Comparing the effectiveness of different modes of exercise snacks in improving muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive college students

Comparing the effectiveness of different modes of exercise snacks in improving muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive college students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Comparing the effectiveness of different modes of exercise snacks in improving muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive college students Ji Zhu, Yanghao Wang, Bing He, Ming Li, Yurong Chen, SiYing Huang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6760233/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of different Exercise Snacks patterns on muscular strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive college students. Methods: a total of 31 subjects were randomly divided into three groups, namely a resistance exercise snack group (RES, n=11), a cycling exercise snack group (BES, n=10), and a mixed resistance and cycling exercise snack group (MES, n=10). The subjects performed the ES intervention on three occasions per day, three days per week, over a period of six weeks, with single intervals exceeding two hours. The RES group performed deep squats, while the BES entailed a bike ride on the Wattbike, with the RES group performing deep squats immediately after the bike ride. In the initial three weeks, the subjects performed exercise bouts of 30 seconds in duration, whereas from week 4 onwards, the duration of each session was increased to 60 seconds. Results: RESULTS:After 6 weeks of intervention, no changes in body weight and body fat percentage were observed in either group of subjects. However, a statistically significant within-group change in body mass index (BMI) was found in the RES group (P=0.041). However, there were no between-group differences in BMI for the three participants.The 30°/s isometric extensor strength exhibited a substantial augmentation in peak torque (PT) of the knee extensors in the RES and MES groups. However, no discernible group differences were observed among the three ES modalities (P=0.371, Partial η²=0.068).The 60°/s and 300°/s isokinetic strength outcomes demonstrated that the PT of both knee flexors and extensors underwent a significant enhancement in the MES group. However, only PT improvement other than 300°/s isokinetic flexor strength was observed in the RES group (P<0.05), while in the BES group, within-group improvement was observed for all metrics except 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength (P 0.05) across the three subject groups.Anaerobic power demonstrated that all three ES modalities elicited significant within-group improvements (P0.05). In contrast, significant within-group improvements were only observed in the RES and BES groups in MinP (P<0.05).VO2peak results demonstrated that all three groups of subjects exhibited significant improvements following the 6-week intervention (P<0.05). However, no between-group differences were observed (P=0.370, Partial η²=0.069). Conclusion: The utilisation of diverse ES modalities has been demonstrated to exert favourable influences on parameters such as muscle strength, anaerobic power and cardiorespiratory fitness in the context of PI university students. This strategy may be employed as an efficient time-saving exercise technique for individuals who have limited time available. Health sciences/Health care/Health services Health sciences/Health care/Occupational health Health sciences/Health care/Public health Health sciences/Health care/Quality of life Health sciences/Health care/Weight management Health sciences/Health care/Disease prevention Health sciences/Health care/Disease prevention/Lifestyle modification Health sciences/Health care/Disease prevention/Preventive medicine Health sciences/Health care Health sciences/Health occupations exercise Snacks physical inactivity muscle strength cardiorespiratory fitness exercise modalities anaerobic power Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 Introduction As demonstrated in studies 1 – 3 , physical inactivity (PI) is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease, skeletal muscle disease, and all-cause mortality on a global scale, with approximately 3.2 million deaths per year 3 . The adoption of higher levels of moderate-intensity physical activity (i.e., 60–75 minutes per day) has been demonstrated to offset the increased risk of death associated with high sedentary time 4 . The World Health Organisation (WHO) also recommends a minimum of 75–150 minutes per week of moderate-to-high-to-vigorous physical activity combined with muscle-strengthening training at least twice a week to promote physical fitness 5 .Nevertheless, merely 20% of young people and adults adhere to the international guidelines for integrating aerobic exercise and muscle-strengthening activities 6 .This is frequently associated with a paucity of time, reliance on specialised equipment, and difficulty in performing consistently over time 7 , 8 .Despite the fact that it is not feasible to fully adhere to the PA guidelines, the most recent PA guidelines advocate that physical activity at any time is advantageous to physical health (with some amount being preferable to none) 5 , thereby signifying that the adoption of some time-saving and efficient exercise also retains its significance in terms of enhanced health outcomes. For the majority of individuals, dividing exercise into multiple shorter bouts throughout the day may be more manageable (i.e. less than 10 minutes) and is a viable strategy to incorporate into daily life 9 , 10 . A viable method of mitigating the deleterious effects of physical inactivity (PI) is to engage in brief periods of vigorous physical activity throughout the day, termed 'Exercise Snacks' (ES) 11 .The ES approach was originally developed as a strategy to enhance cardiometabolic health through exercise prescription. For instance, Francois 12 discovered that in insulin-resistant individuals, brief and vigorous exercise prior to each meal exhibited superior efficacy in reducing postprandial and 24-hour mean glucose concentrations when compared to a solitary prolonged bout of continuous exercise. In adults diagnosed with PI, the ingestion of snacks consisting of stair-climbing three times a day, over a period of three days each week, has been demonstrated to enhance peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) 13 . Furthermore, Yin 14 demonstrated that a 6-week stair-climbing exercise regime (three days per week, three times per day) was capable of producing effects analogous to those of MICT (40 minutes at 60%-70% heart rate maximum) when compared to Moderate Intensity Continuous Training (MICT). As ES research has evolved, it has also been expanded to encompass resistance exercise. For instance, Perkin 15 discovered that performing home resistance ES exercises twice a day over a 28-day period in 10 older adults resulted in enhanced leg muscle function and size. A further study also found that 12 weeks of resistance ES significantly improved muscle mass in sedentary female workers 16 . Consequently, despite the utilisation of disparate ES modalities, these studies demonstrate favourable outcomes in terms of enhanced cardiometabolic health and augmented muscle strength. Despite the evidence for the effectiveness of ES, the majority of studies to date have compared ES with non-exercising controls or with other exercise modalities (e.g. aerobic, high-intensity interval exercise), with few studies directly comparing the effects of different modalities of ES on individuals. At this stage, only in Francois' study was it found that the use of walking-based ES and ES based on alternating resistance and walking had similar effects on improving glucose in insulin-resistant individuals 12 . Another published study was solely an acute research protocol on the comparison of different modalities of ES 17 , which compared the effects of three modalities of high-intensity interval training, short sprint Exercise Snacks, and no exercise intervention on individuals with type 2 diabetes. However, no outcome metrics were provided. Consequently, it is imperative to ascertain whether the various ES modalities exhibit divergent effects on alterations in body metrics. This assertion is supported by the findings of Weston's recent review 18 .The majority of extant ES studies have been conducted using stair climbing (n = 6), cycling (n = 7), and body weight exercise (n = 13). This predominance may be attributed to the relative simplicity and ease of these modalities. In addition, in order to guarantee the heterogeneity of the exercise modalities and to diminish the impact of extraneous factors, the following were selected for the purpose of modality comparison: bicycle riding, deep squatting, and a combination of the two. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to compare the differences in the effects of different exercise modalities (squatting, cycling, and cycling combined with squatting) of ES over a 6-week period in improving leg muscle strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness in PI university students. 2 Methods 2.1 Subjects This study used a multi-channel recruitment strategy, with subjects selected through academic poster posting, email, and interpersonal communication. Subjects were screened according to strict inclusion criteria, which were as follows: (1) not meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended standards for physical activity, i.e., not systematically engaging in 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week and at least 2 times per week of muscle-strengthening training, (2) adult individuals (age ≥ 18 years), (3) no history of smoking, alcohol consumption, or drug dependence in the past 6 months, (4) BMI between 17.9 and 24.9. 4) BMI between 17.9 and 24.9. Exclusion criteria encompassed the following: (1) engagement in alternate exercise programmes or exercise-related somatic complaints during the intervention period, (2) a history of exercise-related injury within the preceding six months, and (3) concurrent participation in other exercise programmes during the intervention period. A total of 36 subjects who met the specified criteria were enrolled in the study. Five female subjects withdrew from the study during the intervention for personal reasons, and 31 subjects completed the intervention (see Fig. 1 for the flow chart). Prior to participation, all subjects provided written informed consent, which had been subject to ethical review. They were also provided with a comprehensive explanation of the experimental procedures and the data collection protocol. The study protocol was reviewed by the Ethics Committee of the College of Sports Science, Fujian Normal University (approval number: FJNU20250223), and the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki were followed throughout. 2.2 Experimental design Subjects were randomly divided into Resistance Exercise Snacks (RES, n = 11; M/F = 8/3, age = 19.72 ± 0.69, height = 170.36 ± 10.66, weight = 63.35 ± 8.52), Bicycle Exercise Snacks (BES, n = 10; M/F = 8/2, age = 19.59 ± 0.60, height = 172.60 ± 11.58, weight = 66.37 ± 8.98) and Mixed Exercise Snacks (MES, n = 10; M/F = 9/1, age = 19.59 ± 0.60, height = 172.60 ± 8.98) groups. 11.58, weight = 66.37 ± 8.98) and Mixed Exercise Snacks group (MES, n = 10; M/F = 9/1, age = 19.94 ± 1.31, height = 173.30 ± 7.32, weight = 63.33 ± 6.51). The experiment lasted 6 weeks, from week 1 to week 3, the subjects performed ES for 30 seconds ‘as fast as possible’ 3 days a week (3 times a day), with single intervals of at least 2 hours. From week 4 onwards, subjects increased their single exercise dose from 30 seconds to 1 minute. Participants were asked to perform the exercise on alternate days as it was only performed on 3 days per week. A diagram of the experimental design is shown in (Fig. 2 ). To ensure standardisation of variables such as movement and time during the experiment, all participants were asked to perform the intervention in the Exercise Science Laboratory of Fujian Normal University and ensured that it was conducted under the supervision of the researchers. In the RES group, the exercise regime comprised squatting movements. In the BES group, the intervention was conducted on a wind resistance bicycle (Wingate Pro, Nottingham, UK), with the Wattbike Pro adjusting the air resistance according to the subject's specific body weight (see Table 1 ). In the MES group, the exercise regimen involved a combination of cycling and squatting. Specifically, in weeks 1–3, the subjects performed 15 seconds of cycling, followed by 15 seconds of deep squats, immediately followed by a further 15 seconds of deep squatting. In the fourth week of the study, the single exercise dose administered to the MES group was increased to 30 seconds of cycling, which was then immediately followed by 30 seconds of deep squatting. Table 1 Air resistance setting Rider weight(kg)-Male Air Setting Rider weight(kg)-Female Air Setting < 50 1 < 45 1 51 < 60 2 46 < 50 1 61 < 70 3 51 < 55 2 71 < 85 4 56 < 60 2 86 < 95 5 61 < 65 2 96 < 105 6 66 < 70 2 106 < 115 7 71 < 80 3 2.3 Test metrics 2.3.1 Body composition Standardized body composition measurements were obtained under fasting conditions at 9:00 a.m. using the InBody 370 bioelectrical impedance analyzer (Seoul, South Korea). Following standardized protocols, participants underwent standing height measurement using a stadiometer prior to body composition analysis. Subjects were instructed to wear light attire and remove footwear and metal accessories to maximize measurement precision. The system automatically computed weight (kg), adiposity index (%), and body mass index (BMI) through mass-to-stature squared (kg/m²) algorithmic processing. 2.3.2 leg muscle strength After completion of a standardised preparatory programme consisting of 5 minutes of cycling and 3 minutes of lower limb dynamic mobility exercises, isokinetic strength parameters were quantified using a dynamometer system (HUMAC NORM Test System, CSMI Solutions). The assessment programme consisted of:Isokinetic peak torque (PT) assessment at an angular velocity of 60°/s. Isokinetic Average Torque (AT) evaluation at 180°/s angular velocity.Instrument calibration is carried out prior to each test to ensure measurement fidelity. Positioning parameters were standardised as follows: ergometer tilt 40°, seat tilt 40°, seat backrest tilt 70–85° and sagittal alignment through the lateral femoral condyles. The warm-up programme consisted of graded exertion (50–80% of perceived exertion for isokinetic testing) followed by a 30-second recovery period. Formal testing consisted of five maximal knee flexion-extension tests at 60°/s angular velocity and 25 knee flexion-extension fatigue tests at 180°/s angular velocity. There was a 1-minute recovery interval between each set. 2.3.3 Anaerobic power A power bicycle (Monark 894E, Sweden) was used for anaerobic power assessment of the subjects.The brake weight type was calculated from 7.5% (0.075 kg-kg body mass-1) of the participant's own body weight. The seat height was adjusted to align with the participant's hip height, and the weight basket was pre-calibrated by the researcher to the target mass prior to the commencement of the test (tolerance ± 5 g) and manually released at the start of the test. The system automatically determined the presence of a valid resistance trigger by measuring a 1-second difference in pedal frequency (> 10 rpm) between the front and back, and repeated the test if the criterion was not met. Following the calibration of the values, the subjects performed a 30-second Wingate test. During this test, the researcher provided continuous verbal encouragement to ensure that the subjects maintained maximum force. Following the conclusion of the experimental trial, the following parameters were meticulously documented: the individual's peak power (PP), average power (AP), minimum power (MinP), maximum speed (rmp), and Total energy production. 2.3.4 peak oxygen uptake The subjects undertook cardiorespiratory fitness tests on a metabolic bicycle (Monark 839E, Sweden) to determine their VO2peak, which was defined as the highest average oxygen consumption over 30 seconds. Prior to the commencement of the testing phase, the subjects were required to don a cardiopulmonary function tester equipped with a gas collection system (CORTEX MetaMax 3B, Italy). The subsequent arrangement of the ramp protocol was as follows: following a preliminary period of 3 minutes at 50 watts, the subjects commenced the test at a resistance level of 50 watts. Thereafter, the workload was augmented by 25 watts per minute until the point of volitional exhaustion was attained. Volitional exhaustion was defined as an inability to maintain a minimum of 50 revolutions per minute (rpm) for a continuous duration of 5 seconds (s). Subjects were considered to have been tested when they met two or more of the following conditions: (1) volitional exhaustion; (2) RER > 1.15; and (3) heart rate reached ± 10 of the predicted maximum heart rate. 2.4 statistical analysis The statistical analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS 29.0. Statistical significance was defined as P < 0.05.The Shapiro-Wilk test was employed to assess the normality of the data, while the Levene test was used to analyse the homogeneity of variance. The mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD) was employed for data that met the criteria of normality and homogeneity. Paired samples t-tests were used for within-group analyses, and one-way repeated measures of variance were used for between-group analyses. The 60°/s isokinetic extensor and flexor strengths were analysed, and data that did not conform to homogeneity was identified; therefore, non-parametric tests were used. Intra- and intergroup comparisons were made using the Wilcoxon rank test and the Kruskal-Wallis H test, respectively. Data were expressed as median (Q25, Q75). Effect sizes were reported as Partial η², with 0.01, 0.06, and 0.14 representing small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively 19 . 3 Result 3.1 Body composition Following the 6-week intervention (see Table 2 ), subjects in the RES group demonstrated a significant reduction in BMI (P = 0.041). However, no within-group changes in BMI were observed in the BES and MES groups. Subsequent analysis of the between-group results revealed no statistically significant difference in BMI among the three subject groups (P = 0.251, Partial η²=0.094). No significant intra- and inter-group differences were identified in the weight and body fat of the subjects in the three groups. Table 2 Comparison of differences in body composition among the three groups of subjects parametric RES P BES P MES P P Partial η² Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Weight(kg) 63.35 ± 8.52 62.56 ± 8.42 0.069 66.37 ± 8.98 66.52 ± 9.53 0.732 63.33 ± 6.51 62.96 ± 6.84 0.535 0.505 0.048 Body fat(%) 22.38 ± 7.76 21.78 ± 7.02 0.241 19.46 ± 10.66 20 ± 9.25 0.598 16.47 ± 3.65 16.25 ± 4.86 0.742 0.226 0.101 BMI(kg/m2) 21.77 ± 1.67 21.46 ± 1.49 0.041* 22.32 ± 2.27 22.26 ± 2.32 0.673 21.00 ± 1.43 20.91 ± 1.42 0.688 0.251 0.094 Body mass index(BMI),*P < 0.05. 3.2 Muscle strength As demonstrated in (Table 3 ), significant within-group improvements in isometric extensor strength were observed in both the RES group (P = 0.006) and the MES group (P = 0.005) following the 6-week intervention. However, no between-group differences were identified (P = 0.371, partial η² = 0.068).A significant disparity was identified within the groups in terms of 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength and 60°/s isokinetic flexor strength PT for subjects in the RES and MES groups (P < 0.05). However, no significant within-group changes were identified in the BES group for 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength (P = 0.169). Significant within-group differences were observed only in 60°/s isokinetic flexor strength (P = 0.014). The 60°/s isokinetic strength of the PT showed no significant between-group differences among the three groups of subjects (P > 0.05).The isokinetic extensor and flexor strength measurements demonstrated significant within-group variations in PT between the RES and MES cohorts (p < 0.05). However, only 300°/s isokinetic flexor strength was observed in the BES group, with significant within-group improvement in PT (P 0.05). Table 3 Comparison of leg muscle strength between pre- and post-intervention subjects parametric RES P BES P MES P P Partial η² Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post 30°/s isometric extensor strength 135.73 ± 50.99 155 ± 48.12 0.006** 124.20 ± 43.33 135 ± 34.96 0.074 137.20 ± 44.99 158.60 ± 33.89 0.005** 0.371 0.068 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength 152(106,203) 179(123,214) 0.005** 149.5(120.25,188.75) 165.5(122.5,191.5) 0.169 160(123.25,176.5) 184(154.5,195.5) 0.005** 0.651 - 60°/s isokinetic flexor strength 115(75,133) 123(81,138) 0.036* 101(79.5,121) 110(91.25,137.75) 0.014* 105.5(85,113) 122(106.75,127.5) 0.005** 0.667 - 300°/s isokinetic extensor strength 74.55 ± 21.95 87.45 ± 21.95 0.005** 76.20 ± 19.61 91.30 ± 22.95 0.001** 79.40 ± 14.02 91.20 ± 12.29 0.003** 0.878 0.009 300°/s isokinetic flexor strength 65.73 ± 20.73 71.45 ± 15.90 0.103 65.00 ± 21.11 77.00 ± 21.19 < 0.001*** 66.50 ± 14.48 76.20 ± 8.34 0.004** 0.693 0.026 *P < 0.05,**P < 0.01,***P < 0.001.The 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength and 60°/s isokinetic flexor strength is expressed as a median. 3.3 Anaerobic power The results of the anaerobic power analysis (see Table 4 ) demonstrated that all three ES modalities contributed to significant within-group improvements (P 0.05.MinP demonstrated a tendency to enhance outcomes within the RES group (P = 0.094) and the MES group (P < 0.001), while no such enhancement was observed within the MES group (P = 0.277).Subsequent to the implementation of the intervention, between-group disparities revealed that there were no between-group disparities among the three subject groups (P = 0.430, partial η² = 0.058). Furthermore, substantial within-group enhancements were observed for both maximum speed and total energy output across all three ES modalities. However, no substantial between-group enhancements were observed (P > 0.05). Table 4 Comparison of anaerobic power values between pre- and post-intervention subjects parametric RES P BES P MES P P Partial η² Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post PP(w) 622.12 ± 186.83 735.64 ± 208.09 < 0.001*** 689.73 ± 199.77 763.04 ± 235.13 0.06* 682.15 ± 123.03 810.76 ± 114.14 0.002** 0.673 0.028 AP(w) 442.31 ± 105.52 499.95 ± 124.71 < 0.001*** 487.49 ± 128.02 551.49 ± 143.49 < 0.001*** 475.22 ± 59.21 551.41 ± 65.95 < 0.001*** 0.508 0.047 MinP(w) 265.01 ± 68.39 282.56 ± 69.80 0.094* 302.02 ± 79.94 359.19 ± 78.62 < 0.001*** 282.38 ± 70.28 304.15 ± 71.41 0.277 0.066 0.058 Max speed (rmp) 112.93 ± 17.96 131.67 ± 22.43 < 0.001*** 126.77 ± 18.12 135.87 ± 16.62 0.03* 122.97 ± 11.32 142.83 ± 10.71 < 0.001*** 0.353 0.072 total energy produced(J) 12002.82 ± 3217.54 14663.18 ± 3599.85 0.017* 14200.30 ± 3598.89 16172.40 ± 4102.89 < 0.001*** 13750.70 ± 1731.95 16096.20 ± 1906.65 < 0.001*** 0.512 0.047 *P < 0.05,**P < 0.01,***P < 0.001,PP=,Peak power(PP),Average power(AP),minimum power(MinP),W = watt,J = joule. 3.4 peak oxygen uptake The findings indicated(Table 5 ) that all three ES modalities significantly enhanced the subjects' VO2peak following the 6-week intervention (P < 0.05). However, no between-group differences were observed (P = 0.370, Partial η²=0.069). Table 5 Comparison of peak oxygen uptake between pre- and post-intervention subjects parametric RES P BES P MES P P Partial η² Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post VO2peak 2.19 ± 0.53 2.36 ± 0.48 0.019* 2.38 ± 0.56 2.61 ± 0.54 0.037* 2.31 ± 0.35 2.61 ± 0.32 < 0.00***1 0.370 0.069 *P < 0.05,***P < 0.001.Peak oxygen uptake(VO2peak) 4 Discussion The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of different modalities of ES in enhancing muscular strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness. The findings indicated that over a 6-week period, diverse forms of ES exerted comparable effects in enhancing muscle strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness in PI college students. In terms of muscle strength, it was observed that the three ES modalities significantly improved PT in subjects with 30°/s isometric and 300°/s isokinetic strength.Support for this study was provided by a study in Liang 20 , which found that a twice-daily ES programme (comprising one resistance snack and one tai chi snack) significantly improved lower limb strength, balance and mobility. In a similar vein, Perkin 15 and Brandt 16 resistance-based ES has been demonstrated to enhance leg muscle strength in older adults and augment muscle mass in female workers. In contrast to the findings of this study, Wong 21 found that a single 30-second all-out sprint of sprint ES five days a week (once a day) over a 6-week period did not elicit positive changes in muscle strength in physically active young adults. The present study hypothesises that this may be related to the high baseline muscle strength levels and very low daily exercise dose (1 time per day, 5 days per week) of the individuals in Wong's study.The interesting finding in this study was that there was no significant within-group improvement in the BES group in the 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength test. In addition, the 30°/s isometric extensor strength and 300°/s isokinetic flexor strength did not demonstrate significant within-group changes in the RES group. One potential explanation for this phenomenon could be attributed to the variation in the nature of exercise modalities employed. The disparity in exercise modalities between the RES and BES groups, with the former relying on deep squats and the latter engaging in bicycle sprinting, which bears resemblance to high-intensity interval training (HIIT), may have resulted in divergent physiological adaptations between the two subject groups. Conversely, gender differences may also have an impact on PT. Consequently, this issue must be further investigated in subsequent studies, specifically whether there is an effect in enhancing muscle strength or other physiological indices due to variations in ES exercise modalities or gender disparities. The Wingate anaerobic test is widely regarded as the gold standard for the assessment of anaerobic power. The results demonstrated significant enhancements in PP, AP, maximum speed, and total energy production across all three subject groups. To date, no study has examined the effectiveness of ES in improving anaerobic power using the Wingate 30-second test. The present study corroborates the hypothesis that even low-dose ES can positively influence anaerobic power enhancement in PI college students. In the present study, it was hypothesised that the improvement in anaerobic power may be related to the recruitment of fast muscle fibres due to high-frequency exercise over a short period of time, which induced an increase in muscle strength 22 , thus favouring anaerobic power. Another hypothesis that may account for the observed enhancement of anaerobic power after six weeks of ES is the increase in myoglycogen reserves and the improvement in lactate clearance. This phenomenon may be associated with the rapid depletion of myo-glycogen and the subsequent increase in blood lactate concentration induced by brief periods of high-intensity exercise 23 , 24 . However, a more recent study has shown that a decentralised form of HIIT (three times a day with a single interval of four hours) appears to exhibit a lower increase in blood lactate concentration compared to a single, focused session of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) 25 . In the absence of observed blood markers, it was not possible to ascertain whether alterations in exercise dose or interval duration were contributing factors to the observed enhancements in anaerobic power. Consequently, we propose that subsequent studies may consider the integration of blood markers to elucidate the underlying mechanisms behind ES-induced enhancements in anaerobic power, from the perspectives of physiological and molecular mechanisms. The findings of the study demonstrated that VO2peak levels were considerably elevated in all subjects (P < 0.05), yet no significant differences were observed between the groups (P = 0.370). This finding is consistent with the results of a study by Jenkins 26 , who reported that performing three sets of 30-second stair climbs per day for a period of six weeks resulted in an enhancement of VO2peak in sedentary adults when compared to inactive adults.Notwithstanding the disparity in the forms of exercise employed, it was observed that all of them contributed to the enhancement of cardiorespiratory markers through brief periods of high-intensity ES. Concurrently, the study by Yin 14 also compared the differences between MICT and staircase sprinting ES. Despite the absence of a discernible difference between the groups, both modes of exercise promoted cardiorespiratory fitness. In terms of temporal cost, the reduced duration of stair-climbing ES was evidently more beneficial.Additionally, Little 13 conducted a comparative analysis of cycling sprint ES and sprint interval training. The findings indicated that cycling sprint ES for 30 seconds, three times a day (with single intervals of 1–4 hours) and sprint interval training (3 x 20 seconds, with a single 3-minute interval) were more effective in enhancing 150 kJ time trial performance and VO2peak. This provides further corroboration for the conclusions of our study. The novel finding of the present study is that in a previous study by Francois 12 , both his ES using walking and his ES using walking alternating with resistance promoted improvements in postprandial glucose in insulin-resistant individuals, which partly suggests a similar effect on glucose control between the different modalities of ES. Furthermore, the present study extends this to include improvements in muscle strength, anaerobic power, and VO2peak improvements. However, further research is required to elucidate the mechanisms by which ES promotes VO2peak improvement through physiological adaptations in the body, and whether different modalities of ES result in similar changes in metabolic adaptations. Consequently, this issue must be the subject of further investigation in the future. Limitations and recommendations for future research It is important to note that the study is not without its limitations. Firstly, the overall sample size of this study was small (n = 31), which may have affected the statistical validity of the experiment. Consequently, it is recommended that the sample size be increased in subsequent studies to further validate the results of this study. Secondly, the subjects participating in the experiment comprised a significantly larger sample of males (n = 25) and a very small number of females (n = 11). In addition, five of the females withdrew from the intervention, resulting in only six females completing the intervention. While the influence of gender on the impact of exercise on physical health enhancement has been documented 27 , 28 , the extent to which this effect is potentiated or diminished in ES remains to be elucidated. Consequently, further research is required to ascertain whether gender disparities influence ES and engender divergent alterations in bodily metrics. For the purpose of short-term validation, the study focused exclusively on deep squatting, cycling, and a combination of the two. However, it should be noted that the effects of longer intervention cycles require further validation.Finally, subjects were asked to perform ES in the laboratory with uniformity and at the fastest possible speed. However, it should be noted that when subjects perform ES in their daily lives or at home, it may not be possible to supervise them to perform it in accordance with the standard procedure. The utilisation of wearable physical activity trackers has been posited as a potentially efficacious approach 29 , 30 . For instance, the collection of real-time data can be conducted remotely or in person, and the subsequent analysis employs statistical models to facilitate comprehension of the alterations observed in participants during ES. 5 Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrate that different modalities of ES are capable of enhancing muscle strength, anaerobic power and cardiorespiratory health in PI university students. It is important to note that, although the differences between the different ES modalities were not significant in the short-term scenario, the differential effects may still be exacerbated by long-term interventions. Further validation from longer intervention cycles is recommended. Moreover, despite the restricted range of outcome metrics observed in this study, the confirmation of the potential of ES to promote the overall health of individuals is nevertheless advantageous. It can thus be concluded that both of these strategies are effective in terms of saving time for university students with PI. Declarations Conflict of interest This study declares no conflict of interest. Funding This study was not funded. Author Contribution JZ was responsible for designing the study and writing the paper. YH W was responsible for data processing and experimental interventions. B H and M L were responsible for the supervision and methodology of the trial with YR C.SY H was responsible for the funding of the study and the editing of the paper. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the participants for their active cooperation, the researchers for their conscientiousness, and the Movement Laboratory for their technical assistance. Data Availability Data can be obtained from the corresponding author or the first author. References Pedersen, B. K. & Febbraio, M. A. Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 8 , 457–465 (2012). Lavie, C. J., Ozemek, C., Carbone, S., Katzmarzyk, P. T. & Blair, S. N. Sedentary Behavior, Exercise, and Cardiovascular Health. Circul. Res. 124 , 799–815 (2019). WHO. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Bull. W H O . 87 , 646 (2009). Ekelund, U. et al. Does physical activity attenuate, or even eliminate, the detrimental association of sitting time with mortality? A harmonised meta-analysis of data from more than 1 million men and women. Lancet (London England) . 388 , 1302–1310 (2016). Bull, F. C. et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br. J. Sports Med. 54 , 1451–1462 (2020). Garcia-Hermoso, A. et al. Adherence to aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities guidelines: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 3.3 million participants across 32 countries. Br. J. Sports Med. 57 , 225–229 (2023). Baillot, A. et al. Physical activity motives, barriers, and preferences in people with obesity: A systematic review. PLOS ONE . 16 , e0253114 (2021). Garcia, L. et al. Barriers and facilitators of domain-specific physical activity: a systematic review of reviews. BMC public health.22, (2022). (1964). Gillen, J. B. et al. Interrupting prolonged sitting with repeated chair stands or short walks reduces postprandial insulinemia in healthy adults. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 130, 104–113(2021). (1985). Broadney, M. M. et al. Effects of Interrupting Sedentary Behavior With Short Bouts of Moderate Physical Activity on Glucose Tolerance in Children With Overweight and Obesity: A Randomized Crossover Trial. Diabetes care . 41 , 2220–2228 (2018). Islam, H., Gibala, M. J. & Little, J. P. Exercise Snacks: A Novel Strategy to Improve Cardiometabolic Health. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. 50 , 31–37 (2022). Francois, M. E. et al. Exercise snacks' before meals: a novel strategy to improve glycaemic control in individuals with insulin resistance. Diabetologia 57 , 1437–1445 (2014). Little, J. P. et al. Sprint exercise snacks: a novel approach to increase aerobic fitness. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 119 , 1203–1212 (2019). Yin, M. et al. Exercise snacks are a time-efficient alternative to moderate-intensity continuous training for improving cardiorespiratory fitness but not maximal fat oxidation in inactive adults: a randomized controlled trial. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism Physiologie appliquee, nutrition et metabolisme.49, 920–932 (2024). Perkin, O. J., McGuigan, P. M. & Stokes, K. A. Exercise Snacking to Improve Muscle Function in Healthy Older Adults: A Pilot Study. J. aging Res. 2019 , 7516939 (2019). Brandt, T., Schwandner, C. T. L. & Schmidt, A. Resistance exercise snacks improve muscle mass in female university employees: a prospective, controlled, intervention pilot-study. Front. public. health . 12 , 1347825 (2024). Lazić, A., Danković, G., Korobeinikov, G., Cadenas-Sanchez, C. & Trajković, N. Acute effects of different exercise snacking'' modalities on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BMC public. health . 25 , 566 (2025). Weston, K. L. et al. Application of Exercise Snacks across Youth, Adult and Clinical Populations: A Scoping Review. (2025). Sports medicine - open.11, 27 Lakens, D. Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Front. Psychol. 4 , 863 (2013). Liang, I. J. et al. The Efficacy of 12-Week Progressive Home-Based Strength and Tai-Chi Exercise Snacking in Older Adults: A Mixed-Method Exploratory Randomised Control Trial. J. frailty aging . 13 , 572–581 (2024). Wong, P. Y. et al. A single all-out bout of 30-s sprint-cycle performed on 5 consecutive days per week over 6 weeks does not enhance cardiovascular fitness, maximal strength, and clinical health markers in physically active young adults. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 124 , 1861–1874 (2024). Bagley, L. et al. Sex Comparison of Knee Extensor Size, Strength, and Fatigue Adaptation to Sprint Interval Training. J. strength. conditioning Res. 35 , 64–71 (2021). Spriet, L. L. Anaerobic metabolism in human skeletal muscle during short-term, intense activity. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 70 , 157–165 (1992). Metcalfe, R. S. et al. Physiological and molecular responses to an acute bout of reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training (REHIT). Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 115 , 2321–2334 (2015). de Jesus Gomes, G., Diniz Magalhães, C. O., Queiroz, I. P., Alves de Andrade, J. & Garcia, C. Ramalho de Souza Pereira, R.,et alF. Multiple Shorter High-Intensity Interval Exercise Sessions During the Day Result in Greater Energy Expenditure With Less Exertion Than a Longer Single Session: A Randomized Crossover Clinical Trial. Eur. J. sport Sci. 25 , e12302 (2025). Jenkins, E. M., Nairn, L. N., Skelly, L. E., Little, J. P. & Gibala, M. J. Do stair climbing exercise snacks improve cardiorespiratory fitness? Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism = Physiologie appliquee, nutrition et metabolisme. 44 , 681–684 (2019). Lewis, D. A., Kamon, E. & Hodgson, J. L. Physiological differences between genders. Implications for sports conditioning. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.).3, 357–369 (1986). Harms, C. A. Does gender affect pulmonary function and exercise capacity? Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 151 , 124–131 (2006). Fuller, D. et al. Reliability and Validity of Commercially Available Wearable Devices for Measuring Steps, Energy Expenditure, and Heart Rate: Systematic Review. JMIR mHealth and uHealth.8, e18694(2020). Gill, J. M. et al. Potential impact of wearables on physical activity guidelines and interventions: opportunities and challenges. Br. J. Sports Med. 57 , 1223–1225 (2023). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":118361,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy flow diagram\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6760233/v1/5623b438b8bb53fec9128c64.png"},{"id":93556626,"identity":"a609ff29-c77f-44b6-85f9-089c6207e7ce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-15 06:43:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":218515,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental design diagram\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6760233/v1/e0012800213cb987523eff18.png"},{"id":93558511,"identity":"59ac6a9b-a73a-4872-b1f8-caa6bc6989bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-15 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in studies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, physical inactivity (PI) is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease, skeletal muscle disease, and all-cause mortality on a global scale, with approximately 3.2\u0026nbsp;million deaths per year\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The adoption of higher levels of moderate-intensity physical activity (i.e., 60\u0026ndash;75 minutes per day) has been demonstrated to offset the increased risk of death associated with high sedentary time\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The World Health Organisation (WHO) also recommends a minimum of 75\u0026ndash;150 minutes per week of moderate-to-high-to-vigorous physical activity combined with muscle-strengthening training at least twice a week to promote physical fitness\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.Nevertheless, merely 20% of young people and adults adhere to the international guidelines for integrating aerobic exercise and muscle-strengthening activities\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.This is frequently associated with a paucity of time, reliance on specialised equipment, and difficulty in performing consistently over time\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.Despite the fact that it is not feasible to fully adhere to the PA guidelines, the most recent PA guidelines advocate that physical activity at any time is advantageous to physical health (with some amount being preferable to none)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, thereby signifying that the adoption of some time-saving and efficient exercise also retains its significance in terms of enhanced health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the majority of individuals, dividing exercise into multiple shorter bouts throughout the day may be more manageable (i.e. less than 10 minutes) and is a viable strategy to incorporate into daily life\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A viable method of mitigating the deleterious effects of physical inactivity (PI) is to engage in brief periods of vigorous physical activity throughout the day, termed 'Exercise Snacks' (ES)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.The ES approach was originally developed as a strategy to enhance cardiometabolic health through exercise prescription. For instance, Francois\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e discovered that in insulin-resistant individuals, brief and vigorous exercise prior to each meal exhibited superior efficacy in reducing postprandial and 24-hour mean glucose concentrations when compared to a solitary prolonged bout of continuous exercise. In adults diagnosed with PI, the ingestion of snacks consisting of stair-climbing three times a day, over a period of three days each week, has been demonstrated to enhance peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, Yin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e demonstrated that a 6-week stair-climbing exercise regime (three days per week, three times per day) was capable of producing effects analogous to those of MICT (40 minutes at 60%-70% heart rate maximum) when compared to Moderate Intensity Continuous Training (MICT). As ES research has evolved, it has also been expanded to encompass resistance exercise. For instance, Perkin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e discovered that performing home resistance ES exercises twice a day over a 28-day period in 10 older adults resulted in enhanced leg muscle function and size. A further study also found that 12 weeks of resistance ES significantly improved muscle mass in sedentary female workers\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, despite the utilisation of disparate ES modalities, these studies demonstrate favourable outcomes in terms of enhanced cardiometabolic health and augmented muscle strength.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the evidence for the effectiveness of ES, the majority of studies to date have compared ES with non-exercising controls or with other exercise modalities (e.g. aerobic, high-intensity interval exercise), with few studies directly comparing the effects of different modalities of ES on individuals. At this stage, only in Francois' study was it found that the use of walking-based ES and ES based on alternating resistance and walking had similar effects on improving glucose in insulin-resistant individuals\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Another published study was solely an acute research protocol on the comparison of different modalities of ES\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which compared the effects of three modalities of high-intensity interval training, short sprint Exercise Snacks, and no exercise intervention on individuals with type 2 diabetes. However, no outcome metrics were provided. Consequently, it is imperative to ascertain whether the various ES modalities exhibit divergent effects on alterations in body metrics. This assertion is supported by the findings of Weston's recent review\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.The majority of extant ES studies have been conducted using stair climbing (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6), cycling (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), and body weight exercise (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13). This predominance may be attributed to the relative simplicity and ease of these modalities. In addition, in order to guarantee the heterogeneity of the exercise modalities and to diminish the impact of extraneous factors, the following were selected for the purpose of modality comparison: bicycle riding, deep squatting, and a combination of the two.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, the aim of the current study was to compare the differences in the effects of different exercise modalities (squatting, cycling, and cycling combined with squatting) of ES over a 6-week period in improving leg muscle strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness in PI university students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Subjects\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study used a multi-channel recruitment strategy, with subjects selected through academic poster posting, email, and interpersonal communication. Subjects were screened according to strict inclusion criteria, which were as follows: (1) not meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended standards for physical activity, i.e., not systematically engaging in 150\u0026ndash;300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week and at least 2 times per week of muscle-strengthening training, (2) adult individuals (age\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;18 years), (3) no history of smoking, alcohol consumption, or drug dependence in the past 6 months, (4) BMI between 17.9 and 24.9. 4) BMI between 17.9 and 24.9.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExclusion criteria encompassed the following: (1) engagement in alternate exercise programmes or exercise-related somatic complaints during the intervention period, (2) a history of exercise-related injury within the preceding six months, and (3) concurrent participation in other exercise programmes during the intervention period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 36 subjects who met the specified criteria were enrolled in the study. Five female subjects withdrew from the study during the intervention for personal reasons, and 31 subjects completed the intervention (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for the flow chart). Prior to participation, all subjects provided written informed consent, which had been subject to ethical review. They were also provided with a comprehensive explanation of the experimental procedures and the data collection protocol. The study protocol was reviewed by the Ethics Committee of the College of Sports Science, Fujian Normal University (approval number: FJNU20250223), and the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki were followed throughout.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubjects were randomly divided into Resistance Exercise Snacks (RES, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11; M/F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8/3, age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69, height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;170.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.66, weight\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;63.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.52), Bicycle Exercise Snacks (BES, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10; M/F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8/2, age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60, height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;172.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.58, weight\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;66.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.98) and Mixed Exercise Snacks (MES, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10; M/F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9/1, age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60, height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;172.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.98) groups. 11.58, weight\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;66.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.98) and Mixed Exercise Snacks group (MES, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10; M/F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9/1, age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.31, height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;173.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.32, weight\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;63.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.51). The experiment lasted 6 weeks, from week 1 to week 3, the subjects performed ES for 30 seconds \u0026lsquo;as fast as possible\u0026rsquo; 3 days a week (3 times a day), with single intervals of at least 2 hours. From week 4 onwards, subjects increased their single exercise dose from 30 seconds to 1 minute. Participants were asked to perform the exercise on alternate days as it was only performed on 3 days per week. A diagram of the experimental design is shown in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). To ensure standardisation of variables such as movement and time during the experiment, all participants were asked to perform the intervention in the Exercise Science Laboratory of Fujian Normal University and ensured that it was conducted under the supervision of the researchers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the RES group, the exercise regime comprised squatting movements. In the BES group, the intervention was conducted on a wind resistance bicycle (Wingate Pro, Nottingham, UK), with the Wattbike Pro adjusting the air resistance according to the subject's specific body weight (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e ). In the MES group, the exercise regimen involved a combination of cycling and squatting. Specifically, in weeks 1\u0026ndash;3, the subjects performed 15 seconds of cycling, followed by 15 seconds of deep squats, immediately followed by a further 15 seconds of deep squatting. In the fourth week of the study, the single exercise dose administered to the MES group was increased to 30 seconds of cycling, which was then immediately followed by 30 seconds of deep squatting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAir resistance setting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRider weight(kg)-Male\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAir Setting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRider weight(kg)-Female\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAir Setting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Test metrics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Body composition\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandardized body composition measurements were obtained under fasting conditions at 9:00 a.m. using the InBody 370 bioelectrical impedance analyzer (Seoul, South Korea). Following standardized protocols, participants underwent standing height measurement using a stadiometer prior to body composition analysis. Subjects were instructed to wear light attire and remove footwear and metal accessories to maximize measurement precision. The system automatically computed weight (kg), adiposity index (%), and body mass index (BMI) through mass-to-stature squared (kg/m\u0026sup2;) algorithmic processing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 leg muscle strength\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter completion of a standardised preparatory programme consisting of 5 minutes of cycling and 3 minutes of lower limb dynamic mobility exercises, isokinetic strength parameters were quantified using a dynamometer system (HUMAC NORM Test System, CSMI Solutions). The assessment programme consisted of:Isokinetic peak torque (PT) assessment at an angular velocity of 60\u0026deg;/s. Isokinetic Average Torque (AT) evaluation at 180\u0026deg;/s angular velocity.Instrument calibration is carried out prior to each test to ensure measurement fidelity. Positioning parameters were standardised as follows: ergometer tilt 40\u0026deg;, seat tilt 40\u0026deg;, seat backrest tilt 70\u0026ndash;85\u0026deg; and sagittal alignment through the lateral femoral condyles. The warm-up programme consisted of graded exertion (50\u0026ndash;80% of perceived exertion for isokinetic testing) followed by a 30-second recovery period. Formal testing consisted of five maximal knee flexion-extension tests at 60\u0026deg;/s angular velocity and 25 knee flexion-extension fatigue tests at 180\u0026deg;/s angular velocity. There was a 1-minute recovery interval between each set.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.3 Anaerobic power\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA power bicycle (Monark 894E, Sweden) was used for anaerobic power assessment of the subjects.The brake weight type was calculated from 7.5% (0.075 kg-kg body mass-1) of the participant's own body weight. The seat height was adjusted to align with the participant's hip height, and the weight basket was pre-calibrated by the researcher to the target mass prior to the commencement of the test (tolerance\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5 g) and manually released at the start of the test. The system automatically determined the presence of a valid resistance trigger by measuring a 1-second difference in pedal frequency (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 rpm) between the front and back, and repeated the test if the criterion was not met. Following the calibration of the values, the subjects performed a 30-second Wingate test. During this test, the researcher provided continuous verbal encouragement to ensure that the subjects maintained maximum force. Following the conclusion of the experimental trial, the following parameters were meticulously documented: the individual's peak power (PP), average power (AP), minimum power (MinP), maximum speed (rmp), and Total energy production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.4 peak oxygen uptake\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe subjects undertook cardiorespiratory fitness tests on a metabolic bicycle (Monark 839E, Sweden) to determine their VO2peak, which was defined as the highest average oxygen consumption over 30 seconds. Prior to the commencement of the testing phase, the subjects were required to don a cardiopulmonary function tester equipped with a gas collection system (CORTEX MetaMax 3B, Italy). The subsequent arrangement of the ramp protocol was as follows: following a preliminary period of 3 minutes at 50 watts, the subjects commenced the test at a resistance level of 50 watts. Thereafter, the workload was augmented by 25 watts per minute until the point of volitional exhaustion was attained. Volitional exhaustion was defined as an inability to maintain a minimum of 50 revolutions per minute (rpm) for a continuous duration of 5 seconds (s). Subjects were considered to have been tested when they met two or more of the following conditions: (1) volitional exhaustion; (2) RER\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.15; and (3) heart rate reached\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10 of the predicted maximum heart rate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe statistical analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS 29.0. Statistical significance was defined as P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.The Shapiro-Wilk test was employed to assess the normality of the data, while the Levene test was used to analyse the homogeneity of variance. The mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation (M\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD) was employed for data that met the criteria of normality and homogeneity. Paired samples t-tests were used for within-group analyses, and one-way repeated measures of variance were used for between-group analyses. The 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor and flexor strengths were analysed, and data that did not conform to homogeneity was identified; therefore, non-parametric tests were used. Intra- and intergroup comparisons were made using the Wilcoxon rank test and the Kruskal-Wallis H test, respectively. Data were expressed as median (Q25, Q75). Effect sizes were reported as Partial η\u0026sup2;, with 0.01, 0.06, and 0.14 representing small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Result","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Body composition\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the 6-week intervention (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), subjects in the RES group demonstrated a significant reduction in BMI (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.041). However, no within-group changes in BMI were observed in the BES and MES groups. Subsequent analysis of the between-group results revealed no statistically significant difference in BMI among the three subject groups (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.251, Partial η\u0026sup2;=0.094). No significant intra- and inter-group differences were identified in the weight and body fat of the subjects in the three groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of differences in body composition among the three groups of subjects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eparametric\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial η\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight(kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.732\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.535\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.505\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody fat(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.241\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.598\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.742\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.226\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBMI(kg/m2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.041*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.673\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.251\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody mass index(BMI),*P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Muscle strength\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), significant within-group improvements in isometric extensor strength were observed in both the RES group (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006) and the MES group (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005) following the 6-week intervention. However, no between-group differences were identified (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.371, partial η\u0026sup2; = 0.068).A significant disparity was identified within the groups in terms of 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor strength and 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength PT for subjects in the RES and MES groups (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, no significant within-group changes were identified in the BES group for 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor strength (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.169). Significant within-group differences were observed only in 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014). The 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic strength of the PT showed no significant between-group differences among the three groups of subjects (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).The isokinetic extensor and flexor strength measurements demonstrated significant within-group variations in PT between the RES and MES cohorts (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, only 300\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength was observed in the BES group, with significant within-group improvement in PT (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In addition, no statistically significant between-group differences were observed among the three subject groups (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of leg muscle strength between pre- and post-intervention subjects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eparametric\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial η\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026deg;/s isometric extensor strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;50.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;48.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;43.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;34.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e137.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;44.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;33.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.371\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152(106,203)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e179(123,214)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e149.5(120.25,188.75)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e165.5(122.5,191.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.169\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160(123.25,176.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e184(154.5,195.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.651\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115(75,133)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e123(81,138)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.036*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101(79.5,121)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110(91.25,137.75)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.014*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105.5(85,113)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122(106.75,127.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.667\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.878\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.693\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05,**P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01,***P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.The 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor strength and 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength is expressed as a median.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Anaerobic power\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of the anaerobic power analysis (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that all three ES modalities contributed to significant within-group improvements (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in PP and AP following the 6-week intervention. Subsequent to the implementation of the intervention, no disparities were identified between the groups at a significance level of P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.MinP demonstrated a tendency to enhance outcomes within the RES group (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.094) and the MES group (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), while no such enhancement was observed within the MES group (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.277).Subsequent to the implementation of the intervention, between-group disparities revealed that there were no between-group disparities among the three subject groups (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.430, partial η\u0026sup2; = 0.058). Furthermore, substantial within-group enhancements were observed for both maximum speed and total energy output across all three ES modalities. However, no substantial between-group enhancements were observed (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of anaerobic power values between pre- and post-intervention subjects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eparametric\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial η\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP(w)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e622.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;186.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e735.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;208.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e689.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;199.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e763.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;235.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e682.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;123.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e810.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;114.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.673\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAP(w)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e442.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;105.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e499.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;124.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e487.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;128.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e551.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;143.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e475.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;59.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e551.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;65.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.508\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinP(w)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e265.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;68.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e282.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.094*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e302.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;79.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e359.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;78.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e282.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;70.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e304.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;71.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.277\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMax speed (rmp)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e142.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.353\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etotal energy produced(J)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12002.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3217.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14663.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3599.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.017*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14200.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3598.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16172.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4102.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13750.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1731.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16096.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1906.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.512\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05,**P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01,***P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001,PP=,Peak power(PP),Average power(AP),minimum power(MinP),W\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;watt,J\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;joule.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 peak oxygen uptake\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicated(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) that all three ES modalities significantly enhanced the subjects' VO2peak following the 6-week intervention (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, no between-group differences were observed (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.370, Partial η\u0026sup2;=0.069).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of peak oxygen uptake between pre- and post-intervention subjects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eparametric\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial η\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePre\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePost\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePre\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePost\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePre\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePost\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVO2peak\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.019*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.037*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.00***1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.370\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e*P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05,***P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.Peak oxygen uptake(VO2peak)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of different modalities of ES in enhancing muscular strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness. The findings indicated that over a 6-week period, diverse forms of ES exerted comparable effects in enhancing muscle strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness in PI college students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of muscle strength, it was observed that the three ES modalities significantly improved PT in subjects with 30\u0026deg;/s isometric and 300\u0026deg;/s isokinetic strength.Support for this study was provided by a study in Liang\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which found that a twice-daily ES programme (comprising one resistance snack and one tai chi snack) significantly improved lower limb strength, balance and mobility. In a similar vein, Perkin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Brandt\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e resistance-based ES has been demonstrated to enhance leg muscle strength in older adults and augment muscle mass in female workers. In contrast to the findings of this study, Wong\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e found that a single 30-second all-out sprint of sprint ES five days a week (once a day) over a 6-week period did not elicit positive changes in muscle strength in physically active young adults. The present study hypothesises that this may be related to the high baseline muscle strength levels and very low daily exercise dose (1 time per day, 5 days per week) of the individuals in Wong's study.The interesting finding in this study was that there was no significant within-group improvement in the BES group in the 60\u0026deg;/s isokinetic extensor strength test. In addition, the 30\u0026deg;/s isometric extensor strength and 300\u0026deg;/s isokinetic flexor strength did not demonstrate significant within-group changes in the RES group. One potential explanation for this phenomenon could be attributed to the variation in the nature of exercise modalities employed. The disparity in exercise modalities between the RES and BES groups, with the former relying on deep squats and the latter engaging in bicycle sprinting, which bears resemblance to high-intensity interval training (HIIT), may have resulted in divergent physiological adaptations between the two subject groups. Conversely, gender differences may also have an impact on PT. Consequently, this issue must be further investigated in subsequent studies, specifically whether there is an effect in enhancing muscle strength or other physiological indices due to variations in ES exercise modalities or gender disparities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Wingate anaerobic test is widely regarded as the gold standard for the assessment of anaerobic power. The results demonstrated significant enhancements in PP, AP, maximum speed, and total energy production across all three subject groups. To date, no study has examined the effectiveness of ES in improving anaerobic power using the Wingate 30-second test. The present study corroborates the hypothesis that even low-dose ES can positively influence anaerobic power enhancement in PI college students. In the present study, it was hypothesised that the improvement in anaerobic power may be related to the recruitment of fast muscle fibres due to high-frequency exercise over a short period of time, which induced an increase in muscle strength\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, thus favouring anaerobic power. Another hypothesis that may account for the observed enhancement of anaerobic power after six weeks of ES is the increase in myoglycogen reserves and the improvement in lactate clearance. This phenomenon may be associated with the rapid depletion of myo-glycogen and the subsequent increase in blood lactate concentration induced by brief periods of high-intensity exercise\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, a more recent study has shown that a decentralised form of HIIT (three times a day with a single interval of four hours) appears to exhibit a lower increase in blood lactate concentration compared to a single, focused session of high-intensity interval training (HIIT)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the absence of observed blood markers, it was not possible to ascertain whether alterations in exercise dose or interval duration were contributing factors to the observed enhancements in anaerobic power. Consequently, we propose that subsequent studies may consider the integration of blood markers to elucidate the underlying mechanisms behind ES-induced enhancements in anaerobic power, from the perspectives of physiological and molecular mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the study demonstrated that VO2peak levels were considerably elevated in all subjects (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), yet no significant differences were observed between the groups (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.370). This finding is consistent with the results of a study by Jenkins\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, who reported that performing three sets of 30-second stair climbs per day for a period of six weeks resulted in an enhancement of VO2peak in sedentary adults when compared to inactive adults.Notwithstanding the disparity in the forms of exercise employed, it was observed that all of them contributed to the enhancement of cardiorespiratory markers through brief periods of high-intensity ES. Concurrently, the study by Yin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e also compared the differences between MICT and staircase sprinting ES. Despite the absence of a discernible difference between the groups, both modes of exercise promoted cardiorespiratory fitness. In terms of temporal cost, the reduced duration of stair-climbing ES was evidently more beneficial.Additionally, Little\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e conducted a comparative analysis of cycling sprint ES and sprint interval training. The findings indicated that cycling sprint ES for 30 seconds, three times a day (with single intervals of 1\u0026ndash;4 hours) and sprint interval training (3 x 20 seconds, with a single 3-minute interval) were more effective in enhancing 150 kJ time trial performance and VO2peak. This provides further corroboration for the conclusions of our study. The novel finding of the present study is that in a previous study by Francois\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, both his ES using walking and his ES using walking alternating with resistance promoted improvements in postprandial glucose in insulin-resistant individuals, which partly suggests a similar effect on glucose control between the different modalities of ES. Furthermore, the present study extends this to include improvements in muscle strength, anaerobic power, and VO2peak improvements. However, further research is required to elucidate the mechanisms by which ES promotes VO2peak improvement through physiological adaptations in the body, and whether different modalities of ES result in similar changes in metabolic adaptations. Consequently, this issue must be the subject of further investigation in the future.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLimitations and recommendations for future research\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that the study is not without its limitations. Firstly, the overall sample size of this study was small (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31), which may have affected the statistical validity of the experiment. Consequently, it is recommended that the sample size be increased in subsequent studies to further validate the results of this study. Secondly, the subjects participating in the experiment comprised a significantly larger sample of males (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25) and a very small number of females (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11). In addition, five of the females withdrew from the intervention, resulting in only six females completing the intervention. While the influence of gender on the impact of exercise on physical health enhancement has been documented\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the extent to which this effect is potentiated or diminished in ES remains to be elucidated. Consequently, further research is required to ascertain whether gender disparities influence ES and engender divergent alterations in bodily metrics. For the purpose of short-term validation, the study focused exclusively on deep squatting, cycling, and a combination of the two. However, it should be noted that the effects of longer intervention cycles require further validation.Finally, subjects were asked to perform ES in the laboratory with uniformity and at the fastest possible speed. However, it should be noted that when subjects perform ES in their daily lives or at home, it may not be possible to supervise them to perform it in accordance with the standard procedure. The utilisation of wearable physical activity trackers has been posited as a potentially efficacious approach\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For instance, the collection of real-time data can be conducted remotely or in person, and the subsequent analysis employs statistical models to facilitate comprehension of the alterations observed in participants during ES.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that different modalities of ES are capable of enhancing muscle strength, anaerobic power and cardiorespiratory health in PI university students. It is important to note that, although the differences between the different ES modalities were not significant in the short-term scenario, the differential effects may still be exacerbated by long-term interventions. Further validation from longer intervention cycles is recommended. Moreover, despite the restricted range of outcome metrics observed in this study, the confirmation of the potential of ES to promote the overall health of individuals is nevertheless advantageous. It can thus be concluded that both of these strategies are effective in terms of saving time for university students with PI.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study declares no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was not funded.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eJZ was responsible for designing the study and writing the paper. YH W was responsible for data processing and experimental interventions. B H and M L were responsible for the supervision and methodology of the trial with YR C.SY H was responsible for the funding of the study and the editing of the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the participants for their active cooperation, the researchers for their conscientiousness, and the Movement Laboratory for their technical assistance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e Data can be obtained from the corresponding author or the first author.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePedersen, B. K. \u0026amp; Febbraio, M. A. Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. \u003cem\u003eNat. Rev. 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JMIR mHealth and uHealth.8, e18694(2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGill, J. M. et al. Potential impact of wearables on physical activity guidelines and interventions: opportunities and challenges. \u003cem\u003eBr. J. Sports Med.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e57\u003c/b\u003e, 1223\u0026ndash;1225 (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"exercise Snacks, physical inactivity, muscle strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, exercise modalities, anaerobic power","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6760233/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6760233/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose:\u003c/strong\u003eThe purpose of this study was to compare the effects of different Exercise Snacks patterns on muscular strength, anaerobic power, and cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive college students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods:\u003c/strong\u003ea total of 31 subjects were randomly divided into three groups, namely a resistance exercise snack group (RES, n=11), a cycling exercise snack group (BES, n=10), and a mixed resistance and cycling exercise snack group (MES, n=10). The subjects performed the ES intervention on three occasions per day, three days per week, over a period of six weeks, with single intervals exceeding two hours. The RES group performed deep squats, while the BES entailed a bike ride on the Wattbike, with the RES group performing deep squats immediately after the bike ride. In the initial three weeks, the subjects performed exercise bouts of 30 seconds in duration, whereas from week 4 onwards, the duration of each session was increased to 60 seconds.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e RESULTS:After 6 weeks of intervention, no changes in body weight and body fat percentage were observed in either group of subjects. However, a statistically significant within-group change in body mass index (BMI) was found in the RES group (P=0.041). However, there were no between-group differences in BMI for the three participants.The 30°/s isometric extensor strength exhibited a substantial augmentation in peak torque (PT) of the knee extensors in the RES and MES groups. However, no discernible group differences were observed among the three ES modalities (P=0.371, Partial η²=0.068).The 60°/s and 300°/s isokinetic strength outcomes demonstrated that the PT of both knee flexors and extensors underwent a significant enhancement in the MES group. However, only PT improvement other than 300°/s isokinetic flexor strength was observed in the RES group (P\u0026lt;0.05), while in the BES group, within-group improvement was observed for all metrics except 60°/s isokinetic extensor strength (P\u0026lt;0.05). However, no significant between-group differences were observed for all metrics (P \u0026gt; 0.05) across the three subject groups.Anaerobic power demonstrated that all three ES modalities elicited significant within-group improvements (P\u0026lt;0.05) in subjects' PP, AP, Max speed and Total energy production. However, no between-group differences were observed (P\u0026gt;0.05). In contrast, significant within-group improvements were only observed in the RES and BES groups in MinP (P\u0026lt;0.05).VO2peak results demonstrated that all three groups of subjects exhibited significant improvements following the 6-week intervention (P\u0026lt;0.05). However, no between-group differences were observed (P=0.370, Partial η²=0.069).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003eThe utilisation of diverse ES modalities has been demonstrated to exert favourable influences on parameters such as muscle strength, anaerobic power and cardiorespiratory fitness in the context of PI university students. This strategy may be employed as an efficient time-saving exercise technique for individuals who have limited time available.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Comparing the effectiveness of different modes of exercise snacks in improving muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive college students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-15 06:43:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6760233/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-30T21:09:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53571773432693202211864114176423512589","date":"2025-10-20T05:23:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-01T12:43:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-06T04:29:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-29T14:10:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-29T04:20:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-05-27T13:58:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6c29834e-bbda-4553-b853-a1ef44ae2b55","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 15th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":56134976,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Health services"},{"id":56134977,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Occupational health"},{"id":56134978,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Public health"},{"id":56134979,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Quality of life"},{"id":56134980,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Weight management"},{"id":56134981,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Disease prevention"},{"id":56134982,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Disease prevention/Lifestyle modification"},{"id":56134983,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Disease prevention/Preventive medicine"},{"id":56134984,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":56134985,"name":"Health sciences/Health occupations"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-15T06:43:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-15 06:43:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6760233","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6760233","identity":"rs-6760233","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}