kidneys. It is associated with a variety of effects, including [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Levels of major cations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe concentrations some major ions (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, mg/L) of tap and bottled water samples\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.887\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.243\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.147\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.073\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.807\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAN-1(ATS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGS-1(BUS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO\u003csup\u003e[5]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESA\u003csup\u003e[10]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eWHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCalcium\u003c/b\u003e (Ca\u003csup\u003e+\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e): Calcium concentrations in bottled water samples ranged from 0.117 to 0.55 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Calcium was detected at higher concentrations in tap water than in bottled water samples. Calcium concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen (GS-1) springs were estimated to be 121.7 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15) and 76.33 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53) mg/L, respectively, which are within acceptable limits. Limitations of WHO and ESA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. WHO does not propose health-based guideline values ​​for calcium.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMagnesium\u003c/b\u003e (Mg\u003csup\u003e+\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e): Magnesium concentrations in the bottled water samples ranged from 0.073 to 0.21 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Magnesium was detected at higher concentrations in tap water samples than in bottled water samples. Magnesium concentrations in tap water samples from Aynalem (AN-1) and Gerebsegen springs were estimated to be 15.33 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53) and 12.67 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15) mg/L, respectively, which are within acceptable levels. WHO and ESA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. WHO does not propose health-based guideline values ​​for magnesium.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSodium\u003c/b\u003e (Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e): Sodium was detected in all water samples at concentrations ranging from 1.63 to 23.55 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Aynalem (AN-1) 23.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91 and Gerebsegen (GS-1) 21.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92 mg/L tap water samples detected higher concentrations of sodium than bottle samples. These concentrations are below the WHO and ESA permissible limits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Sodium concentrations in drinking water are usually less than 20 mg/L, but in some countries can be significantly higher. Be aware that some water softeners can significantly increase the sodium content of your drinking water. No clear conclusions can be drawn about the possible relationship between sodium in drinking water and the development of hypertension. Therefore, no guidance values ​​for health are proposed. However, concentrations above 200 mg/L may result in unacceptable taste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePotassium\u003c/b\u003e (K+): Potassium concentrations in water samples ranged from 0.01 to 2.75 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The highest concentrations were determined as 2.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19 for Gerebsegen (GS-1) and 2.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 mg/l for Aynalem (AN-1). Both are drinking water sources are within WHO limits and ESA allowable limits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Potassium intake from drinking water poses few health hazards in healthy individuals. Potassium toxicity from ingestion is rare because potassium is rapidly excreted without pre-existing renal damage, and a single dose of large doses usually induces vomiting. Therefore, no health- based guideline values are proposed for potassium by WHO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Levels of some common anions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFluoride\u003c/b\u003e (F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e): In bottled water samples, fluoride concentrations were below the detection limit of the instrument (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Bottled water sample (BW2), tap water samples AN-1 and GS-1 are samples containing fluoride ion concentrations of 0.002\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00, 0.15 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and (0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) mg/L, respectively. Fluoride concentrations in all samples were below the maximum permissible value of 1.5 mg/L set by WHO and ESA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. At fluoride concentrations exceeding WHO limits, chronic exposure is associated with the development of dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal fluorosis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eChloride\u003c/b\u003e (Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e): The chloride content of the water samples ranged from 0.81 to 16.523 mg/L water samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This is within WHO and ESA tolerance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The AN-1 and GS-1 tap water samples (16.52 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.50) and 15.67 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.26) mg/L, respectively, showed higher chloride concentrations than the bottled water samples. Chlorides in drinking water come from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents, urban effluents containing antifreeze salts, and salt injections. No health-based guidelines have been proposed for chlorides in drinking water. However, chloride concentrations above about 250 mg/L can lead to a pronounced taste in water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe concentrations some major anions (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, mg/L) of tap and bottled water samples\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.237\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.903\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.237\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.243\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.767\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAN-1(ATS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.103\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e241.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.37\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGS-1(BUS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%RSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO\u003csup\u003e[5]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESA\u003csup\u003e[10]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eWHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation; BDL-below detection limit\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNitrate\u003c/b\u003e (NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e): The nitrate concentrations of the water samples analyzed ranged from 0.15 to 6.1033 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The highest values ​​were 6.103 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61) for AN-1 and 4.75 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46) mg/L for GS-1 as bottled water samples. All water samples were found to contain nitrates below the WHO limit of 45 mg/L for safe drinking water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Guide values ​​for nitrate are based on short-term effects, but they also serve as a protection against long-term effects. The main source of nitrate is agricultural activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSulfate\u003c/b\u003e (SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e): A wide concentration range from 0.2366 mg/L to 241.67 mg/L was obtained for sulfate (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Highest values ​​were measured in drinking water samples from tap water at AN-1, 241.67 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15) and GS-1, 169 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73) mg/L, than bottled water samples. These are within the WHO and ESA tolerance limits of 250 mg/L [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of sulfates in drinking water can cause a pronounced taste, and very high levels can have laxative effects in untrained consumers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Taste thresholds have been found to range from 250 mg/L for sodium sulfate to 1000 mg/L for calcium sulfate. It is generally assumed that taste disturbances are minimal at concentrations below 250 mg/L [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePhosphate\u003c/b\u003e (PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e): As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, phosphate concentrations were 0.019 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00) and (0.029\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00) mg/L in all bottled mineral water samples and AN-1 and GS-1 tap water samples have been recorded and are within the WHO and ESA permissible limits of 250 mg/L [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. WHO does not propose health-related guideline values ​​for phosphate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Statistical data analysis of ions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to comparing data to selected national (ESA) and WHO water quality standards, all data were statistically analyzed by evaluating mean, %standard deviation, and variance. Microsoft Excel 2010 and IBM SPSS Statistics version 20 were used for statistical analysis tools. One-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) and multivariate comparisons were performed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eMetals\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean differences of the metals in the tap waters have significant difference at (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) significance level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCation\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003epH\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003eEC\u003c/b\u003e: BW1, BW4, AN-1, and GS-1 Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e show significant mean differences. K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e ions in bottled water are significantly different from those in AN-1 and GS-1. However, there is no significant difference in ions between AN-1 and GS-1 water. Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e in tap water are very different from these ions in mineral water. These ions also have significant mean differences in AN-1 and GS-1 water. The pH of BW4, AN-1, and GS-1 show significant differences from the pH of the rest of the water samples. Similarly, there are significant differences between AN-1 and GS-1. There is no significant EC difference between water samples BW1 and BW3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eAnions\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt this confidence interval, the mean difference in bottled water anions is significantly different from the AN-1 and GS-1 anions. NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in BW4 is also very different from other samples. There is not much difference between bottled water. Anions in tap water make a big difference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Comparison tap water samples and labeled values\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ascertain whether the true mean and the measured mean for a particular analytical data set differ significantly, a t-test is frequently employed. The true and measured means do not differ significantly, as Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e illustrates. All of the samples (BW1, BW2, BW3, and BW4) that were examined in this investigation had labels for Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, and pH (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). A t-test with two degrees of freedom and a 95% confidence level is used to compare these species. With two degrees of freedom and a 95% confidence level, the crucial t-value is 4.30. Therefore, for all analysts compared, there are significant discrepancies between the values highlighted and the results achieved in this investigation, with the exception of Na\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;and Cl- in BW1, K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;in BW2, and pH in BW4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison with the labeled values of bottled water samples (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUk1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabeled value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent result\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.153\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.079\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.89\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.19\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUk2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabeled value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent result\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.887\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.243\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.147\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.903\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.96\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUk3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLabeled value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1.3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.8\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.5\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e7.01\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.117\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUk4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabeled value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent result\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.807\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.091\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.71\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eWHO:World Health Organization; ESA:Ethiopian Standard Agency; SD:standard deviation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eDrinking water safety can be affected by physical, chemical, and microbiological contaminants. Such pollutants can lead to an array of health problems. Therefore, analysis of drinking water for physical and chemical parameters containing trace metals is of great importance. In this study, five physical parameters, six heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cd) and nine major ions (Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e ) values ​​of K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, and Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e) in four bottled water samples (BW1, BW2, BW3, BW4) from Mekelle city, Ethiopia, and tap water samples from two different sources of Mekelle city (AN-1 and GS-1). All selected heavy metals (except Zn) were detected in all bottled water samples and both tap water samples (except Cr) detected heavy metals. Most major anions (except F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) and all major cations were detected in both water samples analyzed. PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e was also undetectable in all bottled water samples. F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e was not detected in BW1, BW3, BW4. Major cations (Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, and Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e), major anions (Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) were obtained at higher concentrations in BW4 than in other bottled water samples. Concentrations of all heavy metals and major ions were assessed to be higher in tap water than in bottled water samples. Concentration values ​​for all major cations (except K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), all major anions (except PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e), and all heavy metals (except Cu) were higher in the Aynalem spring tap water sample appreciated spring in Gerebsegen. There were significant differences in the composition of the bottled water samples analyzed. However, all measured parameters in all bottled water samples are with the concentration limit of WHO are safe for human consumption. Both tap water samples were found not to meet WHO and ESA guidelines for drinking water. Concentration values ​​of Cd, Pb, and Fe in both tap water samples exceeded the maximum permissible limits set by WHO. Relevant authorities in Mekelle Municipality should review water treatment processes or mechanisms and implement appropriate drinking water treatment (purification technology) that can reduce the level of harmful substances to protect consumer health. All bottled water sold must be monitored and tested for quality and licensed by the appropriate authorities in Tigray State. It is hereby recommended that both local and central governments increase their budget allocations for water supply to complement the World Bank projects. In addition, the necessary personnel competencies\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are highly indebted to acknowledge Mekelle University. They are also thankful to the College of Natural and Computational Sciences for allowing us to carry out the analyses.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGGB, TJM, GMT, KGG, and AHT conceived the study\u0026apos;s problem. All authors prepared the research proposal and developed the experiment\u0026apos;s design. GGB and TJM prepared the first draft of the manuscript, and DBS and KGG reviewed it to produce the final draft. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCollege of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekelle University supported this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Participate Declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interests:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUNICEF (2015). 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Health Effects of Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water,82. \u003cstrong\u003eeISBN:\u003c/strong\u003e9781780405988.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, G., Ye, Q., Chen, W., Zhao, Z., Li, L., Lin, P. (2015). Study of the relationship between the lifestyle of residents residing in fluorosis endemic areas and adult skeletal fluorosis. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 40(1), 326-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2015.06.022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJohn, O.O., Nwamaka, O.O., Rukeme, E., Osikemekha A.A., Victoria, O. (2022). Water quality evaluation using physicochemical and biological indices to characterize the integrity of the Orogodo River in sub-Saharan Africa, 3.1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvc.2022.961369.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJoseph, A.C. (2017). WHO guidelines for drinking water quality: first addendum to the fourth edition. Journal‐American Water Works Association, 109(7),44-51. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0087.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOdiana, S., Edosomwan, E.U., (2020). Qualitative Assessment of Bottled Water Sold in Benin City Nigeria Using Physico-Chemical Indicators. African Scientist, 20(3).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-chemistry","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Chemistry](https://link.springer.com/journal/44371)","snPcode":"44371","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44371/3","title":"Discover Chemistry","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Major cations, Major anions, Water quality and physicochemical parameters","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5407797/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5407797/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eClean drinking water is a basic need for good health and an essential resource for communities around the world. In this study, the levels of six heavy metals, nine major ions and five physicochemical parameters in four different bottled water and two tap water samples from different sources that are consumed in Mekelle were investigated. Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy and UV \u0026ndash; spectrophotometry were used for the determination of major anions and levels of major cations were determined. The mean concentration of Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, EC and pH in water samples were found in the range [(0.82-0.9433), (0.39-0.6693), (0.055\u0026ndash;0.2027), (0.0147\u0026ndash;0.0213), (0.45-0.6567), (1.63\u0026ndash;23.55), (0.01\u0026ndash;2.75), (0.117\u0026ndash;121.7), (0.073\u0026ndash;15.33), (0.0019\u0026ndash;0.153), (0.81-16.523), (0.15-6.1033), (0.2366\u0026ndash;241.67), (0.0186\u0026ndash;0.0286)] mg/L, EC (8.77-898.33 \u0026micro;s/cm) and pH (6.52\u0026ndash;7.33), respectively. Not all the selected heavy metals (except Zn) were detected in all bottled water samples. All the heavy metals were detected in both tap water samples except Cr, which was not detected from Gerebsegen source (GS-1). All major anions (except F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) and all major cations were detected in all water samples analyzed. PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e was not detected in all bottled water samples and F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e was not detected in BW1, BW3 and BW4. Major cations (Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e) and major anions (Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e and SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) were found to be higher in BW4 than other bottled water sample. Concentration levels of all the heavy metals and major ions were found to be higher in the tap than bottled water samples. Concentration levels of all major cations (except K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), all major anions (except PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) and levels of all heavy metals (except Cu) were found to be higher in tap water sample from Aynalem source (AN-1) than from Gerebsegen source. Detected concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr and all major ions in all water samples analyzed were below the maximum permissible level suggested by WHO and ESA. Concentrations of heavy metals: Fe, Cd and Pb in tap water samples from both sources exceeded the maximum permissible limit set by WHO and ESA. Therefore, all tested bottled water samples are safe for drinking. Relevant authorities in Mekelle Municipality should review water treatment processes or mechanisms and implement appropriate drinking water treatment (purification technology). This allows us to reduce the level of harmful substances to protect consumer health.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment on Physicochemical Quality of Tap and Bottled Water in Mekelle City, Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-18 10:04:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5407797/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-10T16:46:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T07:17:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-17T06:59:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39783597722776523856732861571026890287","date":"2025-04-17T06:44:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-17T06:39:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-16T10:12:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Chemistry","date":"2025-03-27T15:16:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-chemistry","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Chemistry](https://link.springer.com/journal/44371)","snPcode":"44371","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44371/3","title":"Discover Chemistry","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"606ff660-c4db-462c-9169-b0cc790e73c0","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-11T14:53:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-18 10:04:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5407797","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5407797","identity":"rs-5407797","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}