Exploring the Relationship between Adult Women’s Participation in Recreational Soccer and Self-Efficacy in Rural Kenya

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Winter, Bendettah Methina Thomas, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-25704/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Increases in non-communicable diseases in Kenya are attributed in part to a decrease in physical activity. Although, sports programs for girls and young adult women promote health, reduce risk behaviors and build self-efficacy, similar programs for adult women in Kenya are largely unavailable. The Nikumbuke Soccer League, a recreational soccer program for adult women in southeastern Kenya, is a notable exception. Methods Data for this analysis were taken from a 2018–2019 study of women’s experiences in an adult women’s soccer league coordinated by the Nikumbuke Project in ten communities in southeastern rural Kenya. 702 project members, 229 of whom play soccer, participated in semi-structured interviews containing questions on demographics, self-efficacy, and health. Frequencies were run for all variables with separate bivariate analyses examining socio-demographic attributes and two outcome variables of interest, general self-efficacy (GSE) and participation in soccer. Linear and logistic regressions were run to explore the relationship between women’s self-efficacy and participation in soccer, controlling for socio-demographic covariates. Results The average age of respondents was approximately 40 years with the majority of women being married with three or more children and living below the national poverty line. 40% of women had no formal education, and another 30% had some schooling but had not completed primary education. Results from the linear regression suggest that participation in recreational soccer, controlling for other demographic attributes, was associated with a 1.57 point increase on the GSE scale. Results from the logistic regression suggest that a single point increase on the GSE scale is associated with 8% higher odds of being a member of the soccer program at Nikumbuke, suggesting a bi-directional relationship between self-efficacy and participation in recreational soccer. Conclusion Programs such as the Nikumbuke Soccer League provide adult women with opportunities to engage in recreational physical activity outside of the highly gendered domestic world in which they live. Given its potential to improve women’s health, build self-efficacy, and expand social roles for women, programs like the Nikumbuke Soccer League should be expanded across Kenya and other countries in the region where similar opportunities for women do not currently exist. Nutrition & Dietetics Physical Medicine & Rehab self-efficacy recreational sports women’s soccer women's health Sub-Saharan Africa Kenya Background Physical activity is a major determinant of health that is associated with reductions in premature mortality and the global burden of non-communicable disease (NCD). 1 Despite the known benefits of physical activity, physical inactivity continues to account for an estimated 6–10% of the global burden of disease attributed to coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancer, as well as 9% of all premature mortality. 2 Physical inactivity increases with age, accounting for an estimated 3.2 million deaths each year. 3 Strategies to encourage participation in physical activity, particularly leisure activity targeting adults, are an integral part of the NCD-risk reduction programs in many countries. 4 Physical activity behaviours occur within an ecosystem of individual, household, community, and societal attributes that shape individual behaviors. 5 Research suggests that a number of attributes are consistent predictors of initiation and adherence to physical activity by adult women, including age, education, marital status, self-efficacy, and health status. 6 – 10 A substantial body of research supports the link between self-efficacy, defined by Bandura as “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over their own level of functioning and over events that affect their lives,” 11 [p. 118] and certain health behaviors. 12 – 16 High levels of perceived self-efficacy have been positively associated with smoking cessation, recovery from post-traumatic stress, HIV preventive behaviours, and treatment adherence for a variety of communicable and non-communicable diseases. In Kenya, a number of recreational programs targeting girls and young adult women have been shown to promote health, lower risk behaviours, and build self-efficacy. 17 , 18 Studies investigating self-efficacy in exercise groups show a consistent positive relationship between efficacy and exercise participation. 19 Perceived self-efficacy has been shown to be a significant predictor of exercise adherence and compliance, as well as a consequence of physical activity participation. 9 Self-efficacy beliefs about one’s ability to carry out a task may influence the adoption of physical activity while outcome expectations due to those beliefs may influence adherence. 20 Women in Sub-Saharan Africa face a number of socio-cultural, environmental, and behavioural obstacles in terms of access and engagement in leisure-time physical activity. In countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, physical inactivity has been linked to overweight/obesity, hypertension, and diabetes among women. 21 – 25 A 2011 study of physical activity in 22 African countries found that approximately 76% of females and 83.8% of males met the World Health Organization recommendations for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week. Importantly, the study found that the majority of physical activity stemmed from work or transportation and physical activity during leisure was rare. 26 Reasons for high rates of physical inactivity among women in this setting include a lack of material resources, cultural norms discouraging the wearing of tight-fitting clothes when participating in sports, and the gendered nature of domestic and household chores that afford women limited time for leisure activities of any kind. 21 , 27 Women in Nigeria were reported to experience structural, interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints to participating in recreational sports activities, with lack of time and norms reinforcing women’s responsibilities as mothers and homemakers presenting the biggest obstacles. 28 While opportunities exist in the region for adults to participate in sports like soccer, rugby, and boxing, these are considered traditionally ‘male’ activities; sports remains a gendered domain that preclude adult women from participating in organized leisure sports. 22 Several studies, for the most part conducted in Nigeria or South Africa, have variously identified self-efficacy, social support, marital status, high parity, and norms regarding women's roles as significant predictors of adult women's participation in physical activities. 22,29−31 The burden of non-communicable diseases in Kenya is on the rise, with NCDs accounting for 27% of all deaths and 50% of all hospital admissions in 2015. 32 Among the risk factors to which this increase in NCDs is attributed is the corresponding decrease in physical activity in the population; reversing this trend has been identified as a central objective in the country’s national strategy for combatting NCDs. 33 Research examining the relationship between self-efficacy and physical inactivity in Sub-Saharan Africa has largely focused on patient populations with health conditions such as hypertension and type-2 diabetes. 30 , 31 , 34 A few studies link higher levels of self-efficacy to physical activity in university students in low-, middle-, and high-income countries 35 and healthy women ages 18–64 years study in Nigeria. 29 Despite a growing burden of non-communicable diseases in East Africa and the adoption of healthy lifestyles as a risk-reduction strategy in countries like Kenya, almost no research has been conducted to date on adult women’s engagement in organized recreational sports nor on the psycho-social attributes that might encourage their participation in and adherence to such activities. This study contributes to filling that gap by examining the relationship between women’s self-efficacy and their participation in a recreational soccer league in rural southeastern Kenya. We hypothesized that women’s participation in the soccer league would be positively associated with self-efficacy that this relationship would be bi-directional. Methods Data and sample Data for this analysis were taken from a 2018–2019 study focused on women’s experiences in a small, but established, adult women’s soccer league coordinated by the Nikumbuke Project in Lunga Lunga, Kenya on the border with Tanzania. 36 The Nikumbuke Project is a local, internationally supported non-governmental organization that offers basic health and literacy programs for its female members, provides subsidies for their daughters’ school fees, and runs a vocational training program in tailoring for young women who did not complete secondary school. In 2014, at the request of the membership, the project launched a modest four-team adult women’s soccer league with assistance from a US-based non-profit established to raise funds for the program and provide guidance in the sport. At the time of this study, the Nikumbuke Project included 702 members, 229 of whom played in its recreational soccer program, the Nikumbuke Soccer League. The teams in the League represent the ten communities in which the Nikumbuke Project members resided at the time of the study. These communities included Lunga Lunga, a market town and the seat of the Kwale County sub-constituency, seven settled rural villages - Godo, Mgombezi, Lunga Lunga, Kidomaya, Juakali, Perani, Mpakani and Jirani, a pastoralist community of Maasai, and Umoja, a mixed pastoralist/settled village. Teams, which reflect a diversity of religions and distinct tribal groups, practice weekly, compete monthly in inter-village competitions during the non-rainy season and participate in a League-wide “World Cup” held each May/June. All 702 members of the Nikumbuke Project were invited to take part in the study, which included semi-structured interviews containing questions relating to demographics, self-efficacy, health, gender-related norms, and participation in the Nikumbuke Soccer League. In order to participate in the study women had to be at least 18 years old and provide verbal informed consent. Interviews were conducted by a team of 18 female members of the Nikumbuke Project who were elected by their groups to assist in the study and who were trained in research ethics, survey methods, and survey techniques. Trainees received a small stipend for successfully completing the program and for each survey instrument they administered. Women who agreed to participate in the interviews were also given a small stipend in appreciation for their time. Interviews lasted between 35–65 minutes and took place in a private setting either in the Nikumbuke meeting hall in each community or in respondents’ homes. Measures The primary outcome variables of interest in this analysis were self-efficacy, measured using the General Self-Efficacy (GSE) scale. 37 , 38 and participation in the recreational soccer league. The 10-item GSE scale measures perceived coping ability across a wide range of demanding scenarios such as ‘I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough’ and ‘I can usually handle whatever comes my way.’ Responses to these items range from ‘1 = not true at all’ to ‘4 = exactly true;’ thus, summed scores on the GSE range from 10–40. In this analysis, the scale had an internal consistency of alpha = .82, well within typical ranges reported elsewhere 39 . For the purposes of bivariate analysis, a dichotomous variable representing self-efficacy was also created from the summed scores on the GSE to reflect ‘at or below the GSE mean score’ and ‘above the mean GSE score’. Socio-demographic variables included age, education, marital status, number of children, work outside the home, self-identification as head of household, and monthly household income. Communities were labelled according to type – ‘market town’, ‘settled village’, ‘pastoralist’ and ‘mixed pastoralist/settled village’. Analysis Strategy Eighteen of the 702 members in the Nikumbuke Project were excluded from the analytic sample as they participated in the study as field staff responsible for administration of the interviews andtherefore, had a different knowledge of the instrument and study than other members of the Nikumbuke Project at the time of survey implementation. The resultant analytic sample included 684 women. Data analyses were conducted using StataCorp statistical software, Release 16. 40 Frequencies were run for all socio-demographic variables as well as two outcome variables of interest, i.e. GSE and participation in the recreational soccer program. An item non-response analysis of all variables in this study indicated minimal missing data (3% or less on all variables except age, which had 9.5% missing). Single-imputation was used to approximate responses for missing data. 41 Chi-square and Fischer’s exact tests were run to explore bivariate relationships between high self-efficacy (measured as GSE scores above the sample mean), participation in recreational soccer, and the demographic covariates in this study. A two-sample t-test was conducted to compare the mean GSE scores of women who participated in the soccer league and those who did not. Linear and logistic regressions were used to explore the relationship between women’s self-efficacy and participation in the recreational soccer program while controlling for a number of socio-demographic covariates. Two regression models were run. Models 1 used linear regression examine the association between women's participation in the soccer program, and GSE scores after controlling for socio-demographic covariates. To consider the question of a bi-directional relationship between GSE and soccer participation, a second model using logistic regression was run to explore the association between GSE scores and women’s participation in the league. Results Descriptive statistics Descrptive statistics appear in Table 1 . The majority of the 684 women included in this analysis had joined the Nikumbuke Project within the previous four years. The average age of respondents was just over 40 years, with women as young as 18 years and as old as 80 years participating in the surveys. Over three-quarters of the women were married and living with their partners, although close to 42% of respondents considered themselves the head of their households. About 84% of women had three or more children, with close to 20% having seven or more children. Just over 40% of the women had no formal education, and an additional 31% had not completed primary school. The majority of households had monthly incomes under 5,000 KES (about US $ 50), which falls well below the Kenyan national poverty line. 42 Table 1 Distribution of respondents by demographic characteristics according to self-efficacy and participation in soccer league ( n = 684) Self-efficacy Participation in recreational soccer Attributes Freq Low Efficacy i High Efficacy ii χ² Freq Soccer League No Soccer χ² Self-efficacy (mean 33.9, Std. dev. 5.70) 684 345 339 684 2.37 At or below the mean 345 106 239 Above the mean 339 123 216 Participation in recreational soccer league 2.37 No 455 239 216 455 Yes 229 106 123 229 Age 25.55*** 54.02***† 18–24 years 63 47 16 63 30 39 25–34 years 178 99 79 178 82 96 35–49 years 289 137 152 289 100 189 50–59 years 96 35 61 96 13 83 60 years or more 58 27 31 58 4 54 Education 25.39*** 14.24** None 279 173 106 279 72 207 Some primary 214 89 125 214 80 134 Completed primary 130 56 74 130 56 74 More than primary 61 27 34 61 21 40 Relationship status 16.64** 11.31** Married 516 277 239 516 185 331 Regular partner, living apart 31 15 16 31 9 22 Single 39 22 17 39 16 23 Separated, divorced, widowed 98 31 67 98 19 79 Number of children 5.93† 21.92*** None 17 12 5 17 7 10 1–2 children 93 54 39 93 41 52 3–4 children 259 128 131 259 99 160 5–6 children 191 93 98 191 60 131 7 or more children 124 58 66 124 22 102 Respondent works outside home 0.05 1.74 No 511 259 252 511 164 347 Yes 173 86 87 173 65 108 Years as a member in Nikumbuke Project 7.58* 5.10 10 or more years 73 27 46 73 33 40 5–9 years 233 129 104 233 76 157 4 years or less 378 189 189 378 120 258 Household monthly income 5.29 0.03 Less than 5,000 KES 398 214 184 398 134 264 5,000–9999 KES 224 99 125 224 74 150 More than 10,000 KES 62 32 30 62 21 41 Aware of household finances 3.32 2.60 No 72 29 43 72 18 54 Yes 612 316 296 612 211 401 Head of household is self 0.18 4.63* No 400 199 201 400 147 253 Yes 284 146 138 284 82 202 Type of community in which respondent lives 166.08***† 20.05*** Pastoralist 95 92 3 95 21 74 Mixed pastoralist/settled village 47 45 2 47 28 19 Settled village 471 166 305 471 155 316 Market town 71 42 29 71 25 46 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, † fisher’s exact p-value i at or below the mean, ii above the sample mean Table 2 Model 1: Linear regression model reporting standardized beta coefficients (95% confidence intervals) for the association between self-efficacy and participation in a recreational soccer league ( n = 684) Self-efficacy (mean 33.93, SD 5.70) β p -value 95% CI Participates in recreational soccer league 1.57 0.000 0.759 to 2.380 Age (categorical) (ref: 18–24 years) 25–34 years 0.040 0.959 -1.502 to 1.582 35–49 years -0.41 0.612 -1.981 to 1.168 50–59 years 0.98 0.277 -0.787 to 2.746 60 years and over -0.45 0.659 -2.432 to 1.539 Education (ref: none) Some primary 0.07 0.886 -0.871 to 1.008 Completed primary -0.18 0.751 -1.301 to 0.939 More than primary -0.542 0.472 -2.021 to 0.938 Relationship status (ref: married) Regular partner, live apart -1.15 0.204 -2.914 to 0.623 Single -1.2 0.174 -2.990 to 0.541 Separated, divorced, widowed 1.268 0.045 0.028 to 2.507 Number of children (ref: none) 1–2 children 0.35 0.980 -2.691 to 2.761 3–4 children 0.36 0.979 -2.732 to 2.805 5–6 children 0.03 0.982 -2.801 to 2.865 7 or more children 0.00 1.000 -2.877 to 2.878 Respondent works outside home 0.06 0.891 -0.791 to 0.910 Member of Nikumbuke Project (ref: 5–9 years) 10 or more years -0.31 0.631 -1.600 to 0.971 4 years or less -1.14 0.009 -1.981 to -0.290 Household monthly income (ref: 5,000–9,999 ksh) Less than 5,000 ksh -0.30 0.464 -1.088 to 0.497 More than 10,000 ksh -0.06 0.932 -1.403 to 1.286 Aware of household finances 0.78 0.200 -0.413 to 1.963 Head of household is self -0.71 0.116 -1.590 to 0.174 Type of community (ref: Settled village) Pastoral -8.69 0.000 -9.940 to -7.431 Mixed pastoralist/settled village -7.44 0.000 -9.000 to -5.878 Market town -2.89 0.000 -4.199 to -1.582 Bivariate analyses Results from bivariate tests are also summarized in Table 1 . Results of the analysis exploring the relationship between self-efficacy and socio-demographic variables suggest that high self-efficacy was significantly associated with age, level of education, relationship status, number of years in the Nikumbuke Project, and the type of community in which the respondent lives. Women who are younger, have no education, are single or unmarried, and those who joined Nikumbuke more recently had low GSE scores (below the sample median). Additionally, the majority of women from the pastoral or mixed pastoral/settled communities had GSE scores that were at or below the mean score for the sample. Age, education, relationship status, number of children, being head of one’s own household and type of community in which respondent lives were significantly associated with participation in the recreational soccer league. The majority of women who played recreational soccer were between the ages of 35 and 49 years, had some primary education, were married, and had 3 to 4 children. Approximately 45% of the soccer leauge members had 5 or more children. The majority of league members were not the reported heads of their households. The difference in mean GSE scores of women who played soccer (M = 34.78, SD = 4.99) and those who did not (M = 33.5, SD = 5.98) was statistically different, t (682) = -2.79, p = 0.006). Multivariate analyses A linear regression analysis was performed to investigate whether participation in the soccer program was associated with the self-efficacy of respondents (Table 3 ). Results suggest that participation in recreational soccer, controlling for other demographic attributes, was associated with a 1.57 increase on the GSE scale, β = 1.57, t (672) = 3.80, p < 0.001. Other attributes that were significant factors associated with GSE scores included being separated, divorced or widowed ( β = 1.27, 95% CI 0.03, 2.51), being a recent (joined in 2016 or after) member in the Nikumbuke Project ( β = -1.14, 95% CI -1.98, -0.29), and being from either a pastoral ( β = -8.69, 95% CI -9.94, -7.43), mixed pastoralist/settled village ( β = -7.44, 95% CI -9.00, -5.88), or market town ( β = -2.89, 95% CI -4.20, -1.58) compared to being from a settlment village. Table 3 Model 2: Results from logistic regression analyses predicting the effects of self-efficacy on women’s soccer participation (N = 684) Soccer Odds Ratio p-value 95% CI Self-efficacy (mean 33.93, SD 5.70) 1.08 0.000 1.040 to 1.128 Age (ref: 18–24 years) 25–34 years 0.97 0.939 0.465 to 2.030 35–49 years 0.54 0.119 0.251 to 1.170 50–59 years 0.14 0.000 0.053 to 0.361 60 years and above 0.10 0.000 0.026 to 0.348 Education (ref: none) Some primary 1.56 0.069 0.966 to 2.524 Completed primary 2.22 0.005 1.277 to 3.868 More than primary 1.32 0.463 0.626 to 2.794 Relationship status (ref: married) Regular partner, living apart 0.69 0.406 0.285 to 1.662 Single 1.14 0.775 0.475 to 2.714 Separated, divorced, widowed 0.52 0.056 0.265 to 1.016 Number of children (ref: none) 1–2 children 1.39 0.626 0.368 to 5.262 3–4 children 1.15 0.840 0.292 to 4.544 5–6 children 1.08 0.918 0.262 to 4.426 7 or more children 0.60 0.490 0.138 to 2.581 Respondent works outside home 0.71 0.111 0.465 to 1.082 Member of Nikumbuke Project (ref: 5–9 years) 10 years or more 1.87 0.047 1.008 to 3.465 4 years or less 0.737 0.170 0.477 to 1.140 Household monthly income (ref: 5,000–9,999 ksh) Less than 5,000 ksh 1.14 0.526 0.763 to 1.698 More than 10,000 ksh 1.08 0.832 0.548 to 2.113 Aware of household finances 0.86 0.635 0.459 to 1.609 Head of household is self 1.04 0.871 0.666 to 1.615 Type of community in which respondent lives (ref: settled village) Pastoralist 0.93 0.838 0.438 to 1.952 Mixed pastoralist/settle village 6.61 0.000 2.888 to 15.133 Market town 1.02 0.952 0.526 to 1.978 Discussion This study is the first of its kind in Kenya to examine the factors that may be associated with adult women’s participation in sports, particularly the potential role played by self-efficacy. Its findings suggest a bi-directional relationship between self-efficacy and women’s participation in a recreational sports program. While it is beyond the scope of this cross-sectional study to determine the presence of a causal or temporal relationship between the two phenomena, it does provide strong evidence that women who play soccer have higher levels of self-efficacy on average compared to women who do not and that women who have higher GSE scores have greater odds of being members of the soccer league. These findings align with previous work on self-efficacy and physical activity conducted by McAuley and Blissmer 9 and provide a case for further exploration of self-efficacy in this population, optimally in longitudinal studies of new community teams as they form in the future. Sports have come to be seen as a tool to promote gender equity, giving women voice and empowering women to assume a greater role in the social worlds of home, community, and the political economy. 43 – 45 Although there has been a substantial increase in the availability and number of sports programs for girls and women in Sub-Saharan Africa, some sports, notably soccer, remain traditionally male, particularly among adults. 46 In poor rural areas in the region, social space rarely exists for organized women’s sports; the sphere of women’s activities revolves around largely domestic activities, and little time, resources, or community support is available to women to enter the social and physical domain of organized ‘play’. To the best of our knowledge, the Nikumbuke Soccer League is unique in Kenya and may well be the only recreational soccer program for non-professional adult women in Sub-Saharan Africa. Girls play soccer in primary and secondary school, and recent programs like Safaricom’s ‘Chapa Dimba’ and the Uweza Soccer Academy in Kenya that promote grassroots soccer for both adolescents boys and girls are contributing to an emerging pipeline from school sports to professional soccer. 47 , 48 The emphasis on these programs, however, is on school-aged girls and young women, ages 18–25 years. The recreational Nikumbuke Soccer League is composed of adult women, the majority of whom are between the ages of 25 and 49 years and married with 3 or more children, and operates outside of the educational system and Kenyan soccer authorities. Importantly, the Nikumbuke Soccer League provides adult women who generally have limited, if any, leisure time the opportunity to engage in recreational physical activity. The 2016 STEPwise Survey conducted by the Kenya Ministry of Health reported the median number of minutes in which women in Kenya engage in physical activity to be 231 minutes, well above the WHO recommendation of 150 minutes daily, but, of this total, only 5.5 minutes were expended during recreational activity. 49 In addition, slightly more than half of women surveyed did not engage in any strenuous physical activity of any kind. In the Nikumbuke soccer program, women engage in weekly three-hour practices and monthly inter-village matches during the soccer ‘season’ that provide team members with both a venue and an occasion to engage in leisure sport. In addition to the weakness of cross-sectional data in determining the causal and temporal relationship between self-efficacy and sports participation, as well as the extent to which the relationship may be bi-directional, this study had several other limitations. Almost 3% of respondents reported that they did not know their age (not a surprising result in an environment with limited birth registries) and were coded as missing. Doing so raised the number of missing values for age to 9.5%, reducing our confidence in the imputation of this one variable. Importantly, while Kiswahili translations on the GSE scale have been previously shown to have acceptable values of Cronbach's alpha and test-retest reliability, 50 it has not been validated in a sample as richly diverse in tribal membership, religions, and cultural norms as the present one. Future studies would be improved by the use of a task-specific self-efficacy scale such as those previously used to examine physical activity elsewhere; 51 such a scale should be validated in this particular setting and population. Conclusions Included in the Sustainable Development Goals is a call to reduce mortality from NCDs by one third within the next decade. 52 Epidemiologic data suggests that this target is attainable only if major reductions in NCD-related mortality in low- and middle-income countries, where as much as 80% of the NCD burden occurs, are achieved. 53 While rates of key NCD-risk behaviors such as tobacco and harmful alcohol use are higher in males than females, women are at greater risk of overweight/obesity and, in LMIC countries, the rate of obesity is increasing at a faster rate in rural areas than urban ones. 54 In Kenya, where 38.5% of women ages 18–44 years are estimated to have BMIs in excess of 25 (overweight),and rates of obesity increase across the lifespan, 49 programs that provide opportunities for adult women to improve their health through physical activity should be encouraged. Programs that enhance self-efficacy in women generally would also be beneficial in this and similar settings where women are constrained by gender and cultural norms that may prevent them from engaging in health-promoting leisure time physical activity. List Of Abbreviations BMI Body mass index GSE General Self-Efficacy KES Kenyan shilling LMIC Low- and middle-income countries M Mean NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation NCD Non-communicable disease SD Standard deviation SDG Sustainable Development Goal US United States USD United States dollar WHO World Health Organization Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study received approval from the Institutional Review Board at [Home institution of the first author] and the National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI) in Kenya. As the only document linking the respondents to study participation would have been a signed informed consent document, all 702 women who participated in this study provided verbal consent as stipulated by the approved study protocol. Consent for publication Consent was provided orally by respondents as signed documentation would have provided the only link between respondents and their participation in the study. No personal identifiers were collected as part of the interview in order to reduce the likelihood that an individual would linked to specific responses. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This study is part of a large mixed-methods study supported by grants from Patrick Byrne, Adidas North America, and the United States Department of State, Kenya. In-kind support was received from Rutgers University-Division of Intercollegiate Athletics, the Nikumbuke Soccer League-US, the Sports Bra Project, and the Nikumbuke Project-Kenya. Role of funding sources The study sponsors were not involved in study design; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; the writing of the manuscript; and in the decision to submit the paper for publication. The corresponding author had full access to data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. Authors’ contributions FB and SCW were responsible for the conceptualization, design, and implementation of this study and for the preparation of a draft manuscript. BA, DM, and BT were instrumental at all stages of implementation. All authors read and approved the final version of this manuscript. Acknowledgements Special thanks are due the Nikumbuke Soccer League-US for its unstinting support of this study, Ken Wakia for seeing the potential of women’s sports to contribute to community well-being, and the many individuals at Rutgers University who contributed in various ways to making this research possible. Of particular note are Frances Loeser, Keri Ferreira, Patrick Hobbs, Dennis DeMarino, Asenath Dande, and the staff of Rutgers Global. Importantly, this study would not have been possible without the enthusiastic participation of the staff of the Nikumbuke Project in Lunga Lunga and the remarkable women of Nikumbuke. A special note of gratitude is due the Nikumbuke teachers who assisted with data collection and worked so diligently to make this project a success. References The world health. report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. In. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002. Lee I-M, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, et al. 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The Diabetes Educator. 2001;27(3):393–404. Bandura A. Social cognitive theory and exercise of control over HIV infection. In: Preventing AIDS . Springer; 1994:25–59. Curtin RB, Walters BA, Schatell D, Pennell P, Wise M, Klicko K. Self-efficacy and self-management behaviors in patients with chronic kidney disease. Advances in chronic kidney disease. 2008;15(2):191–205. Fisher JD, Fisher WA. Theoretical approaches to individual-level change in HIV risk behavior. In: Handbook of HIV prevention . Springer; 2000:3–55. Leganger A, Kraft P, R⊘ ysamb E. Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology health. 2000;15(1):51–69. Lyras A, Peachey JW. Integrating sport-for-development theory and praxis. Sport management review. 2011;14(4):311–26. Huggins A, Randell S. The contribution of sports to gender equality and women’s empowerment. Paper presented at: A paper presented at the International Conference on Gender Equity on Sports for Social Change, Kigali. Retrieved March2007. Biddle SJ, Hagger MS, Chatzisarantis NL, Lippke S. Theoretical frameworks in exercise psychology. Handbook of sport psychology. 2007;3:537–59. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ . 1986;1986. Kruger HS, Venter CS, Vorster HH, Margetts BM. Physical inactivity is the major determinant of obesity in black women in the North West Province, South Africa: the THUSA study. Nutrition. 2002;18(5):422–7. Burnett C. Women, poverty and sport: A South African scenario. Women in Sport Physical Activity Journal. 2002;11(1):23–47. Abubakari A-R, Bhopal R. Systematic review on the prevalence of diabetes, overweight/obesity and physical inactivity in Ghanaians and Nigerians. Public health. 2008;122(2):173–82. Sobngwi E, Mbanya JN, Unwin N, et al. Physical activity and its relationship with obesity, hypertension and diabetes in urban and rural Cameroon. International journal of obesity. 2002;26(7):1009–16. Micklesfield LK, Lambert EV, Hume DJ, et al. Socio-cultural, environmental and behavioural determinants of obesity in black South African women. Cardiovascular journal of Africa. 2013;24(9):369. Guthold R, Louazani SA, Riley LM, et al. Physical activity in 22 African countries: results from the World Health Organization STEPwise approach to chronic disease risk factor surveillance. American journal of preventive medicine. 2011;41(1):52–60. Puoane T, Matwa P, Hughes G, Bradley HA. Socio-cultural factors influencing food consumption patterns in the black African population in an urban township in South Africa. 2006. Anaza E, McDowell J. An investigation of constraints restricting urban Nigerian women from participating in recreational sport activities. Journal of Leisure Research. 2013;45(3):324–44. Awotidebe TO, Bisiriyu LA, Ativie RN, et al. Prevalence of physical inactivity among Nigerian women: do socio-demographic characteristics, women’s personal attributes and psychosocial factors play any role? Journal of Exercise Therapy Rehabilitation. 2017;4(1):33–45. Adeniyi A, Idowu O, Ogwumike O, Adeniyi C. Comparative influence of self-efficacy, social support and perceiived barriers on low physical activity development in patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension or stroke. Ethiopian journal of health sciences . 2012;22(2). Idowu O, Adeniyi A, Atijosan O, Ogwumike O. Physical inactivity is associated with low self efficacy and social support among patients with hypertension in Nigeria. Chronic illness. 2013;9(2):156–64. UN, Kenyan government take broad-based approach to fighting NCDs. March 2015; https://www.who.int/nmh/events/2014/kenya-ncd-prevention/en/ . Accessed March 29, 2020. Kenya National Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases 2015–2020. In: Republic of Kenya Ministry of Health; 2015:80. Tamirat A, Abebe L, Kirose G. Prediction of physical activity among Type-2 diabetes patients attending Jimma University specialized Hospital, southwest Ethiopia: Application of health belief model. Science. 2014;2(6):524–31. Pengpid S, Peltzer K, Kassean HK, Tsala JPT, Sychareun V, Müller-Riemenschneider F. Physical inactivity and associated factors among university students in 23 low-, middle-and high-income countries. International journal of public health. 2015;60(5):539–49. Authors. Unpublished manuscript. Jerusalem M, Schwarzer R. Generalized self-efficacy scale. Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio Causal and control beliefs . 1995:35–37. Schwarzer R, Jerusalem M. The general self-efficacy scale (GSE). Anxiety Stress Coping. 2010;12:329–45. Scholz U, Doña BG, Sud S, Schwarzer R. Is general self-efficacy a universal construct? Psychometric findings from 25 countries. European journal of psychological assessment. 2002;18(3):242. Stata Statistical Software: Release 16 [computer program]. College Station, TX: StataCorp, LLC; 2019. Stata-ado package "hotdeckvar” for single hotdeck imputation [computer program]. 2012. Poverty and Equity Brief: Kenya. 2019; https://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_KEN.pdf . Accessed April 1, 2020. Hancock M, Lyras A, Ha J-P. Sport for development programs for girls and women: A global assessment. Journal of Sport for Development. 2013;1(1):15–24. Lyras A, Hums MA. Sport and social change: The case for gender equality. Journal of physical education recreation dance. 2009;80(1):7–21. Meier M. Gender equity, sport and development . Swiss academy for Development; 2000. Pelak CF. Women and gender in South African soccer: A brief history. Soccer Society. 2010;11(1–2):63–78. Chapa Dimba na Safaricom. n.d.; https://chapadimba.safaricom.co.ke/ . Accessed March 31, 2020. Uweza Soccer Academy. n.d.; https://uwezakenya.org/our-work/soccer-academy/ . Accessed April 1, 2020. Ministry of Health Division of Communicable Diseases KNBoSWHO. Kenya STEPwise Survey for Non Communicable Diseases Risk Factors 2015 Report In. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya Ministry of Health; 2016. p. 182. Esopo K, Mellow D, Thomas C, et al. Measuring self-efficacy, executive function, and temporal discounting in Kenya. Behaviour research therapy. 2018;101:30–45. Warner LM, Schüz B, Wolff JK, Parschau L, Wurm S, Schwarzer R. Sources of self-efficacy for physical activity. Health Psychology. 2014;33(11):1298. Sustainable Development Goal 3. n.d.; https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg3 . Accessed April 1, 2020. Nugent R, Bertram MY, Jan S, et al. Investing in non-communicable disease prevention and management to advance the Sustainable Development Goals. The Lancet. 2018;391(10134):2029–35. Jaacks LM, Slining MM, Popkin BM. Recent underweight and overweight trends by rural–urban residence among women in low-and middle-income countries. The Journal of nutrition. 2015;145(2):352–7. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-25704","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":527417,"identity":"6423d6ef-5306-464f-aa50-3b623d27bc1b","order_by":1,"name":"Francis Barchi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABD0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gYQaQBGDMwMBjZIcgewa+E5gKoljYGBjSgtDDAtDIeJ0CJ9+NmDHwV1DObsZx9+Lig4n29wv/3i44o/DHJ8NxKwa+FLMzfsMTjMYNmTbiw9w+C25YZjPMWGZ9sYjCVxaLHnYTCTZjA4AERpbMw8BrcNDI7xpEk2NjAkbsBlCw/7N6CWOgaD889AWs6BtKT/bPjDUI9bCw/IFmBY3QDbcgCohf0YYwMbQ4IBbi1lkkC/8FjOeMYszWOQbCB5LIdZsrFNwnDmmQe4HLZN4sefOjlz/jTGzzx/7Az4Dh9/+LHhj40833HstsC1IrNBcSSBVzk6YMfuoFEwCkbBKBixAAC071VsGRN+RgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0960-6423","institution":"Rutgers The State University of New Jersey","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Francis","middleName":"","lastName":"Barchi","suffix":""},{"id":527418,"identity":"dae7f805-d0b6-4533-95dd-7e3932502b74","order_by":2,"name":"Samantha C. Winter","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Columbia University School of Social Work","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samantha","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Winter","suffix":""},{"id":527419,"identity":"b79f2c36-58ac-4ad9-9026-a18a80e1d996","order_by":3,"name":"Bendettah Methina Thomas","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Nikumbuke Project","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bendettah","middleName":"Methina","lastName":"Thomas","suffix":""},{"id":527420,"identity":"1d3d1289-a31c-48b1-925d-3923b4289922","order_by":4,"name":"Daniel Mbogo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Village Voices","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"","lastName":"Mbogo","suffix":""},{"id":527421,"identity":"660fb6d7-2348-441e-ba73-e48afc767fb2","order_by":5,"name":"Brittany Ammerman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Pennsylvania State University School of Medicine","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Brittany","middleName":"","lastName":"Ammerman","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2020-04-27 11:25:49","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-25704/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-25704/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":13501119,"identity":"df4bed21-1851-4340-b84a-facbfe5653d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-09-16 23:09:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":349933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-25704/v1/7e6441e8-46f6-47af-a705-755a121e9f96.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eExploring the Relationship between Adult Women’s Participation in Recreational Soccer and Self-Efficacy in Rural Kenya\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical activity is a major determinant of health that is associated with reductions in premature mortality and the global burden of non-communicable disease (NCD).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Despite the known benefits of physical activity, physical inactivity continues to account for an estimated 6\u0026ndash;10% of the global burden of disease attributed to coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancer, as well as 9% of all premature mortality.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Physical inactivity increases with age, accounting for an estimated 3.2\u0026nbsp;million deaths each year.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Strategies to encourage participation in physical activity, particularly leisure activity targeting adults, are an integral part of the NCD-risk reduction programs in many countries.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity behaviours occur within an ecosystem of individual, household, community, and societal attributes that shape individual behaviors.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Research suggests that a number of attributes are consistent predictors of initiation and adherence to physical activity by adult women, including age, education, marital status, self-efficacy, and health status.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8 CR9\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA substantial body of research supports the link between self-efficacy, defined by Bandura as \u0026ldquo;people\u0026rsquo;s beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over their own level of functioning and over events that affect their lives,\u0026rdquo;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e [p.\u0026nbsp;118] and certain health behaviors.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13 CR14 CR15\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e High levels of perceived self-efficacy have been positively associated with smoking cessation, recovery from post-traumatic stress, HIV preventive behaviours, and treatment adherence for a variety of communicable and non-communicable diseases. In Kenya, a number of recreational programs targeting girls and young adult women have been shown to promote health, lower risk behaviours, and build self-efficacy.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies investigating self-efficacy in exercise groups show a consistent positive relationship between efficacy and exercise participation.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Perceived self-efficacy has been shown to be a significant predictor of exercise adherence and compliance, as well as a consequence of physical activity participation.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Self-efficacy beliefs about one\u0026rsquo;s ability to carry out a task may influence the adoption of physical activity while outcome expectations due to those beliefs may influence adherence.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen in Sub-Saharan Africa face a number of socio-cultural, environmental, and behavioural obstacles in terms of access and engagement in leisure-time physical activity. In countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, physical inactivity has been linked to overweight/obesity, hypertension, and diabetes among women.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22 CR23 CR24\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A 2011 study of physical activity in 22 African countries found that approximately 76% of females and 83.8% of males met the World Health Organization recommendations for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week. Importantly, the study found that the majority of physical activity stemmed from work or transportation and physical activity during leisure was rare.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Reasons for high rates of physical inactivity among women in this setting include a lack of material resources, cultural norms discouraging the wearing of tight-fitting clothes when participating in sports, and the gendered nature of domestic and household chores that afford women limited time for leisure activities of any kind.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Women in Nigeria were reported to experience structural, interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints to participating in recreational sports activities, with lack of time and norms reinforcing women\u0026rsquo;s responsibilities as mothers and homemakers presenting the biggest obstacles.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While opportunities exist in the region for adults to participate in sports like soccer, rugby, and boxing, these are considered traditionally \u0026lsquo;male\u0026rsquo; activities; sports remains a gendered domain that preclude adult women from participating in organized leisure sports.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Several studies, for the most part conducted in Nigeria or South Africa, have variously identified self-efficacy, social support, marital status, high parity, and norms regarding women's roles as significant predictors of adult women's participation in physical activities.\u003csup\u003e22,29\u0026minus;31\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe burden of non-communicable diseases in Kenya is on the rise, with NCDs accounting for 27% of all deaths and 50% of all hospital admissions in 2015.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Among the risk factors to which this increase in NCDs is attributed is the corresponding decrease in physical activity in the population; reversing this trend has been identified as a central objective in the country\u0026rsquo;s national strategy for combatting NCDs.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch examining the relationship between self-efficacy and physical inactivity in Sub-Saharan Africa has largely focused on patient populations with health conditions such as hypertension and type-2 diabetes.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A few studies link higher levels of self-efficacy to physical activity in university students in low-, middle-, and high-income countries\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and healthy women ages 18\u0026ndash;64\u0026nbsp;years study in Nigeria.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite a growing burden of non-communicable diseases in East Africa and the adoption of healthy lifestyles as a risk-reduction strategy in countries like Kenya, almost no research has been conducted to date on adult women\u0026rsquo;s engagement in organized recreational sports nor on the psycho-social attributes that might encourage their participation in and adherence to such activities. This study contributes to filling that gap by examining the relationship between women\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy and their participation in a recreational soccer league in rural southeastern Kenya. We hypothesized that women\u0026rsquo;s participation in the soccer league would be positively associated with self-efficacy that this relationship would be bi-directional.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eData and sample\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData for this analysis were taken from a 2018\u0026ndash;2019 study focused on women\u0026rsquo;s experiences in a small, but established, adult women\u0026rsquo;s soccer league coordinated by the Nikumbuke Project in Lunga Lunga, Kenya on the border with Tanzania.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The Nikumbuke Project is a local, internationally supported non-governmental organization that offers basic health and literacy programs for its female members, provides subsidies for their daughters\u0026rsquo; school fees, and runs a vocational training program in tailoring for young women who did not complete secondary school. In 2014, at the request of the membership, the project launched a modest four-team adult women\u0026rsquo;s soccer league with assistance from a US-based non-profit established to raise funds for the program and provide guidance in the sport. At the time of this study, the Nikumbuke Project included 702 members, 229 of whom played in its recreational soccer program, the Nikumbuke Soccer League. The teams in the League represent the ten communities in which the Nikumbuke Project members resided at the time of the study. These communities included Lunga Lunga, a market town and the seat of the Kwale County sub-constituency, seven settled rural villages - Godo, Mgombezi, Lunga Lunga, Kidomaya, Juakali, Perani, Mpakani and Jirani, a pastoralist community of Maasai, and Umoja, a mixed pastoralist/settled village. Teams, which reflect a diversity of religions and distinct tribal groups, practice weekly, compete monthly in inter-village competitions during the non-rainy season and participate in a League-wide \u0026ldquo;World Cup\u0026rdquo; held each May/June.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll 702 members of the Nikumbuke Project were invited to take part in the study, which included semi-structured interviews containing questions relating to demographics, self-efficacy, health, gender-related norms, and participation in the Nikumbuke Soccer League. In order to participate in the study women had to be at least 18\u0026nbsp;years old and provide verbal informed consent. Interviews were conducted by a team of 18 female members of the Nikumbuke Project who were elected by their groups to assist in the study and who were trained in research ethics, survey methods, and survey techniques. Trainees received a small stipend for successfully completing the program and for each survey instrument they administered. Women who agreed to participate in the interviews were also given a small stipend in appreciation for their time. Interviews lasted between 35\u0026ndash;65 minutes and took place in a private setting either in the Nikumbuke meeting hall in each community or in respondents\u0026rsquo; homes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasures\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary outcome variables of interest in this analysis were self-efficacy, measured using the General Self-Efficacy (GSE) scale.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and participation in the recreational soccer league. The 10-item GSE scale measures perceived coping ability across a wide range of demanding scenarios such as \u0026lsquo;I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;I can usually handle whatever comes my way.\u0026rsquo; Responses to these items range from \u0026lsquo;1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not true at all\u0026rsquo; to \u0026lsquo;4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;exactly true;\u0026rsquo; thus, summed scores on the GSE range from 10\u0026ndash;40. In this analysis, the scale had an internal consistency of alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.82, well within typical ranges reported elsewhere \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For the purposes of bivariate analysis, a dichotomous variable representing self-efficacy was also created from the summed scores on the GSE to reflect \u0026lsquo;at or below the GSE mean score\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;above the mean GSE score\u0026rsquo;. Socio-demographic variables included age, education, marital status, number of children, work outside the home, self-identification as head of household, and monthly household income. Communities were labelled according to type \u0026ndash; \u0026lsquo;market town\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;settled village\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;pastoralist\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;mixed pastoralist/settled village\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis Strategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEighteen of the 702 members in the Nikumbuke Project were excluded from the analytic sample as they participated in the study as field staff responsible for administration of the interviews andtherefore, had a different knowledge of the instrument and study than other members of the Nikumbuke Project at the time of survey implementation. The resultant analytic sample included 684 women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analyses were conducted using StataCorp statistical software, Release 16.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Frequencies were run for all socio-demographic variables as well as two outcome variables of interest, i.e. GSE and participation in the recreational soccer program. An item non-response analysis of all variables in this study indicated minimal missing data (3% or less on all variables except age, which had 9.5% missing). Single-imputation was used to approximate responses for missing data.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Chi-square and Fischer\u0026rsquo;s exact tests were run to explore bivariate relationships between high self-efficacy (measured as GSE scores above the sample mean), participation in recreational soccer, and the demographic covariates in this study. A two-sample t-test was conducted to compare the mean GSE scores of women who participated in the soccer league and those who did not. Linear and logistic regressions were used to explore the relationship between women\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy and participation in the recreational soccer program while controlling for a number of socio-demographic covariates. Two regression models were run. Models 1 used linear regression examine the association between women's participation in the soccer program, and GSE scores after controlling for socio-demographic covariates. To consider the question of a bi-directional relationship between GSE and soccer participation, a second model using logistic regression was run to explore the association between GSE scores and women\u0026rsquo;s participation in the league.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescrptive statistics appear in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The majority of the 684 women included in this analysis had joined the Nikumbuke Project within the previous four years. The average age of respondents was just over 40 years, with women as young as 18\u0026nbsp;years and as old as 80\u0026nbsp;years participating in the surveys. Over three-quarters of the women were married and living with their partners, although close to 42% of respondents considered themselves the head of their households. About 84% of women had three or more children, with close to 20% having seven or more children. Just over 40% of the women had no formal education, and an additional 31% had not completed primary school. The majority of households had monthly incomes under 5,000 KES (about US \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50), which falls well below the Kenyan national poverty line.\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of respondents by demographic characteristics according to self-efficacy and participation in soccer league (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;684)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSelf-efficacy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eParticipation in recreational soccer\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAttributes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eFreq\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow Efficacy\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEfficacy\u003csup\u003eii\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeague\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy (mean 33.9, Std. dev. 5.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt or below the mean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbove the mean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation in recreational soccer league\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.55***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.02***\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;24\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;34\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;49\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;59\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026nbsp;years or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.39***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.24**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.64**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.31**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e331\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegular partner, living apart\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparated, divorced, widowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.93\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.92***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;6 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 or more children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent works outside home\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e511\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e511\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e347\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears as a member in Nikumbuke Project\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.58*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 or more years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;9\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;years or less\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold monthly income\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than 5,000 KES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e264\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,000\u0026ndash;9999 KES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 10,000 KES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAware of household finances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e612\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e316\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e296\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e612\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead of household is self\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.63*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e147\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e253\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of community in which respondent lives\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166.08***\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.05***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoralist\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed pastoralist/settled village\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSettled village\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e316\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket town\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ***p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, \u0026dagger; fisher\u0026rsquo;s exact p-value\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e at or below the mean, \u003csup\u003eii\u003c/sup\u003e above the sample mean\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1: Linear regression model reporting standardized beta coefficients (95% confidence intervals) for the association between self-efficacy and participation in a recreational soccer league (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;684)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy (mean 33.93, SD 5.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipates in recreational soccer league\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.759 to 2.380\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (categorical) \u003cem\u003e(ref: 18\u0026ndash;24\u0026nbsp;years)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;34\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.959\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.502 to 1.582\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;49\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.612\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.981 to 1.168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;59\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.787 to 2.746\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026nbsp;years and over\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.659\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.432 to 1.539\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation \u003cem\u003e(ref: none)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.871 to 1.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.751\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.301 to 0.939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.542\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.021 to 0.938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship status \u003cem\u003e(ref: married)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegular partner, live apart\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.914 to 0.623\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.990 to 0.541\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparated, divorced, widowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.268\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028 to 2.507\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children \u003cem\u003e(ref: none)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.980\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.691 to 2.761\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.732 to 2.805\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;6 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.982\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.801 to 2.865\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 or more children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.877 to 2.878\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent works outside home\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.791 to 0.910\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMember of Nikumbuke Project \u003cem\u003e(ref: 5\u0026ndash;9\u0026nbsp;years)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 or more years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.631\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.600 to 0.971\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;years or less\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.981 to -0.290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold monthly income \u003cem\u003e(ref: 5,000\u0026ndash;9,999 ksh)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than 5,000 ksh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.088 to 0.497\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 10,000 ksh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.932\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.403 to 1.286\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAware of household finances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.413 to 1.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead of household is self\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.590 to 0.174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of community \u003cem\u003e(ref: Settled village)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-9.940 to -7.431\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed pastoralist/settled village\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-7.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-9.000 to -5.878\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket town\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.199 to -1.582\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBivariate analyses\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults from bivariate tests are also summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Results of the analysis exploring the relationship between self-efficacy and socio-demographic variables suggest that high self-efficacy was significantly associated with age, level of education, relationship status, number of years in the Nikumbuke Project, and the type of community in which the respondent lives. Women who are younger, have no education, are single or unmarried, and those who joined Nikumbuke more recently had low GSE scores (below the sample median). Additionally, the majority of women from the pastoral or mixed pastoral/settled communities had GSE scores that were at or below the mean score for the sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge, education, relationship status, number of children, being head of one\u0026rsquo;s own household and type of community in which respondent lives were significantly associated with participation in the recreational soccer league. The majority of women who played recreational soccer were between the ages of 35 and 49 years, had some primary education, were married, and had 3 to 4 children. Approximately 45% of the soccer leauge members had 5 or more children. The majority of league members were not the reported heads of their households. The difference in mean GSE scores of women who played soccer (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34.78, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.99) and those who did not (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;33.5, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.98) was statistically different, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(682) = -2.79, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariate analyses\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA linear regression analysis was performed to investigate whether participation in the soccer program was associated with the self-efficacy of respondents (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Results suggest that participation in recreational soccer, controlling for other demographic attributes, was associated with a 1.57 increase on the GSE scale, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.57, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(672)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.80, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. Other attributes that were significant factors associated with GSE scores included being separated, divorced or widowed (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.27, 95% CI 0.03, 2.51), being a recent (joined in 2016 or after) member in the Nikumbuke Project (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -1.14, 95% CI -1.98, -0.29), and being from either a pastoral (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -8.69, 95% CI -9.94, -7.43), mixed pastoralist/settled village (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -7.44, 95% CI -9.00, -5.88), or market town (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -2.89, 95% CI -4.20, -1.58) compared to being from a settlment village.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2: Results from logistic regression analyses predicting the effects of self-efficacy on women\u0026rsquo;s soccer participation (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;684)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy (mean 33.93, SD 5.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.040 to 1.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge \u003cem\u003e(ref: 18\u0026ndash;24\u0026nbsp;years)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;34\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.465 to 2.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;49\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.251 to 1.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;59\u0026nbsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.053 to 0.361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026nbsp;years and above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026 to 0.348\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation \u003cem\u003e(ref: none)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.966 to 2.524\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.277 to 3.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.463\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.626 to 2.794\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship status \u003cem\u003e(ref: married)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegular partner, living apart\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.285 to 1.662\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.475 to 2.714\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparated, divorced, widowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.265 to 1.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children \u003cem\u003e(ref: none)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.626\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.368 to 5.262\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.840\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.292 to 4.544\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;6 children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.918\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.262 to 4.426\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 or more children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.138 to 2.581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent works outside home\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.465 to 1.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMember of Nikumbuke Project \u003cem\u003e(ref: 5\u0026ndash;9\u0026nbsp;years)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026nbsp;years or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.008 to 3.465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;years or less\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.737\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.477 to 1.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold monthly income \u003cem\u003e(ref: 5,000\u0026ndash;9,999 ksh)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than 5,000 ksh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.763 to 1.698\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 10,000 ksh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.832\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.548 to 2.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAware of household finances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.635\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.459 to 1.609\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead of household is self\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.666 to 1.615\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of community in which respondent lives \u003cem\u003e(ref: settled village)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoralist\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.438 to 1.952\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed pastoralist/settle village\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.888 to 15.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket town\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.952\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.526 to 1.978\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Discussion","content":" \u003cp\u003eThis study is the first of its kind in Kenya to examine the factors that may be associated with adult women\u0026rsquo;s participation in sports, particularly the potential role played by self-efficacy. Its findings suggest a bi-directional relationship between self-efficacy and women\u0026rsquo;s participation in a recreational sports program. While it is beyond the scope of this cross-sectional study to determine the presence of a causal or temporal relationship between the two phenomena, it does provide strong evidence that women who play soccer have higher levels of self-efficacy on average compared to women who do not and that women who have higher GSE scores have greater odds of being members of the soccer league. These findings align with previous work on self-efficacy and physical activity conducted by McAuley and Blissmer\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and provide a case for further exploration of self-efficacy in this population, optimally in longitudinal studies of new community teams as they form in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports have come to be seen as a tool to promote gender equity, giving women voice and empowering women to assume a greater role in the social worlds of home, community, and the political economy.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR44\" citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Although there has been a substantial increase in the availability and number of sports programs for girls and women in Sub-Saharan Africa, some sports, notably soccer, remain traditionally male, particularly among adults.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In poor rural areas in the region, social space rarely exists for organized women\u0026rsquo;s sports; the sphere of women\u0026rsquo;s activities revolves around largely domestic activities, and little time, resources, or community support is available to women to enter the social and physical domain of organized \u0026lsquo;play\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo the best of our knowledge, the Nikumbuke Soccer League is unique in Kenya and may well be the only recreational soccer program for non-professional adult women in Sub-Saharan Africa. Girls play soccer in primary and secondary school, and recent programs like Safaricom\u0026rsquo;s \u0026lsquo;Chapa Dimba\u0026rsquo; and the Uweza Soccer Academy in Kenya that promote grassroots soccer for both adolescents boys and girls are contributing to an emerging pipeline from school sports to professional soccer.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The emphasis on these programs, however, is on school-aged girls and young women, ages 18\u0026ndash;25\u0026nbsp;years. The recreational Nikumbuke Soccer League is composed of \u003cem\u003eadult\u003c/em\u003e women, the majority of whom are between the ages of 25 and 49\u0026nbsp;years and married with 3 or more children, and operates outside of the educational system and Kenyan soccer authorities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, the Nikumbuke Soccer League provides adult women who generally have limited, if any, leisure time the opportunity to engage in recreational physical activity. The 2016 STEPwise Survey conducted by the Kenya Ministry of Health reported the median number of minutes in which women in Kenya engage in physical activity to be 231 minutes, well above the WHO recommendation of 150 minutes daily, but, of this total, only 5.5 minutes were expended during recreational activity.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In addition, slightly more than half of women surveyed did not engage in any strenuous physical activity of any kind. In the Nikumbuke soccer program, women engage in weekly three-hour practices and monthly inter-village matches during the soccer \u0026lsquo;season\u0026rsquo; that provide team members with both a venue and an occasion to engage in leisure sport.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the weakness of cross-sectional data in determining the causal and temporal relationship between self-efficacy and sports participation, as well as the extent to which the relationship may be bi-directional, this study had several other limitations. Almost 3% of respondents reported that they did not know their age (not a surprising result in an environment with limited birth registries) and were coded as missing. Doing so raised the number of missing values for age to 9.5%, reducing our confidence in the imputation of this one variable. Importantly, while Kiswahili translations on the GSE scale have been previously shown to have acceptable values of Cronbach's alpha and test-retest reliability,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e it has not been validated in a sample as richly diverse in tribal membership, religions, and cultural norms as the present one. Future studies would be improved by the use of a task-specific self-efficacy scale such as those previously used to examine physical activity elsewhere;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e such a scale should be validated in this particular setting and population.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusions","content":" \u003cp\u003eIncluded in the Sustainable Development Goals is a call to reduce mortality from NCDs by one third within the next decade.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Epidemiologic data suggests that this target is attainable only if major reductions in NCD-related mortality in low- and middle-income countries, where as much as 80% of the NCD burden occurs, are achieved.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While rates of key NCD-risk behaviors such as tobacco and harmful alcohol use are higher in males than females, women are at greater risk of overweight/obesity and, in LMIC countries, the rate of obesity is increasing at a faster rate in rural areas than urban ones. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In Kenya, where 38.5% of women ages 18\u0026ndash;44\u0026nbsp;years are estimated to have BMIs in excess of 25 (overweight),and rates of obesity increase across the lifespan, \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e programs that provide opportunities for adult women to improve their health through physical activity should be encouraged. Programs that enhance self-efficacy in women generally would also be beneficial in this and similar settings where women are constrained by gender and cultural norms that may prevent them from engaging in health-promoting leisure time physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"List Of Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eBMI Body mass index\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGSE General Self-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKES Kenyan shilling\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLMIC Low- and middle-income countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eM Mean\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNCD Non-communicable disease\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD Standard deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG Sustainable Development Goal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUS United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSD United States dollar\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO World Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study received approval from the Institutional Review Board at [Home institution of the first author] and the National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI) in Kenya.\u0026nbsp; As the only document linking the respondents to study participation would have been a signed informed consent document, all 702 women who participated in this study provided verbal consent as stipulated by the approved study protocol.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent was provided orally by respondents as signed documentation would have provided the only link between respondents and their participation in the study. No personal identifiers were collected as part of the interview in order to reduce the likelihood that an individual would linked to specific responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is part of a large mixed-methods study supported by grants from Patrick Byrne, Adidas North America, and the United States Department of State, Kenya. In-kind support was received from Rutgers University-Division of Intercollegiate Athletics, the Nikumbuke Soccer League-US, the Sports Bra Project, and the Nikumbuke Project-Kenya.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRole of funding sources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study sponsors were not involved in study design; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; the writing of the manuscript; and in the decision to submit the paper for publication. The corresponding author had full access to data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFB and SCW were responsible for the conceptualization, design, and implementation of this study and for the preparation of a draft manuscript. BA, DM, and BT were instrumental at all stages of implementation. All authors read and approved the final version of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecial thanks are due the Nikumbuke Soccer League-US for its unstinting support of this study, Ken Wakia for seeing the potential of women\u0026rsquo;s sports to contribute to community well-being, and the many individuals at Rutgers University who contributed in various ways to making this research possible. Of particular note are Frances Loeser, Keri Ferreira, Patrick Hobbs, Dennis DeMarino, Asenath Dande, and the staff of Rutgers Global. Importantly, this study would not have been possible without the enthusiastic participation of the staff of the Nikumbuke Project in Lunga Lunga and the remarkable women of Nikumbuke. A special note of gratitude is due the Nikumbuke teachers who assisted with data collection and worked so diligently to make this project a success.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eThe world health. report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. In. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eLee I-M, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. The lancet. 2012;380(9838):219\u0026ndash;29.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003ePhysical, Inactivity. A global public health problem. [Fact sheet]. 2009; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eDaugbjerg SB, Kahlmeier S, Racioppi F, et al. Promotion of physical activity in the European region: content analysis of 27 national policy documents. Journal of Physical Activity Health. 2009;6(6):805\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eVrazel J, Saunders RP, Wilcox S. An overview and proposed framework of social-environmental influences on the physical-activity behavior of women. American journal of health promotion. 2008;23(1):2\u0026ndash;12.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eCaspersen CJ, Pereira MA, Curran KM. Changes in physical activity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age. 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Science. 2014;2(6):524\u0026ndash;31.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003ePengpid S, Peltzer K, Kassean HK, Tsala JPT, Sychareun V, M\u0026uuml;ller-Riemenschneider F. Physical inactivity and associated factors among university students in 23 low-, middle-and high-income countries. International journal of public health. 2015;60(5):539\u0026ndash;49.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eAuthors. Unpublished manuscript.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eJerusalem M, Schwarzer R. Generalized self-efficacy scale. \u003cem\u003eMeasures in health psychology: A user\u0026rsquo;s portfolio Causal and control beliefs\u003c/em\u003e. 1995:35\u0026ndash;37.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eSchwarzer R, Jerusalem M. The general self-efficacy scale (GSE). Anxiety Stress Coping. 2010;12:329\u0026ndash;45.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eScholz U, Do\u0026ntilde;a BG, Sud S, Schwarzer R. Is general self-efficacy a universal construct? Psychometric findings from 25 countries. European journal of psychological assessment. 2002;18(3):242.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eStata Statistical Software: Release 16\u003c/em\u003e [computer program]. College Station, TX: StataCorp, LLC; 2019.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eStata-ado package \"hotdeckvar\u0026rdquo; for single hotdeck imputation\u003c/em\u003e [computer program]. 2012.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003ePoverty and Equity Brief: Kenya. 2019; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_KEN.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Accessed April 1, 2020.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eHancock M, Lyras A, Ha J-P. Sport for development programs for girls and women: A global assessment. Journal of Sport for Development. 2013;1(1):15\u0026ndash;24.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eLyras A, Hums MA. Sport and social change: The case for gender equality. Journal of physical education recreation dance. 2009;80(1):7\u0026ndash;21.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eMeier M. \u003cem\u003eGender equity, sport and development\u003c/em\u003e. Swiss academy for Development; 2000.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003ePelak CF. Women and gender in South African soccer: A brief history. Soccer Society. 2010;11(1\u0026ndash;2):63\u0026ndash;78.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eChapa Dimba na Safaricom. n.d.; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://chapadimba.safaricom.co.ke/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Accessed March 31, 2020.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eUweza Soccer Academy. n.d.; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://uwezakenya.org/our-work/soccer-academy/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Accessed April 1, 2020.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eMinistry of Health Division of Communicable Diseases KNBoSWHO. Kenya STEPwise Survey for Non Communicable Diseases Risk Factors 2015 Report In. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya Ministry of Health; 2016. p.\u0026nbsp;182.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eEsopo K, Mellow D, Thomas C, et al. Measuring self-efficacy, executive function, and temporal discounting in Kenya. Behaviour research therapy. 2018;101:30\u0026ndash;45.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eWarner LM, Sch\u0026uuml;z B, Wolff JK, Parschau L, Wurm S, Schwarzer R. Sources of self-efficacy for physical activity. Health Psychology. 2014;33(11):1298.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eSustainable Development Goal 3. n.d.; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Accessed April 1, 2020.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eNugent R, Bertram MY, Jan S, et al. Investing in non-communicable disease prevention and management to advance the Sustainable Development Goals. The Lancet. 2018;391(10134):2029\u0026ndash;35.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cspan\u003eJaacks LM, Slining MM, Popkin BM. Recent underweight and overweight trends by rural\u0026ndash;urban residence among women in low-and middle-income countries. The Journal of nutrition. 2015;145(2):352\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"self-efficacy, recreational sports, women’s soccer, women's health, Sub-Saharan Africa, Kenya","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-25704/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-25704/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground \u003c/strong\u003eIncreases in non-communicable diseases in Kenya are attributed in part to a decrease in physical activity. Although, sports programs for girls and young adult women promote health, reduce risk behaviors and build self-efficacy, similar programs for adult women in Kenya are largely unavailable. The Nikumbuke Soccer League, a recreational soccer program for adult women in southeastern Kenya, is a notable exception.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods \u003c/strong\u003eData for this analysis were taken from a 2018–2019 study of women’s experiences in an adult women’s soccer league coordinated by the Nikumbuke Project in ten communities in southeastern rural Kenya. 702 project members, 229 of whom play soccer, participated in semi-structured interviews containing questions on demographics, self-efficacy, and health. Frequencies were run for all variables with separate bivariate analyses examining socio-demographic attributes and two outcome variables of interest, general self-efficacy (GSE) and participation in soccer. Linear and logistic regressions were run to explore the relationship between women’s self-efficacy and participation in soccer, controlling for socio-demographic covariates.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults \u003c/strong\u003eThe average age of respondents was approximately 40\u0026nbsp;years with the majority of women being married with three or more children and living below the national poverty line. 40% of women had no formal education, and another 30% had some schooling but had not completed primary education. Results from the linear regression suggest that participation in recreational soccer, controlling for other demographic attributes, was associated with a 1.57 point increase on the GSE scale. Results from the logistic regression suggest that a single point increase on the GSE scale is associated with 8% higher odds of being a member of the soccer program at Nikumbuke, suggesting a bi-directional relationship between self-efficacy and participation in recreational soccer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion \u003c/strong\u003ePrograms such as the Nikumbuke Soccer League provide adult women with opportunities to engage in recreational physical activity outside of the highly gendered domestic world in which they live. Given its potential to improve women’s health, build self-efficacy, and expand social roles for women, programs like the Nikumbuke Soccer League should be expanded across Kenya and other countries in the region where similar opportunities for women do not currently exist.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Exploring the Relationship between Adult Women’s Participation in Recreational Soccer and Self-Efficacy in Rural Kenya","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2020-05-04 14:22:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-25704/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"21967699-4b05-4696-b4c3-53fcce9370f3","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 4th, 2020","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":93209,"name":"Nutrition \u0026 Dietetics"},{"id":93210,"name":"Physical Medicine \u0026 Rehab"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2020-05-04T14:22:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2020-05-04 14:22:15","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-25704","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-25704","identity":"rs-25704","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}