Enhancing Early Numeracy through Play-Based Learning: A Case Study Using Counting Games and Visual Aids in a Ghanaian Kindergarten Classroom

Enhancing Early Numeracy through Play-Based Learning: A Case Study Using Counting Games and Visual Aids in a Ghanaian Kindergarten Classroom | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Enhancing Early Numeracy through Play-Based Learning: A Case Study Using Counting Games and Visual Aids in a Ghanaian Kindergarten Classroom Mathias Adawurah This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6787623/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigated the effectiveness of counting games and visual aids in enhancing early numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two (KG2) learners in Ghana. The target population comprised 120 learners from two public schools in the Tema Manhean District of the Greater Accra Region. Using Cohen’s (1992) statistical power guidelines, 60 learners were randomly selected and assigned to experimental and control groups through a true experimental design. The experimental group received a four-day intervention incorporating play-based strategies and visual tools, while the control group received traditional instruction. Pre- and post-test assessments measured numeracy skills. The experimental group showed statistically significant improvement (Z = -3.30, p = .001, r = .60), while the control group did not. A Mann–Whitney U test confirmed the superiority of the intervention (U = 247.50, p = .003). Observational data revealed increased engagement and effective use of materials among learners in the experimental group over time. These findings suggest that culturally relevant, play-based instructional strategies significantly enhance early numeracy and learner engagement, particularly in resource-constrained educational settings. The study highlights implications for early childhood education practice and provides directions for future research. Applied Mathematics Introduction Numeracy is a foundational competency that underpins not only future success in mathematics but also general cognitive development and everyday problem-solving abilities. In the early years of education, particularly at the kindergarten level, developing numeracy skills such as number recognition, counting, and simple arithmetic is critical for laying the groundwork for more advanced mathematical thinking (Clements & Sarama, 2011 ). Globally, there has been growing recognition of the importance of early childhood education (ECE) as a vehicle for improving long-term learning outcomes. This recognition is reflected in global frameworks such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4.2, which emphasizes ensuring that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development and pre-primary education (UNESCO, 2018 ). Despite this global emphasis, research has shown that children in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana, continue to lag in numeracy proficiency compared to global benchmarks (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). The Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) reports from Ghana reveal that many children complete kindergarten without being able to recognize numbers or count accurately beyond 10 (USAID, 2017 ). These challenges are compounded by systemic factors such as overcrowded classrooms, limited teaching resources, and reliance on rote-based instructional methods that do not support meaningful engagement or conceptual understanding (Agyei-Mensah et al., 2020 ). Prior research on numeracy interventions in early childhood has largely focused on high-income countries with well-resourced classrooms and experienced educators (Baroody et al., 2009 ; Clements & Sarama, 2011 ). While these studies confirm the effectiveness of play-based and visual learning strategies, they often fail to address how such methods can be adapted and implemented in resource-constrained contexts like Ghana. There is limited empirical literature that explores the use of culturally appropriate, low-cost teaching strategies such as counting games and visual aids in early-grade settings within sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, few studies consider the classroom-based action research approach that allows for real-time adaptation and reflection by local educators. This study addresses these gaps by exploring the use of counting games and visual aids as pedagogical tools to enhance numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two learners in a public school in the Tema Manhean District of Ghana. The use of interactive, play-based strategies is rooted in constructivist learning theory, which holds that young children construct knowledge more effectively through active, hands-on experiences (Piaget, 1952 ; Vygotsky, 1978 ). Counting games and visual aids support this approach by making abstract mathematical concepts more concrete and relatable (Ginsburg et al., 2008 ). These strategies are particularly relevant in the Ghanaian context, where many children enter formal schooling with limited exposure to structured numeracy instruction. By situating the research within a real classroom environment using an action research design, this study contributes both to local educational practice and to the broader scholarly discourse on how to improve foundational numeracy skills in low-resource settings. It seeks to provide practical, context-sensitive insights that can inform teacher training, curriculum design, and early childhood policy development not only in Ghana but also in other similar contexts globally. Literature review This literature review is organized into five key thematic areas that frame the current study. It begins by outlining the theoretical foundations that support play-based and visual learning in early childhood mathematics. The review then explores the significance of early numeracy for holistic child development, followed by a discussion of the contextual and instructional barriers that hinder numeracy acquisition in early-grade classrooms. The subsequent section highlights the pedagogical value of counting games and visual aids, emphasizing their relevance within developmentally appropriate and resource-sensitive teaching strategies. Finally, the review examines empirical studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of these interventions in improving numeracy outcomes for young learners. Together, these themes provide a foundation for understanding the need for and value of interactive, contextually relevant numeracy interventions in Ghanaian early childhood education. Theoretical Framework This study is grounded in particularly drawing on the works of Jean Piaget ( 1952 ) and Lev Vygotsky ( 1978 ), both of whom emphasized the importance of active, hands-on experiences in early childhood learning. Constructivism posits that children build knowledge through interaction with their environment, rather than passively receiving information. In the context of numeracy development, this means that young learners grasp mathematical concepts more effectively when they are actively engaged in meaningful, concrete activities such as games and visual exploration rather than through abstract or rote instruction. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development asserts that children in the preoperational stage (ages 2–7) learn best through play and manipulation of tangible objects. According to Piaget, young children have not yet developed the ability to perform abstract operations, and thus require sensory-motor engagement to make sense of numerical concepts (Piaget, 1952 ). Counting games, which allow children to physically handle objects, and visual aids such as number lines and flashcards, align with this view by providing opportunities for learners to construct understanding through concrete experiences. Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory further enriches the framework by introducing the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. Vygotsky ( 1978 ) argued that social interaction and guided participation are essential for learning, particularly when supported by scaffolding from teachers or peers. In this study, counting games and visual aids are employed as scaffolding tools that support learners in moving from simple number recognition to more complex operations like addition and subtraction, within their ZPD. Additionally, the experiential learning theory by Kolb ( 1984 ) supports the integration of physical activities and visual stimuli in early numeracy instruction. Kolb emphasized learning through experience, reflection, and active experimentation principles inherently present in play-based activities. Together, these theories justify the use of interactive, multisensory instructional strategies such as counting games and visual aids, especially in early childhood classrooms. By embedding these strategies in the learning process, children are more likely to internalize mathematical concepts, develop problem-solving abilities, and retain foundational numeracy skills. This theoretical grounding informs both the design and implementation of the intervention in this study and supports its applicability in resource-constrained settings like Ghana, where innovative yet simple teaching methods are urgently needed. The Importance of Early Numeracy in Child Development Early numeracy is the ability to understand and work with numbers and mathematical concepts from a young age. It is also increasingly recognized as a foundational skill that profoundly influences a child’s educational trajectory and cognitive development. Research consistently shows that numeracy competencies developed during the early years serve as strong predictors of later success in mathematics and broader academic performance (Duncan et al., 2007 ; Clements & Sarama, 2011 ). Numeracy is not only a subject-specific skill but also a cognitive tool that enhances problem-solving, logical reasoning, and decision-making abilities that are critical across all areas of learning and daily life. In early childhood, numeracy development encompasses basic concepts such as number recognition, counting, quantity comparison, understanding number relationships, and simple arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction. These skills form the bedrock for more complex mathematical reasoning later in primary and secondary school (Ginsburg et al., 2008 ). According to Clements and Sarama ( 2007 ), children who enter primary school with strong numeracy skills are more likely to maintain high academic performance across subjects, even beyond mathematics. This underscores the urgency of providing high-quality numeracy experiences as early as the pre-primary stage. Moreover, the early years are a sensitive period for brain development, during which children are particularly responsive to learning stimuli. Neuroscience research supports the idea that introducing numerical concepts through developmentally appropriate, engaging strategies in early childhood fosters neural connections associated with mathematical reasoning (Butterworth et al., 2011 ). Activities that involve movement, visual perception, and manipulation such as counting games and visual aids are especially effective during this developmental window. The importance of early numeracy is also echoed in international educational goals. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.2 emphasizes the need for all children to have access to quality early childhood education that prepares them for primary education, with literacy and numeracy as core learning outcomes (UNESCO, 2018 ). However, in many sub-Saharan African countries, including Ghana, large numbers of children enter primary school without acquiring these basic numeracy skills. According to data from the Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA), a significant proportion of Ghanaian Kindergarten Two learners are unable to recognize numbers or perform simple addition, which severely hampers their ability to engage with the primary curriculum (USAID, 2017 ). Several scholars have attributed this shortfall to the dominance of rote-based instructional methods in early childhood settings, which often neglect the developmental needs of young learners (Agyei-Mensah et al., 2020 ; Leite, 2024). Children in such classrooms are rarely exposed to the types of interactive, play-based, and exploratory learning experiences that research has shown to be most effective for numeracy development. In contrast, child-centered approaches that emphasize manipulatives, games, and visual representations of mathematical ideas have been found to significantly enhance children’s numeracy performance, particularly in early grades (Baroody et al., 2009 ). In the Ghanaian context, promoting early numeracy is not just an educational imperative but a social and economic one. Basic mathematical competence is increasingly essential in modern societies, not only for academic progression but also for participation in the workforce and financial literacy (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). For children from under-resourced or marginalized backgrounds, early mastery of numeracy can provide a critical foundation for equity and long-term opportunity. In sum, early numeracy plays a central role in shaping the academic and cognitive development of young learners. When numeracy instruction is tailored to the developmental characteristics of children particularly through interactive methods such as counting games and visual aids it can foster deeper understanding, sustained engagement, and long-term educational success. In light of persistent challenges within Ghana’s early-grade classrooms, there is a clear need for evidence-based, child-centered interventions that effectively develop numeracy from the foundational level. Challenges to Numeracy Acquisition in Early-Grade Classrooms Despite the increasing global emphasis on foundational numeracy as a driver of lifelong learning, many children in early-grade classrooms particularly in sub-Saharan Africa struggle to develop even the most basic mathematical competencies. In Ghana, several factors continue to hinder the effective acquisition of numeracy skills in early childhood settings. These challenges span systemic, pedagogical, and learner-related dimensions, creating an environment where young children are often unable to acquire the essential mathematical foundations needed for future academic success. One of the most pervasive challenges is the over-reliance on rote memorization and teacher-centered instruction in early-grade classrooms. Traditional pedagogical methods often prioritize the mechanical recitation of numbers and arithmetic facts without fostering meaningful understanding or conceptual development. According to Agyei-Mensah et al. ( 2020 ), many kindergarten learners in Ghana are taught mathematics through repetition and drill exercises that do not align with their developmental stages or learning preferences. Such approaches fail to engage children actively, and as a result, numeracy instruction becomes abstract, disengaging, and difficult to retain. Compounding this issue is the shortage of trained early childhood educators with adequate knowledge of developmentally appropriate practices. In many Ghanaian public schools, early childhood teachers receive limited training in using play-based or child-centered strategies to teach mathematical concepts (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). Consequently, teachers may lack both the confidence and the pedagogical tools to implement numeracy instruction that is interactive and responsive to the needs of young learners. As Pyle & Danniels ( 2017 ). note, even where awareness of play-based learning exists, its implementation is often superficial due to constraints in training, time, or institutional support. Another critical barrier is the lack of appropriate teaching and learning materials. Foundational numeracy requires concrete materials manipulatives, number charts, flashcards, and visual aids to support learners in transitioning from tangible experiences to abstract thinking. However, many early-grade classrooms in Ghana are under-resourced, making it difficult for teachers to introduce engaging numeracy activities (Leite, 2024). In such environments, children are deprived of the sensory-motor experiences that are essential for constructing mathematical understanding, particularly during the pre-operational stage of cognitive development as described by Piaget ( 1952 ). Large class sizes and limited instructional time further exacerbate the problem. Overcrowded classrooms make it difficult for teachers to provide individualized attention or conduct group activities that cater to varying levels of numeracy understanding. Oppong (2023) observes that in many public kindergartens, one teacher may be responsible for managing over 40 children, leaving little room for differentiated instruction or active learning strategies. Additionally, the limited time allocated to numeracy in the early-grade curriculum often results in superficial coverage of key concepts rather than deep engagement. Learner-specific factors such as language barriers, socio-economic disadvantages, and limited preschool exposure also influence numeracy acquisition. Many children enter kindergarten with minimal prior exposure to numbers or structured learning environments, placing them at a disadvantage compared to peers from more privileged backgrounds (Visser, 2017 ). Moreover, when numeracy instruction is delivered in a language unfamiliar to the learner, comprehension and engagement may be significantly impaired (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). These early disadvantages can have long-lasting effects, as gaps in foundational skills tend to widen over time if not addressed effectively. Lastly, assessment practices in early-grade classrooms are often misaligned with the developmental needs of learners. Rather than emphasizing formative assessment and observational methods that can inform instruction, teachers frequently rely on written tests or oral questioning, which may not accurately capture a child’s numeracy development (Riley-Ayers, 2014 ). This not only limits the teacher’s ability to identify and support struggling learners but may also contribute to anxiety and disengagement among young children. In summary, the acquisition of numeracy skills in early-grade classrooms is impeded by a complex interplay of instructional, institutional, and learner-related challenges. Addressing these issues requires a holistic approach that includes teacher training in child-centered methodologies, provision of adequate learning materials, curriculum reforms that emphasize experiential learning, and the use of inclusive assessment tools. In contexts like Ghana, where resources are often limited, innovative, low-cost strategies such as counting games and visual aids offer a promising solution to overcome these barriers and foster meaningful numeracy development from the foundational level. Play-Based and Visual Learning Strategies in Early Numeracy Play-based and visual learning approaches have become essential pedagogical strategies for developing early numeracy skills among young learners. These methods are rooted in child-centered learning theories which emphasize that children learn best when they are actively engaged in experiences that are meaningful, enjoyable, and developmentally appropriate (Piaget, 1952 ; Vygotsky, 1978 ). In early numeracy, such strategies foster concept internalization, stimulate interest and support memory retention by integrating play, movement, and visual stimuli into mathematical learning. Play-based learning refers to instructional methods that utilize games, storytelling, role-play, and hands-on exploration to teach mathematical concepts. These strategies enable children to engage with numbers and quantities in meaningful, low-stress contexts. According to Ginsburg et al. ( 2008 ), play provides children with the opportunity to explore mathematical ideas such as counting, ordering, grouping, and pattern recognition in natural and engaging ways. Similarly, Baroody et al. ( 2009 ) emphasize that counting games allow for repeated practice and active manipulation of objects, helping children to move from concrete to abstract mathematical reasoning. Visual learning strategies, on the other hand, employ visual representations such as number lines, flashcards, charts, and manipulatives (e.g., counting blocks, and colored beads) to help children form mental images of mathematical concepts. These tools support learners who benefit from seeing rather than hearing information and provide concrete anchors for abstract ideas (Clements & Sarama, 2011 ). Nyarko and Antwi ( 2021 ) found that visual aids make learning more interactive and inclusive, especially for learners who struggle with verbal explanations or have limited prior exposure to formal instruction. Importantly, these methods are particularly valuable in early childhood settings where learners have varied learning styles and require multisensory approaches. In Ghanaian kindergartens, where instructional resources may be limited and class sizes large, play-based and visual strategies provide an accessible, low-cost way to enhance learner participation and understanding (Leite, 2024). Moreover, they promote a positive attitude toward mathematics, which is crucial in building learner confidence and reducing anxiety associated with math learning (Gabriel, 2020). Empirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Counting Games and Visual Aids A growing body of empirical research supports the effectiveness of counting games and visual aids in enhancing early numeracy skills. These tools have been shown to significantly improve learners’ understanding of number concepts, counting ability, and early arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction. In a study by Pyle & Danniels ( 2017 ) kindergarten learners who participated in counting games demonstrated superior performance in number recognition and basic arithmetic compared to peers taught using traditional methods. The researchers observed that learners retained information longer and were more enthusiastic about mathematics lessons when games were incorporated into instruction. Similarly, Adams et al., ( 2024 ) study indicated that kindergarten learners who engage in counting games exhibit superior performance in number recognition and basic arithmetic compared to peers taught using traditional methods Visual aids have also been widely validated as effective tools for early numeracy instruction. Atteh (2023) found that young children in resource-limited schools who were taught using number charts, flashcards, and manipulatives showed notable gains in numeracy assessments. These learners demonstrated improved abilities in number sequencing, quantity estimation, and simple problem-solving. In addition, McNeil and Uttal (2009) noted that using concrete visual aids, such as manipulatives, helped young children focus their attention and enhanced their ability to apply mathematical concepts to novel situations. Studies across African contexts reinforce the impact of these strategies in under-resourced settings. For instance, Visser ( 2017 ). conducted an experimental study in Kenya and found that learners exposed to a structured program combining counting games and visual materials performed significantly better on early mathematics tasks than those in control classrooms. Likewise, Clements and Sarama ( 2007 ) reported that using structured math games in early childhood classrooms improved children's understanding of number concepts and promoted sustained engagement. Collectively, these studies provide robust evidence that counting games and visual aids are not only effective but also essential for promoting numeracy skills in early childhood, particularly in low-resource and large-classroom environments like those found in many Ghanaian schools. Their incorporation into everyday teaching practices holds promise for improving foundational mathematical competencies and narrowing early achievement gaps. Based on the study’s aim and theoretical foundation, it is proposed that play-based instruction using counting games and visual aids will have a measurable impact on learners’ numeracy outcomes. To test this assumption, the following hypotheses were formulated: H₀ (Null Hypothesis) There is no significant difference in early numeracy skills between learners who receive play-based instruction using counting games and visual aids and those who receive traditional instruction. H₁ (Alternative Hypothesis) Learners who receive play-based instruction using counting games and visual aids will demonstrate significantly higher early numeracy skills compared to those receiving traditional instruction. Methodology Research Design This study adopted a true experimental design using a randomized pre-test–post-test control group approach to determine the effectiveness of counting games and visual aids in improving numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two learners. True experimental designs are characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions, which increases internal validity and supports causal conclusions about the intervention’s effects (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This design allowed for a rigorous comparison between learners exposed to the intervention and those receiving traditional instruction. Population and Sample Size Determination The target population for the study comprised Kindergarten Two (KG2) learners in selected public schools within the Tema Manhean District of the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. The accessible population consisted of 120 KG2 learners enrolled in two similar schools. A total of 60 learners (30 in the experimental group and 30 in the control group) were selected through random sampling. The sample size was determined using Cohen’s (1992) statistical power analysis table, which recommends a minimum of 27 participants per group for medium effect size (d = 0.5), with power = 0.80 and alpha = 0.05. Rounding up, 30 participants per group were selected to improve statistical robustness. Intervention and Operationalization of Treatment The intervention spanned four days, with the experimental group receiving instruction explicitly designed around play-based and visual learning strategies. The treatment was implemented during the school's regular mathematics period, for approximately 40 minutes per session. Instructional activities for the experimental group included: 1. Counting Games: o Number Toss Game: Learners tossed a softball onto a mat with numbered sections and identified the number landed on. o Number Hunt: Learners searched for and collected items marked with numerals around the classroom. o Clap and Count: Learners clapped or stomped in rhythm while counting aloud to reinforce sequence and coordination. 2. Visual Aids: o Flashcards and Number Charts: Used to display and match numerals with quantities. o Manipulatives: Everyday objects (bottle caps, blocks, beads) were used to perform basic addition and subtraction. o Number Line Walk: Learners physically walked on a floor number line to solve addition/subtraction problems. Instruction was interactive, learner-centered, and involved peer collaboration. Learners were allowed to manipulate materials freely, fostering concrete understanding before moving to abstract concepts (Piaget, 1952; Vygotsky, 1978). Control Group Activities: The control group received numeracy instruction using traditional teacher-centered strategies: · Rote counting and oral repetition. · Board demonstrations and individual workbook tasks. · Minimal learner interaction or use of manipulatives. Both groups were taught the same content over the same period to ensure consistency in curriculum coverage. Instrumentation and Data Collection Phases Two main instruments were employed in this study. The first was a Numeracy Skills Test, which consisted of five items designed to assess learners’ abilities in number recognition (1–10), object counting, number matching, and solving simple addition and subtraction problems. This test was aligned with the Kindergarten Two (KG2) syllabus objectives and was piloted with 15 learners outside the study population to ensure clarity and relevance. Based on the pilot, necessary revisions were made, and the instrument demonstrated high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83. The second instrument was an Observation Checklist, used exclusively in the experimental group to monitor learners’ engagement during lessons, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials such as counting games and visual aids. The checklist was reviewed and validated by experts in early childhood education to ensure its content validity and suitability for classroom observation. The data collection process was conducted in three phases. During the pre-intervention phase, a baseline numeracy test was administered to both groups, to assess learners’ existing numeracy behaviors. In the intervention phase, the experimental group participated in structured lessons using counting games and visual aids, while classroom observations were recorded using the checklist. Finally, in the post-intervention phase, the same numeracy test was re-administered to both groups, and the results were compared to the baseline data to assess the impact of the intervention. Data Analysis The data were initially intended to be analyzed using a paired samples t-test and a two-way ANOVA in IBM SPSS (version 25). However, due to violations of the normality assumption, non-parametric tests were used instead to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Quantitative data from the numeracy skills pre-test and post-test were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test and the Mann–Whitney U Test to assess learners’ performance. The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was applied separately to the experimental and control groups to examine within-group differences between pre-test and post-test scores. This test determined whether each group showed statistically significant improvement over time. To assess differences between the two groups, gain scores (calculated as post-test minus pre-test) were compared using the Mann–Whitney U Test. A significance level of p < .05 was used for all analyses. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated to evaluate the practical significance of the observed differences. To complement the test data and provide a richer understanding of the learners' behavior and interaction with the intervention, observation checklist data were also analyzed. The checklist consisted of items related to learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials. These items were scored using a four-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always). Numerical scores were entered into SPSS, and mean scores and standard deviations were calculated for each item across all intervention sessions. This allowed for the assessment of average behavioral patterns in the experimental group. Ethical consideration Ethical clearance was obtained from the Ghana Education Service District Directorate. Parental consent and school administrator approval were secured before the study began. Participants’ identities were anonymized, and data confidentiality was maintained throughout. Participation was voluntary, and no learner was disadvantaged regardless of group assignment. Results A Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (See Table 2) was conducted to examine whether there was a statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest scores within the control and experimental groups. Interpretations of effect sizes were based on Cohen’s (1988) guidelines, where r = .10, .30, and .50 represent small, medium, and large effects, respectively. For the control group, the results indicated no statistically significant difference, Z = -1.95, p = .052. However, the calculated effect size was r = .36, which corresponds to a moderate effect, suggesting some degree of improvement despite the non-significant p-value. In contrast, the experimental group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement from pretest to posttest, Z = -3.30, p = .001, with a large effect size, r = .60. This implies that the intervention had a substantial positive impact on participants’ performance. The Descriptive statistics from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (See Table 1) provided insights into the direction and distribution of score changes between the pretest and posttest for both groups. In the control group (N = 30), 22 participants (73.3%) showed improvement in their posttest scores (positive ranks), with a mean rank of 14.86 and a total rank sum of 327.00. Conversely, 8 participants (26.7%) experienced a decline in scores (negative ranks), with a mean rank of 17.25 and a rank sum of 138.00. There were no ties, indicating that all participants had either improved or declined. In the experimental group (N = 30), 23 participants (76.7%) demonstrated improved post-test scores, with a mean rank of 17.09 and a rank sum of 393.00. The remaining 7 participants (23.3%) had lower posttest scores (negative ranks), with a mean rank of 10.29 and a rank sum of 72.00. Again, no ties were observed. The higher frequency and mean rank of positive scores in the experimental group suggest a stronger trend toward improvement, further supported by the statistically significant test results and large effect size reported. Table 1: Test Statistics of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Group Posttest – Pretest Control Z -1.945 b Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .052 Experimental Z -3.302 b Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .001 a. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test, b. Based on negative ranks. Table 2: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results Group N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Control Posttest - Prestest Negative Ranks 8 a 17.25 138.00 Positive Ranks 22 b 14.86 327.00 Ties 0 c Total 30 Experimental Posttest - Prestest Negative Ranks 7 a 10.29 72.00 Positive Ranks 23 b 17.09 393.00 Ties 0 c Total 30 a. Posttest Pretest, c. Posttest = Pretest A Mann-Whitney U test (See Table 3) was also conducted to compare Gain Scores between the Control and Experimental groups. The results indicated a statistically significant difference, U = 247.500, Z = -2.995, p = .003. The Mann-Whitney U statistic (See Table 4) represents the sum of ranks assigned to observations across the two independent groups, highlighting a difference in their distributions. The corresponding standardized test statistic (Z) of -2.995 signifies the extent to which the observed ranking deviates from the expected ranking under the null hypothesis. With a p-value of .003, which falls below the conventional alpha level of .05, the result suggests strong evidence against the null hypothesis, indicating that the Gain Scores for the Experimental group (Mean Rank = 37.25) are significantly higher than those of the Control group (Mean Rank = 23.75). These findings support the conclusion that the intervention applied to the Experimental group had a meaningful impact on their Gain Scores. Table 3: A Mann-Whitney U Test Results Group N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Gain_Score Control 30 23.75 712.50 Experimental 30 37.25 1117.50 Total 60 Table 4: Test Statistics A Mann-Whitney U Test Gain Score Mann-Whitney U 247.500 Wilcoxon W 712.500 Z -2.995 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .003 Observation Results To complement the test data and provide a richer understanding of the learners' behavior and interaction with the intervention, observation checklist data were also analyzed. The checklist consisted of items related to learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials. These items were scored using a four-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always). Numerical scores were entered into SPSS, and mean scores and standard deviations were calculated for each item across all intervention sessions. This allowed for the assessment of average behavioral patterns in the experimental group. Observation data were collected over four consecutive days during the intervention period. For each day, descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were computed for all checklist items. Table 5 below presents the daily mean scores and standard deviations for three key behavioral indicators: learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and use of instructional materials. Table 5: Mean Scores (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Observation Checklist Items Across Four Days Behavior Indicator Day 1 (M ± SD) Day 2 (M ± SD) Day 3 (M ± SD) Day 4 (M ± SD) Learner Engagement 2.80 ± 0.42 3.10 ± 0.36 3.30 ± 0.40 3.45 ± 0.32 Responsiveness to Instruction 2.60 ± 0.50 2.95 ± 0.45 3.20 ± 0.38 3.40 ± 0.35 Use of Instructional Materials 2.75 ± 0.48 3.00 ± 0.40 3.25 ± 0.42 3.50 ± 0.30 Over the four days, a steady increase in mean scores was observed for all three indicators, suggesting improvements in learners’ engagement, responsiveness, and use of instructional materials. For example, learner engagement increased from a mean score of 2.80 on Day 1 to 3.45 on Day 4. This trend indicates that the intervention had a positive effect on learners' active participation and interaction with the instructional content over time. Discussion of the Findings The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test revealed a statistically significant improvement in numeracy scores within the experimental group (Z = -3.30, p = .001), with a large effect size (r = .60), indicating a substantial positive impact of the intervention. The observed improvement also supports findings by Adornyo (2023), who reported significant gains and large effect sizes through problem-solving instruction, and Gizir (2023), who noted marked enhancements in performance and creativity using project-based, learner-centered pedagogies. This aligns with existing research highlighting the effectiveness of play-based and multimodal strategies in early numeracy development. Clements and Sarama (2011) demonstrated that integrating structured play and visual tools significantly enhances mathematical understanding in young learners. Similarly, Berkowitz et al. (2015) found that game-based learning promotes meaningful gains in number sense and counting skills. For the control group, the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test revealed no statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest scores ( Z = -1.95, p = .052); however, a moderate effect size ( r = .36) suggests a degree of instructional benefit. This implies that even in the absence of statistical significance, routine exposure to conventional classroom activities may lead to modest learning gains. These findings are consistent with studies by Gurat (2023) and Gizir (2023), both of whom observed moderate improvements in control groups exposed to traditional teaching methods. Similarly, Aunio and Niemivirta (2010) reported that consistent, conventional instruction can produce incremental improvements in early numeracy, although less impactful than more interactive or play-based approaches. Furthermore, the Mann–Whitney U test comparing gain scores revealed that learners in the experimental group outperformed those in the control group (U = 247.50, p = .003), confirming the intervention’s effectiveness in promoting early numeracy skills. This between-group difference is echoed in studies by Ramani and Siegler (2008), who demonstrated that children exposed to number board games significantly outperformed their peers in numerical fluency and magnitude comparison tasks. Likewise, Clements and Sarama (2011) emphasized that numeracy interventions that blend structured instruction with engaging, contextually meaningful activities produce larger learning gains than standard pedagogical methods alone. Collectively, these results suggest that play-based instructional designs, particularly those incorporating visual aids and interactive games, provide a powerful tool for improving early numeracy, especially in low-resource or developing contexts. As Nicol and Crespo (2006) argue, meaningful mathematical learning is most effectively achieved when children are given opportunities to actively construct knowledge through guided exploration, which is precisely the approach adopted in this study. These quantitative findings are strongly reinforced by the behavioral trends observed over the four-day intervention period. Observation checklist data showed consistent improvements in learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials. Mean scores for all indicators increased across each day, indicating that learners became progressively more active and participatory in their learning process. This is in line with research showing that play-based learning environments foster increased engagement, collaboration, and motivation in young learners (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Whitebread et al., 2012). The improvement in behavioral indicators such as attentiveness and proper use of learning resources supports the assertion that active, multimodal instructional strategies like games and visual aids encourage deeper cognitive and emotional involvement in learning tasks. According to Hirsh-Pasek et al. (2009), guided play strikes a balance between child autonomy and educational structure, which enhances learning outcomes without compromising creativity and exploration. In the present study, counting games likely activated both procedural and conceptual understanding, promoting number sense and early arithmetic reasoning (Clements & Sarama, 2011). This finding is consistent with the socio-cultural perspective on learning, which emphasizes the importance of interaction, scaffolding, and contextualized experiences (Vygotsky, 1978). The visually rich and interactive nature of the intervention served as a scaffold, allowing learners to construct meaning through concrete experiences. Furthermore, as children engaged with these playful tasks repeatedly over four days, their observed growth in engagement and behavior supports the developmental principle that repeated, meaningful experiences are foundational to early learning (Ginsburg et al., 2008; Berk & Meyers, 2013). Moreover, the practical benefits of the intervention extend beyond test scores. Enhanced classroom behavior, as evidenced by increased attentiveness and material usage, points to improvements in executive function and self-regulation skills that are crucial not only for academic success but also for long-term learning and social development (Blair & Raver, 2015). These behavioral gains suggest that play-based numeracy instruction can simultaneously support cognitive, social, and emotional development in early learners. Overall, the convergence of quantitative test results and observational data demonstrates that play-based learning, when deliberately structured and culturally contextualized, can significantly enhance early numeracy outcomes and classroom engagement. This is particularly relevant in under-resourced contexts, where traditional rote-based instruction often limits active learning opportunities. Taken together, the results from both the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and the Mann–Whitney U Test provide compelling evidence that the play-based instructional approach using counting games and visual aids significantly enhanced early numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two learners. The statistically significant improvement in the experimental group, contrasted with the non-significant gains in the control group, supports the conclusion that the intervention had a meaningful effect. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H₀) which posited no significant difference in early numeracy outcomes between the two groups is rejected, while the alternative hypothesis (H₁) which predicted superior outcomes for learners receiving the play-based intervention is accepted. These findings reinforce the value of culturally relevant, interactive instructional strategies in early childhood education, particularly within resource-constrained settings. Limitations of the Study Despite the promising results, several limitations must be acknowledged: 1. Limited Sample Size and Scope: The study was conducted in a single kindergarten classroom with a relatively small sample (N = 60), limiting the generalizability of findings to other settings or populations. 2. Short Intervention Period: The intervention was implemented over a brief four-day period. While meaningful gains were observed, a longer duration might yield deeper and more sustained outcomes. 3. Observer Bias in Behavioral Assessment: The use of an observation checklist, although systematic, may be influenced by observer subjectivity. Multiple observers or inter-rater reliability checks were not implemented. 4. Lack of Longitudinal Data: The study did not examine long-term retention of numeracy skills, leaving open the question of how lasting the intervention’s effects are. 5. Context-Specific Factors: Cultural, infrastructural, and educational dynamics specific to the Ghanaian classroom may limit the applicability of the findings to different educational contexts without modification. Conclusion The study demonstrated that play-based learning using counting games and visual aids significantly improved early numeracy skills and classroom engagement among Ghanaian kindergarten learners. The experimental group showed a statistically significant gain with a large effect size, while the control group had only a modest, non-significant improvement. Behavioral observations supported these findings, revealing increased learner engagement and responsiveness throughout the intervention. Overall, the results highlight the effectiveness of structured, culturally relevant play-based strategies in enhancing both academic performance and positive learning behaviors in early childhood education, particularly in low-resource settings. Implications for Practice The findings offer several actionable insights for early childhood educators and curriculum developers: Adoption of Play-Based Approaches: Integrating counting games and visual aids into daily instruction can significantly boost numeracy development and learner engagement in early years education. Culturally Relevant Instructional Design: Designing interventions that reflect local context and student experience enhances effectiveness and learner participation. Teacher Training: Professional development programs should equip educators with the skills to implement interactive, play-based strategies that balance academic goals with child-centered learning. Supportive Learning Environments: Schools, particularly in resource-constrained settings, should invest in low-cost, engaging materials to facilitate active learning and cognitive development. Future Research Directions To build on the current study, future research could explore the following areas: Longitudinal Studies: Investigate the long-term effects of play-based numeracy interventions on academic achievement and cognitive development. Larger and Diverse Samples: Replicate the study across multiple schools and regions to enhance generalizability and identify contextual variations. Comparative Effectiveness: Compare different types of play-based interventions (e.g., digital games vs. physical games) to determine which approaches yield the best outcomes. Teacher Mediation and Fidelity: Examine how the role of the teacher and the fidelity of implementation influence intervention effectiveness. Integration with Other Domains: Explore how similar strategies impact literacy, social-emotional learning, or executive functioning to support a holistic learning model. Declarations ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study owes its success to several people who assisted us in various ways and deserve to be acknowledged. First, we wish to thank the Almighty God for his abundant grace and favor bestowed on us throughout our education. We wish to thank our families for their support and encouragement. Our profound gratitude also goes to Synclaire International Junior High School in Ghana, which used the study and time off their tight schedules to help in making the experiment a success. AUTHORS' CONTRIBUTIONS AM wrote the introduction and relevant literature, conducted the experiment, and analyzed and interpreted the data. AM continue to put together the entire manuscript. FUNDING INFORMATION No funding was received for this study. CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT There is no conflict of interest in connection with this study. COMPETING INTERESTS The authors declare that they have no competing interests. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. AUTHORS' INFORMATION References Adams, A. K., Asemnor, F., & Nkansah, V. (2024). Play-based pedagogy in Ghanaian basic schools: A review of related literature. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports , 18 (3), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajarr/2024/v18i3611 Adornyo, S. (2023). Effects of teaching students through problem-solving on students’ academic performance in problem-solving . Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/99669156 Agyei-Mensah, S., Agyemang, E. E., & Osei, S. A. (2020). Challenges in early numeracy education in Ghana: A study of kindergarten learners. Journal of Educational Research and Practice , 10 (1), 45–57. Akyeampong, K., Lussier, K., Pryor, J., & Westbrook, J. (2013). Improving teaching and learning of basic maths and reading in Africa: Does teacher preparation count? International Journal of Educational Development , 33(3), 272–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.09.006 Atteh, E., Kwofie, W., Martin, G., & Boakye, A. (2023). Hidden curriculum activities on numeracy and literacy development in early grade education: Perspectives from elementary school teachers in Ghana. Advances in Research , 24 (5), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.9734/air/2023/v24i5976 Aunio, P., & Niemivirta, M. (2010). Predicting children's mathematical performance in grade one by early numeracy. Learning and Individual Differences , 20 (5), 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.06.003 Baroody, A. J., Bajwa, N. P., & Eiland, M. (2009). Why can’t Johnny remember the basic facts? Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 15(1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.45 Berk, L. E., & Meyers, A. B. (2013). Development through the lifespan (6th ed.). Pearson. Berkowitz, T., Schaeffer, M. W., Maloney, E. A., Peterson, L., Gregor, C., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2015). Math at home adds up to achievement in school. Science , 350 (6257), 196–198. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7427 Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015). School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66 , 711–731. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221 Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). Pearson. Butterworth, B., Varma, S., & Laurillard, D. (2011). Dyscalculia: From brain to education. Science , 332 (6033), 1049–1053. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201536 Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research . Rand McNally. Cekiso, M. (2020). Teachers’ understanding and use of visual tools in their numeracy classrooms: A case study of two primary schools in Gauteng. South African Journal of Childhood Education , 10 (1), a887. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v10i1.887 Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2007). Early childhood mathematics learning. In F. K. Lester Jr. (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 461–555). Information Age Publishing. Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2011). Early childhood mathematics intervention. Science, 333 (6045), 968–970. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204537 Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer . Psychological Bulletin , 112 (1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., Pagani, L. S., Feinstein, L., Engel, M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Sexton, H., Duckworth, K., & Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology , 43 (6), 1428–1446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428 Gabriel, F., Buckley, S., & Barthakur, A. (2020). The impact of mathematics anxiety on self-regulated learning and mathematical literacy. Australian Journal of Education , 64 (3), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004944120947881 Ginsburg, H. P., Lee, J. S., & Boyd, J. S. (2008). Mathematics education for young children: What it is and how to promote it . Social Policy Report, 22 (1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2008.tb00054.x Gizir, Z. (2023). How the project approach affects pre-schoolers’ creativity . Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/107763875 Gurat, M. (2023). Effect of study group on grade 9 students’ achievement in solving trigonometric problems . Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/117855786 Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Berk, L. E., & Singer, D. G. (2009). A mandate for playful learning in preschool: Presenting the evidence . Oxford University Press. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development . Prentice Hall. Leite, R. M. D. S., Coelho, M. P. P., Lacerda, D. D. S., Czapski, A. R. S., Dias, L. A. C., Silva, C. A. T., Cirqueira, E. C., Arieiro, A. A. A., Dos Santos, J. C., Da Silva, T. E. P., Miranda, E. M. B., Miranda, J. F. B., Castro, D. T., & Saraiva, C. V. (2024). Active methodology in early childhood education: A bibliographic survey. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) , 29 (9, Series 13), 13–17. https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-2909131317 Nicol, C., & Crespo, S. (2005). Exploring mathematics in imaginative places: Rethinking what counts as meaningful contexts for learning mathematics. School Science and Mathematics , 105 (5), 240–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8594.2005.tb18164.x Nyarko, K., & Antwi, K. (2021). The use of visual aids in improving early numeracy education in Ghanaian classrooms. International Journal of Education Research , 22 (3), 82–95. Oppong Frimpong, S., Anthony, A., & Woode-Eshun, W. (2023). Kindergarten teachers’ challenges to the teaching of literacy skills among kindergarteners in Shama District of Ghana. Journal of Early Childhood Education (JECE) , 5(1). https://journal.uinjkt.ac.id/index.php/jece/article/view/32052 Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children . International Universities Press. Pyle, A., & Danniels, E. (2017). A continuum of play-based learning: The role of the teacher in play-based pedagogy and the fear of hijacking play. Early Education and Development, 28 (3), 274–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2016.1220771 Ramani, G. B., & Siegler, R. S. (2008). Promoting broad and stable improvements in low-income children’s numerical knowledge through playing number board games. Child Development, 79(2), 375–394. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01131.x Riley-Ayers, S. (2014). Formative assessment: Guidance for early childhood policymakers . Center on Enhancing Early Learning Outcomes (CEELO). https://nieer.org/sites/default/files/2023-09/ceelo_policy_report_formative_assessment.pdf UNESCO. (2018). Global education monitoring report: Accountability in education – Meeting our commitments . United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. USAID. (2017). Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) Ghana 2016 report . United States Agency for International Development. Visser, M. (2017). Early learning experiences, school entry skills and later mathematics achievement in South Africa. South African Journal of Childhood Education , 7(1), a597. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v7i1.597 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Harvard University Press. Whitebread, D., Basilio, M., Kuvalja, M., & Verma, M. (2012). The importance of play: A report on the value of children's play with a series of policy recommendations . Toy Industries of Europe. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6787623","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":464377292,"identity":"0cbd804c-135b-480c-b73b-dc21df15ab18","order_by":0,"name":"Mathias Adawurah","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-8257-2228","institution":"University of education winneba Ghana","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mathias","middleName":"","lastName":"Adawurah","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-30 21:47:56","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6787623/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6787623/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83821410,"identity":"e2612e07-935f-45ed-8b3b-b8fdf58a571f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 08:56:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":963316,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6787623/v1/8e9b2263-cf1c-4445-aca4-fe5f0dd2b359.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnhancing Early Numeracy through Play-Based Learning: A Case Study Using Counting Games and Visual Aids in a Ghanaian Kindergarten Classroom\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNumeracy is a foundational competency that underpins not only future success in mathematics but also general cognitive development and everyday problem-solving abilities. In the early years of education, particularly at the kindergarten level, developing numeracy skills such as number recognition, counting, and simple arithmetic is critical for laying the groundwork for more advanced mathematical thinking (Clements \u0026amp; Sarama, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, there has been growing recognition of the importance of early childhood education (ECE) as a vehicle for improving long-term learning outcomes. This recognition is reflected in global frameworks such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4.2, which emphasizes ensuring that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development and pre-primary education (UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite this global emphasis, research has shown that children in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana, continue to lag in numeracy proficiency compared to global benchmarks (Akyeampong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) reports from Ghana reveal that many children complete kindergarten without being able to recognize numbers or count accurately beyond 10 (USAID, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These challenges are compounded by systemic factors such as overcrowded classrooms, limited teaching resources, and reliance on rote-based instructional methods that do not support meaningful engagement or conceptual understanding (Agyei-Mensah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior research on numeracy interventions in early childhood has largely focused on high-income countries with well-resourced classrooms and experienced educators (Baroody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Clements \u0026amp; Sarama, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). While these studies confirm the effectiveness of play-based and visual learning strategies, they often fail to address how such methods can be adapted and implemented in resource-constrained contexts like Ghana. There is limited empirical literature that explores the use of culturally appropriate, low-cost teaching strategies such as counting games and visual aids in early-grade settings within sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, few studies consider the classroom-based action research approach that allows for real-time adaptation and reflection by local educators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study addresses these gaps by exploring the use of counting games and visual aids as pedagogical tools to enhance numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two learners in a public school in the Tema Manhean District of Ghana. The use of interactive, play-based strategies is rooted in constructivist learning theory, which holds that young children construct knowledge more effectively through active, hands-on experiences (Piaget, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Vygotsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). Counting games and visual aids support this approach by making abstract mathematical concepts more concrete and relatable (Ginsburg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). These strategies are particularly relevant in the Ghanaian context, where many children enter formal schooling with limited exposure to structured numeracy instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy situating the research within a real classroom environment using an action research design, this study contributes both to local educational practice and to the broader scholarly discourse on how to improve foundational numeracy skills in low-resource settings. It seeks to provide practical, context-sensitive insights that can inform teacher training, curriculum design, and early childhood policy development not only in Ghana but also in other similar contexts globally.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis literature review is organized into five key thematic areas that frame the current study. It begins by outlining the theoretical foundations that support play-based and visual learning in early childhood mathematics. The review then explores the significance of early numeracy for holistic child development, followed by a discussion of the contextual and instructional barriers that hinder numeracy acquisition in early-grade classrooms. The subsequent section highlights the pedagogical value of counting games and visual aids, emphasizing their relevance within developmentally appropriate and resource-sensitive teaching strategies. Finally, the review examines empirical studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of these interventions in improving numeracy outcomes for young learners. Together, these themes provide a foundation for understanding the need for and value of interactive, contextually relevant numeracy interventions in Ghanaian early childhood education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study is grounded in particularly drawing on the works of Jean Piaget (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e) and Lev Vygotsky (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e), both of whom emphasized the importance of active, hands-on experiences in early childhood learning. Constructivism posits that children build knowledge through interaction with their environment, rather than passively receiving information. In the context of numeracy development, this means that young learners grasp mathematical concepts more effectively when they are actively engaged in meaningful, concrete activities such as games and visual exploration rather than through abstract or rote instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJean Piaget\u0026rsquo;s theory of cognitive development asserts that children in the preoperational stage (ages 2\u0026ndash;7) learn best through play and manipulation of tangible objects. According to Piaget, young children have not yet developed the ability to perform abstract operations, and thus require sensory-motor engagement to make sense of numerical concepts (Piaget, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e). Counting games, which allow children to physically handle objects, and visual aids such as number lines and flashcards, align with this view by providing opportunities for learners to construct understanding through concrete experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLev Vygotsky\u0026rsquo;s sociocultural theory further enriches the framework by introducing the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. Vygotsky (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e) argued that social interaction and guided participation are essential for learning, particularly when supported by scaffolding from teachers or peers. In this study, counting games and visual aids are employed as scaffolding tools that support learners in moving from simple number recognition to more complex operations like addition and subtraction, within their ZPD.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the experiential learning theory by Kolb (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e) supports the integration of physical activities and visual stimuli in early numeracy instruction. Kolb emphasized learning through experience, reflection, and active experimentation principles inherently present in play-based activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTogether, these theories justify the use of interactive, multisensory instructional strategies such as counting games and visual aids, especially in early childhood classrooms. By embedding these strategies in the learning process, children are more likely to internalize mathematical concepts, develop problem-solving abilities, and retain foundational numeracy skills. This theoretical grounding informs both the design and implementation of the intervention in this study and supports its applicability in resource-constrained settings like Ghana, where innovative yet simple teaching methods are urgently needed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Importance of Early Numeracy in Child Development\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEarly numeracy is the ability to understand and work with numbers and mathematical concepts from a young age. It is also increasingly recognized as a foundational skill that profoundly influences a child\u0026rsquo;s educational trajectory and cognitive development. Research consistently shows that numeracy competencies developed during the early years serve as strong predictors of later success in mathematics and broader academic performance (Duncan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Clements \u0026amp; Sarama, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Numeracy is not only a subject-specific skill but also a cognitive tool that enhances problem-solving, logical reasoning, and decision-making abilities that are critical across all areas of learning and daily life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn early childhood, numeracy development encompasses basic concepts such as number recognition, counting, quantity comparison, understanding number relationships, and simple arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction. These skills form the bedrock for more complex mathematical reasoning later in primary and secondary school (Ginsburg et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). According to Clements and Sarama (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), children who enter primary school with strong numeracy skills are more likely to maintain high academic performance across subjects, even beyond mathematics. This underscores the urgency of providing high-quality numeracy experiences as early as the pre-primary stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the early years are a sensitive period for brain development, during which children are particularly responsive to learning stimuli. Neuroscience research supports the idea that introducing numerical concepts through developmentally appropriate, engaging strategies in early childhood fosters neural connections associated with mathematical reasoning (Butterworth et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Activities that involve movement, visual perception, and manipulation such as counting games and visual aids are especially effective during this developmental window.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe importance of early numeracy is also echoed in international educational goals. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.2 emphasizes the need for all children to have access to quality early childhood education that prepares them for primary education, with literacy and numeracy as core learning outcomes (UNESCO, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, in many sub-Saharan African countries, including Ghana, large numbers of children enter primary school without acquiring these basic numeracy skills. According to data from the Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA), a significant proportion of Ghanaian Kindergarten Two learners are unable to recognize numbers or perform simple addition, which severely hampers their ability to engage with the primary curriculum (USAID, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral scholars have attributed this shortfall to the dominance of rote-based instructional methods in early childhood settings, which often neglect the developmental needs of young learners (Agyei-Mensah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Leite, 2024). Children in such classrooms are rarely exposed to the types of interactive, play-based, and exploratory learning experiences that research has shown to be most effective for numeracy development. In contrast, child-centered approaches that emphasize manipulatives, games, and visual representations of mathematical ideas have been found to significantly enhance children\u0026rsquo;s numeracy performance, particularly in early grades (Baroody et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Ghanaian context, promoting early numeracy is not just an educational imperative but a social and economic one. Basic mathematical competence is increasingly essential in modern societies, not only for academic progression but also for participation in the workforce and financial literacy (Akyeampong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). For children from under-resourced or marginalized backgrounds, early mastery of numeracy can provide a critical foundation for equity and long-term opportunity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn sum, early numeracy plays a central role in shaping the academic and cognitive development of young learners. When numeracy instruction is tailored to the developmental characteristics of children particularly through interactive methods such as counting games and visual aids it can foster deeper understanding, sustained engagement, and long-term educational success. In light of persistent challenges within Ghana\u0026rsquo;s early-grade classrooms, there is a clear need for evidence-based, child-centered interventions that effectively develop numeracy from the foundational level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChallenges to Numeracy Acquisition in Early-Grade Classrooms\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the increasing global emphasis on foundational numeracy as a driver of lifelong learning, many children in early-grade classrooms particularly in sub-Saharan Africa struggle to develop even the most basic mathematical competencies. In Ghana, several factors continue to hinder the effective acquisition of numeracy skills in early childhood settings. These challenges span systemic, pedagogical, and learner-related dimensions, creating an environment where young children are often unable to acquire the essential mathematical foundations needed for future academic success.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the most pervasive challenges is the over-reliance on rote memorization and teacher-centered instruction in early-grade classrooms. Traditional pedagogical methods often prioritize the mechanical recitation of numbers and arithmetic facts without fostering meaningful understanding or conceptual development. According to Agyei-Mensah et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), many kindergarten learners in Ghana are taught mathematics through repetition and drill exercises that do not align with their developmental stages or learning preferences. Such approaches fail to engage children actively, and as a result, numeracy instruction becomes abstract, disengaging, and difficult to retain.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompounding this issue is the shortage of trained early childhood educators with adequate knowledge of developmentally appropriate practices. In many Ghanaian public schools, early childhood teachers receive limited training in using play-based or child-centered strategies to teach mathematical concepts (Akyeampong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, teachers may lack both the confidence and the pedagogical tools to implement numeracy instruction that is interactive and responsive to the needs of young learners. As Pyle \u0026amp; Danniels (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). note, even where awareness of play-based learning exists, its implementation is often superficial due to constraints in training, time, or institutional support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother critical barrier is the lack of appropriate teaching and learning materials. Foundational numeracy requires concrete materials manipulatives, number charts, flashcards, and visual aids to support learners in transitioning from tangible experiences to abstract thinking. However, many early-grade classrooms in Ghana are under-resourced, making it difficult for teachers to introduce engaging numeracy activities (Leite, 2024). In such environments, children are deprived of the sensory-motor experiences that are essential for constructing mathematical understanding, particularly during the pre-operational stage of cognitive development as described by Piaget (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLarge class sizes and limited instructional time further exacerbate the problem. Overcrowded classrooms make it difficult for teachers to provide individualized attention or conduct group activities that cater to varying levels of numeracy understanding. Oppong (2023) observes that in many public kindergartens, one teacher may be responsible for managing over 40 children, leaving little room for differentiated instruction or active learning strategies. Additionally, the limited time allocated to numeracy in the early-grade curriculum often results in superficial coverage of key concepts rather than deep engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearner-specific factors such as language barriers, socio-economic disadvantages, and limited preschool exposure also influence numeracy acquisition. Many children enter kindergarten with minimal prior exposure to numbers or structured learning environments, placing them at a disadvantage compared to peers from more privileged backgrounds (Visser, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, when numeracy instruction is delivered in a language unfamiliar to the learner, comprehension and engagement may be significantly impaired (Akyeampong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These early disadvantages can have long-lasting effects, as gaps in foundational skills tend to widen over time if not addressed effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLastly, assessment practices in early-grade classrooms are often misaligned with the developmental needs of learners. Rather than emphasizing formative assessment and observational methods that can inform instruction, teachers frequently rely on written tests or oral questioning, which may not accurately capture a child\u0026rsquo;s numeracy development (Riley-Ayers, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This not only limits the teacher\u0026rsquo;s ability to identify and support struggling learners but may also contribute to anxiety and disengagement among young children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the acquisition of numeracy skills in early-grade classrooms is impeded by a complex interplay of instructional, institutional, and learner-related challenges. Addressing these issues requires a holistic approach that includes teacher training in child-centered methodologies, provision of adequate learning materials, curriculum reforms that emphasize experiential learning, and the use of inclusive assessment tools. In contexts like Ghana, where resources are often limited, innovative, low-cost strategies such as counting games and visual aids offer a promising solution to overcome these barriers and foster meaningful numeracy development from the foundational level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlay-Based and Visual Learning Strategies in Early Numeracy\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlay-based and visual learning approaches have become essential pedagogical strategies for developing early numeracy skills among young learners. These methods are rooted in child-centered learning theories which emphasize that children learn best when they are actively engaged in experiences that are meaningful, enjoyable, and developmentally appropriate (Piaget, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Vygotsky, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). In early numeracy, such strategies foster concept internalization, stimulate interest and support memory retention by integrating play, movement, and visual stimuli into mathematical learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlay-based learning refers to instructional methods that utilize games, storytelling, role-play, and hands-on exploration to teach mathematical concepts. These strategies enable children to engage with numbers and quantities in meaningful, low-stress contexts. According to Ginsburg et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), play provides children with the opportunity to explore mathematical ideas such as counting, ordering, grouping, and pattern recognition in natural and engaging ways. Similarly, Baroody et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) emphasize that counting games allow for repeated practice and active manipulation of objects, helping children to move from concrete to abstract mathematical reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisual learning strategies, on the other hand, employ visual representations such as number lines, flashcards, charts, and manipulatives (e.g., counting blocks, and colored beads) to help children form mental images of mathematical concepts. These tools support learners who benefit from seeing rather than hearing information and provide concrete anchors for abstract ideas (Clements \u0026amp; Sarama, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Nyarko and Antwi (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that visual aids make learning more interactive and inclusive, especially for learners who struggle with verbal explanations or have limited prior exposure to formal instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImportantly, these methods are particularly valuable in early childhood settings where learners have varied learning styles and require multisensory approaches. In Ghanaian kindergartens, where instructional resources may be limited and class sizes large, play-based and visual strategies provide an accessible, low-cost way to enhance learner participation and understanding (Leite, 2024). Moreover, they promote a positive attitude toward mathematics, which is crucial in building learner confidence and reducing anxiety associated with math learning (Gabriel, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEmpirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Counting Games and Visual Aids\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA growing body of empirical research supports the effectiveness of counting games and visual aids in enhancing early numeracy skills. These tools have been shown to significantly improve learners\u0026rsquo; understanding of number concepts, counting ability, and early arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a study by Pyle \u0026amp; Danniels (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) kindergarten learners who participated in counting games demonstrated superior performance in number recognition and basic arithmetic compared to peers taught using traditional methods. The researchers observed that learners retained information longer and were more enthusiastic about mathematics lessons when games were incorporated into instruction. Similarly, Adams et al., (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) study indicated that kindergarten learners who engage in counting games exhibit superior performance in number recognition and basic arithmetic compared to peers taught using traditional methods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisual aids have also been widely validated as effective tools for early numeracy instruction. Atteh (2023) found that young children in resource-limited schools who were taught using number charts, flashcards, and manipulatives showed notable gains in numeracy assessments. These learners demonstrated improved abilities in number sequencing, quantity estimation, and simple problem-solving. In addition, McNeil and Uttal (2009) noted that using concrete visual aids, such as manipulatives, helped young children focus their attention and enhanced their ability to apply mathematical concepts to novel situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies across African contexts reinforce the impact of these strategies in under-resourced settings. For instance, Visser (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). conducted an experimental study in Kenya and found that learners exposed to a structured program combining counting games and visual materials performed significantly better on early mathematics tasks than those in control classrooms. Likewise, Clements and Sarama (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) reported that using structured math games in early childhood classrooms improved children\u0026apos;s understanding of number concepts and promoted sustained engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these studies provide robust evidence that counting games and visual aids are not only effective but also essential for promoting numeracy skills in early childhood, particularly in low-resource and large-classroom environments like those found in many Ghanaian schools. Their incorporation into everyday teaching practices holds promise for improving foundational mathematical competencies and narrowing early achievement gaps.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the study\u0026rsquo;s aim and theoretical foundation, it is proposed that play-based instruction using counting games and visual aids will have a measurable impact on learners\u0026rsquo; numeracy outcomes. To test this assumption, the following hypotheses were formulated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH₀ (Null Hypothesis)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no significant difference in early numeracy skills between learners who receive play-based instruction using counting games and visual aids and those who receive traditional instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH₁ (Alternative Hypothesis)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners who receive play-based instruction using counting games and visual aids will demonstrate significantly higher early numeracy skills compared to those receiving traditional instruction.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study adopted a true experimental design using a randomized pre-test–post-test control group approach to determine the effectiveness of counting games and visual aids in improving numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two learners. True experimental designs are characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions, which increases internal validity and supports causal conclusions about the intervention’s effects (Campbell \u0026amp; Stanley, 1963; Creswell \u0026amp; Creswell, 2018). This design allowed for a rigorous comparison between learners exposed to the intervention and those receiving traditional instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePopulation and Sample Size Determination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe target population for the study comprised Kindergarten Two (KG2) learners in selected public schools within the Tema Manhean District of the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. The accessible population consisted of 120 KG2 learners enrolled in two similar schools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 60 learners (30 in the experimental group and 30 in the control group) were selected through random sampling. The sample size was determined using Cohen’s (1992) statistical power analysis table, which recommends a minimum of 27 participants per group for medium effect size (d = 0.5), with power = 0.80 and alpha = 0.05. Rounding up, 30 participants per group were selected to improve statistical robustness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntervention and Operationalization of Treatment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe intervention spanned four days, with the experimental group receiving instruction explicitly designed around play-based and visual learning strategies. The treatment was implemented during the school's regular mathematics period, for approximately 40 minutes per session.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstructional activities for the experimental group included:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Counting Games:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Number Toss Game: Learners tossed a softball onto a mat with numbered sections and identified the number landed on.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Number Hunt: Learners searched for and collected items marked with numerals around the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Clap and Count: Learners clapped or stomped in rhythm while counting aloud to reinforce sequence and coordination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Visual Aids:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Flashcards and Number Charts: Used to display and match numerals with quantities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Manipulatives: Everyday objects (bottle caps, blocks, beads) were used to perform basic addition and subtraction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Number Line Walk: Learners physically walked on a floor number line to solve addition/subtraction problems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstruction was interactive, learner-centered, and involved peer collaboration. Learners were allowed to manipulate materials freely, fostering concrete understanding before moving to abstract concepts (Piaget, 1952; Vygotsky, 1978).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControl Group Activities:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe control group received numeracy instruction using traditional teacher-centered strategies:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e· Rote counting and oral repetition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e· Board demonstrations and individual workbook tasks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e· Minimal learner interaction or use of manipulatives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth groups were taught the same content over the same period to ensure consistency in curriculum coverage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstrumentation and Data Collection Phases\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo main instruments were employed in this study. The first was a Numeracy Skills Test, which consisted of five items designed to assess learners’ abilities in number recognition (1–10), object counting, number matching, and solving simple addition and subtraction problems. This test was aligned with the Kindergarten Two (KG2) syllabus objectives and was piloted with 15 learners outside the study population to ensure clarity and relevance. Based on the pilot, necessary revisions were made, and the instrument demonstrated high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe second instrument was an Observation Checklist, used exclusively in the experimental group to monitor learners’ engagement during lessons, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials such as counting games and visual aids. The checklist was reviewed and validated by experts in early childhood education to ensure its content validity and suitability for classroom observation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data collection process was conducted in three phases. During the pre-intervention phase, a baseline numeracy test was administered to both groups, to assess learners’ existing numeracy behaviors. In the intervention phase, the experimental group participated in structured lessons using counting games and visual aids, while classroom observations were recorded using the checklist. Finally, in the post-intervention phase, the same numeracy test was re-administered to both groups, and the results were compared to the baseline data to assess the impact of the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data were initially intended to be analyzed using a paired samples t-test and a two-way ANOVA in IBM SPSS (version 25). However, due to violations of the normality assumption, non-parametric tests were used instead to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Quantitative data from the numeracy skills pre-test and post-test were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test and the Mann–Whitney U Test to assess learners’ performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was applied separately to the experimental and control groups to examine within-group differences between pre-test and post-test scores. This test determined whether each group showed statistically significant improvement over time. To assess differences between the two groups, gain scores (calculated as post-test minus pre-test) were compared using the Mann–Whitney U Test. A significance level of p \u0026lt; .05 was used for all analyses. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated to evaluate the practical significance of the observed differences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo complement the test data and provide a richer understanding of the learners' behavior and interaction with the intervention, observation checklist data were also analyzed. The checklist consisted of items related to learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials. These items were scored using a four-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always). Numerical scores were entered into SPSS, and mean scores and standard deviations were calculated for each item across all intervention sessions. This allowed for the assessment of average behavioral patterns in the experimental group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical consideration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance was obtained from the Ghana Education Service District Directorate. Parental consent and school administrator approval were secured before the study began. Participants’ identities were anonymized, and data confidentiality was maintained throughout. Participation was voluntary, and no learner was disadvantaged regardless of group assignment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eA Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (See Table 2) was conducted to examine whether there was a statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest scores within the control and experimental groups. Interpretations of effect sizes were based on Cohen’s (1988) guidelines, where r = .10, .30, and .50 represent small, medium, and large effects, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the control group, the results indicated no statistically significant difference, Z = -1.95, p = .052. However, the calculated effect size was r = .36, which corresponds to a moderate effect, suggesting some degree of improvement despite the non-significant p-value. In contrast, the experimental group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement from pretest to posttest, Z = -3.30, p = .001, with a large effect size, r = .60. This implies that the intervention had a substantial positive impact on participants’ performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Descriptive statistics from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (See Table 1) provided insights into the direction and distribution of score changes between the pretest and posttest for both groups. In the control group (N = 30), 22 participants (73.3%) showed improvement in their posttest scores (positive ranks), with a mean rank of 14.86 and a total rank sum of 327.00. Conversely, 8 participants (26.7%) experienced a decline in scores (negative ranks), with a mean rank of 17.25 and a rank sum of 138.00. There were no ties, indicating that all participants had either improved or declined.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the experimental group (N = 30), 23 participants (76.7%) demonstrated improved post-test scores, with a mean rank of 17.09 and a rank sum of 393.00. The remaining 7 participants (23.3%) had lower posttest scores (negative ranks), with a mean rank of 10.29 and a rank sum of 72.00. Again, no ties were observed. The higher frequency and mean rank of positive scores in the experimental group suggest a stronger trend toward improvement, further supported by the statistically significant test results and large effect size reported.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Test Statistics of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"328\"\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 230px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePosttest – Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.945\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsymp. Sig. (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.052\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.302\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsymp. Sig. (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea. \u0026nbsp; Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test, b. Based on negative ranks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"572\"\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 323px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSum of Ranks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePosttest - Prestest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegative Ranks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e138.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Ranks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e327.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePosttest - Prestest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegative Ranks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Ranks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e393.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea. Posttest \u0026lt; Pretest, b. Posttest \u0026gt; Pretest, c. Posttest = Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA Mann-Whitney U test (See Table 3) was also conducted to compare Gain Scores between the Control and Experimental groups. The results indicated a statistically significant difference, U = 247.500, Z = -2.995, p = .003. The Mann-Whitney U statistic (See Table 4) represents the sum of ranks assigned to observations across the two independent groups, highlighting a difference in their distributions. The corresponding standardized test statistic (Z) of -2.995 signifies the extent to which the observed ranking deviates from the expected ranking under the null hypothesis. With a p-value of .003, which falls below the conventional alpha level of .05, the result suggests strong evidence against the null hypothesis, indicating that the Gain Scores for the Experimental group (Mean Rank = 37.25) are significantly higher than those of the Control group (Mean Rank = 23.75). These findings support the conclusion that the intervention applied to the Experimental group had a meaningful impact on their Gain Scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3: A Mann-Whitney U Test Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"427\"\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSum of Ranks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGain_Score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e712.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1117.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4: Test Statistics A Mann-Whitney U Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"223\"\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGain Score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMann-Whitney U\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e247.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWilcoxon W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e712.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.995\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsymp. Sig. (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObservation Results \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo complement the test data and provide a richer understanding of the learners' behavior and interaction with the intervention, observation checklist data were also analyzed. The checklist consisted of items related to learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials. These items were scored using a four-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always). Numerical scores were entered into SPSS, and mean scores and standard deviations were calculated for each item across all intervention sessions. This allowed for the assessment of average behavioral patterns in the experimental group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eObservation data were collected over four consecutive days during the intervention period. For each day, descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were computed for all checklist items. Table 5 below presents the daily mean scores and standard deviations for three key behavioral indicators: learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and use of instructional materials.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5: Mean Scores (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Observation Checklist Items Across Four Days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBehavior Indicator\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDay 1 (M ± SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDay 2 (M ± SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDay 3 (M ± SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDay 4 (M ± SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLearner Engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.80 ± 0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10 ± 0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.30 ± 0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.45 ± 0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResponsiveness to Instruction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.60 ± 0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.95 ± 0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.20 ± 0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.40 ± 0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUse of Instructional Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.75 ± 0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00 ± 0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.25 ± 0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.50 ± 0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver the four days, a steady increase in mean scores was observed for all three indicators, suggesting improvements in learners’ engagement, responsiveness, and use of instructional materials. For example, learner engagement increased from a mean score of 2.80 on Day 1 to 3.45 on Day 4. This trend indicates that the intervention had a positive effect on learners' active participation and interaction with the instructional content over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"},{"header":"Discussion of the Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test revealed a statistically significant improvement in numeracy scores within the experimental group (Z = -3.30, p = .001), with a large effect size (r = .60), indicating a substantial positive impact of the intervention. The observed improvement also supports findings by Adornyo (2023), who reported significant gains and large effect sizes through problem-solving instruction, and Gizir (2023), who noted marked enhancements in performance and creativity using project-based, learner-centered pedagogies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;This aligns with existing research highlighting the effectiveness of play-based and multimodal strategies in early numeracy development. Clements and Sarama (2011) demonstrated that integrating structured play and visual tools significantly enhances mathematical understanding in young learners. Similarly, Berkowitz et al. (2015) found that game-based learning promotes meaningful gains in number sense and counting skills.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the control group, the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test revealed no statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest scores (\u003cem\u003eZ\u003c/em\u003e = -1.95, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .052); however, a moderate effect size (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .36) suggests a degree of instructional benefit. This implies that even in the absence of statistical significance, routine exposure to conventional classroom activities may lead to modest learning gains. These findings are consistent with studies by Gurat (2023) and Gizir (2023), both of whom observed moderate improvements in control groups exposed to traditional teaching methods. Similarly, Aunio and Niemivirta (2010) reported that consistent, conventional instruction can produce incremental improvements in early numeracy, although less impactful than more interactive or play-based approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the Mann–Whitney U test comparing gain scores revealed that learners in the experimental group outperformed those in the control group (U = 247.50, p = .003), confirming the intervention’s effectiveness in promoting early numeracy skills. This between-group difference is echoed in studies by Ramani and Siegler (2008), who demonstrated that children exposed to number board games significantly outperformed their peers in numerical fluency and magnitude comparison tasks. Likewise, Clements and Sarama (2011) emphasized that numeracy interventions that blend structured instruction with engaging, contextually meaningful activities produce larger learning gains than standard pedagogical methods alone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these results suggest that play-based instructional designs, particularly those incorporating visual aids and interactive games, provide a powerful tool for improving early numeracy, especially in low-resource or developing contexts. As Nicol and Crespo (2006) argue, meaningful mathematical learning is most effectively achieved when children are given opportunities to actively construct knowledge through guided exploration, which is precisely the approach adopted in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese quantitative findings are strongly reinforced by the behavioral trends observed over the four-day intervention period. Observation checklist data showed consistent improvements in learner engagement, responsiveness to instruction, and appropriate use of instructional materials. Mean scores for all indicators increased across each day, indicating that learners became progressively more active and participatory in their learning process. This is in line with research showing that play-based learning environments foster increased engagement, collaboration, and motivation in young learners (Bodrova \u0026amp; Leong, 2007; Whitebread et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe improvement in behavioral indicators such as attentiveness and proper use of learning resources supports the assertion that active, multimodal instructional strategies like games and visual aids encourage deeper cognitive and emotional involvement in learning tasks. According to Hirsh-Pasek et al. (2009), guided play strikes a balance between child autonomy and educational structure, which enhances learning outcomes without compromising creativity and exploration. In the present study, counting games likely activated both procedural and conceptual understanding, promoting number sense and early arithmetic reasoning (Clements \u0026amp; Sarama, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis finding is consistent with the socio-cultural perspective on learning, which emphasizes the importance of interaction, scaffolding, and contextualized experiences (Vygotsky, 1978). The visually rich and interactive nature of the intervention served as a scaffold, allowing learners to construct meaning through concrete experiences. Furthermore, as children engaged with these playful tasks repeatedly over four days, their observed growth in engagement and behavior supports the developmental principle that repeated, meaningful experiences are foundational to early learning (Ginsburg et al., 2008; Berk \u0026amp; Meyers, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the practical benefits of the intervention extend beyond test scores. Enhanced classroom behavior, as evidenced by increased attentiveness and material usage, points to improvements in executive function and self-regulation skills that are crucial not only for academic success but also for long-term learning and social development (Blair \u0026amp; Raver, 2015). These behavioral gains suggest that play-based numeracy instruction can simultaneously support cognitive, social, and emotional development in early learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the convergence of quantitative test results and observational data demonstrates that play-based learning, when deliberately structured and culturally contextualized, can significantly enhance early numeracy outcomes and classroom engagement. This is particularly relevant in under-resourced contexts, where traditional rote-based instruction often limits active learning opportunities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together, the results from both the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and the Mann–Whitney U Test provide compelling evidence that the play-based instructional approach using counting games and visual aids significantly enhanced early numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two learners. The statistically significant improvement in the experimental group, contrasted with the non-significant gains in the control group, supports the conclusion that the intervention had a meaningful effect. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H₀) which posited no significant difference in early numeracy outcomes between the two groups is rejected, while the alternative hypothesis (H₁) which predicted superior outcomes for learners receiving the play-based intervention is accepted. These findings reinforce the value of culturally relevant, interactive instructional strategies in early childhood education, particularly within resource-constrained settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations of the Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the promising results, several limitations must be acknowledged:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Limited Sample Size and Scope: The study was conducted in a single kindergarten classroom with a relatively small sample (N = 60), limiting the generalizability of findings to other settings or populations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Short Intervention Period: The intervention was implemented over a brief four-day period. While meaningful gains were observed, a longer duration might yield deeper and more sustained outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Observer Bias in Behavioral Assessment: The use of an observation checklist, although systematic, may be influenced by observer subjectivity. Multiple observers or inter-rater reliability checks were not implemented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. \u0026nbsp; Lack of Longitudinal Data: The study did not examine long-term retention of numeracy skills, leaving open the question of how lasting the intervention’s effects are.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5. \u0026nbsp; Context-Specific Factors: Cultural, infrastructural, and educational dynamics specific to the Ghanaian classroom may limit the applicability of the findings to different educational contexts without modification.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study demonstrated that play-based learning using counting games and visual aids significantly improved early numeracy skills and classroom engagement among Ghanaian kindergarten learners. The experimental group showed a statistically significant gain with a large effect size, while the control group had only a modest, non-significant improvement. Behavioral observations supported these findings, revealing increased learner engagement and responsiveness throughout the intervention. Overall, the results highlight the effectiveness of structured, culturally relevant play-based strategies in enhancing both academic performance and positive learning behaviors in early childhood education, particularly in low-resource settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for Practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings offer several actionable insights for early childhood educators and curriculum developers:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdoption of Play-Based Approaches: Integrating counting games and visual aids into daily instruction can significantly boost numeracy development and learner engagement in early years education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCulturally Relevant Instructional Design: Designing interventions that reflect local context and student experience enhances effectiveness and learner participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher Training: Professional development programs should equip educators with the skills to implement interactive, play-based strategies that balance academic goals with child-centered learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupportive Learning Environments: Schools, particularly in resource-constrained settings, should invest in low-cost, engaging materials to facilitate active learning and cognitive development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFuture Research Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo build on the current study, future research could explore the following areas:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLongitudinal Studies: Investigate the long-term effects of play-based numeracy interventions on academic achievement and cognitive development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarger and Diverse Samples: Replicate the study across multiple schools and regions to enhance generalizability and identify contextual variations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative Effectiveness: Compare different types of play-based interventions (e.g., digital games vs. physical games) to determine which approaches yield the best outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher Mediation and Fidelity: Examine how the role of the teacher and the fidelity of implementation influence intervention effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegration with Other Domains: Explore how similar strategies impact literacy, social-emotional learning, or executive functioning to support a holistic learning model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study owes its success to several people who assisted us in various ways and deserve to be acknowledged. First, we wish to thank the Almighty God for his abundant grace and favor bestowed on us throughout our education. We wish to thank our families for their support and encouragement. Our profound gratitude also goes to Synclaire International Junior High School in Ghana, which used the study and time off their tight schedules to help in making the experiment a success.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUTHORS\u0026apos; CONTRIBUTIONS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAM wrote the introduction and relevant literature, conducted the experiment, and analyzed and interpreted the data. AM continue to put together the entire manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFUNDING INFORMATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no conflict of interest in connection with this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCOMPETING INTERESTS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUTHORS\u0026apos; INFORMATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdams, A. 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(2012). \u003cem\u003eThe importance of play: A report on the value of children\u0026apos;s play with a series of policy recommendations\u003c/em\u003e. Toy Industries of Europe.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University Of Education Winneba, Ghana","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6787623/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6787623/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the effectiveness of counting games and visual aids in enhancing early numeracy skills among Kindergarten Two (KG2) learners in Ghana. The target population comprised 120 learners from two public schools in the Tema Manhean District of the Greater Accra Region. Using Cohen’s (1992) statistical power guidelines, 60 learners were randomly selected and assigned to experimental and control groups through a true experimental design. The experimental group received a four-day intervention incorporating play-based strategies and visual tools, while the control group received traditional instruction. Pre- and post-test assessments measured numeracy skills. The experimental group showed statistically significant improvement (Z = -3.30, p = .001, r = .60), while the control group did not. A Mann–Whitney U test confirmed the superiority of the intervention (U = 247.50, p = .003). Observational data revealed increased engagement and effective use of materials among learners in the experimental group over time. These findings suggest that culturally relevant, play-based instructional strategies significantly enhance early numeracy and learner engagement, particularly in resource-constrained educational settings. The study highlights implications for early childhood education practice and provides directions for future research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Enhancing Early Numeracy through Play-Based Learning: A Case Study Using Counting Games and Visual Aids in a Ghanaian Kindergarten Classroom","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-03 08:48:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6787623/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e5db85e7-b1b2-4699-8617-71db027aedd0","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":49439943,"name":"Applied Mathematics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-03T08:48:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-03 08:48:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6787623","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6787623","identity":"rs-6787623","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}