Evaluating Energy Costs for Sustainable Mining: The Case of CEMAC in Central Africa

Evaluating Energy Costs for Sustainable Mining: The Case of CEMAC in Central Africa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evaluating Energy Costs for Sustainable Mining: The Case of CEMAC in Central Africa Ewembe Yuka Fontama, Steven Michael Rupprecht, Olushola Daniel Eniowo This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7345397/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Mineral Economics → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Mining operations are energy-intensive processes that rely heavily on electricity, diesel, and explosives. In the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC), comprising Cameroon, Chad, Gabon, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and Equatorial Guinea, energy supply is a critical barrier to the sustainability of mining operations. Despite the region’s immense hydroelectric potential (estimated at over 650,000 GWh annually), less than 15% of its 44.1 million population has access to electricity. The national grids are poorly interconnected, and supply remains insufficient and unreliable. Consequently, mining companies are often forced to rely on costly diesel-powered generators to sustain operations, which significantly inflates production costs and deters potential investors. This study examines the impact of high electricity costs on the sustainability and competitiveness of mining operations across the CEMAC region. Through comparative analysis and literature synthesis, it evaluates energy sources and costs, infrastructure limitations, and potential solutions. The study also explores how energy insecurity contributes to limited growth and reduced investment in the mining sector. In response to these challenges, the paper identifies and characterises four sustainable energy solutions suitable for the region with focus on the mining sector: hydroelectric power (HEP), solar energy, wind power, and biomass. Recommendations are provided on how these resources can be harnessed to reduce electricity costs and support long-term mining sustainability in Central Africa. Sustainability Electricity Costs Competitiveness Renewable Energy Mining Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction The mining industry is energy intensive, consuming up to 38% of global industrial energy use, 15% of the global electricity use, and 11% of global energy use (Igogo et al., 2021 ). The industry requires significant use of energy being a primary industry that produces essential resources for global trends from economic growth, through urbanisation to decarbonisation (Allen, 2021 ; Aramendia et al., 2023 ). The industry is critical source of raw materials for many industries such as manufacturing, construction, transportation, energy, and the mining industry itself (Igogo et al., 2021 ). It is expected that demand for raw materials needed for economic growth will increase as the population grows and many low-income economies shift to middle income status (MIT, 2016). Ballantyne and Powell ( 2014 ) found that comminution—reduction of particle sizes of mined materials—of gold and copper ores consumes up to 0.2% of global and 1.3% of Australia’s electricity consumption, indicating that some critical components of the mining value-chain require significantly more energy use than others.(Allen, 2021 ) describes comminution as the largest energy consumer in a mining operation, consuming about 40% of the total energy. Also, some important factors do affect the level of energy consumption of a mine. As an illustration, low grade minerals usually require higher per unit energy costs, since more waste materials need to be moved to recover the per unit mass of such mineral resource. Thus, as the quality of mineral deposits decreases, the corresponding energy requirement tends to increase (Aramendia et al., 2023 ). It is forecasted that the future mineral demand and the final energy consumption per unit mass of mineral extracted (energy intensities of mining) will likely increase due to a decrease in mineral resource deposit qualities. This will lead to a corresponding increase in the mining industry’s final energy consumption in the future (Aramendia et al., 2023 ). Thus, the increase in demand for mineral resources, combined with declining mineral ore grades, is expected to increase energy demands of the mining industry (Igogo et al., 2021 ). Notwithstanding the immense cost implications of energy usage in mining, it remains a critical requirement of the operations. Without sustainable electricity supply, most mining activities become practically impossible since mine equipment is mostly powered by electricity (see Fig. 1 for split energy consumption in the industry). Several mining operations depend on electric power with most of them being fossil fuel-fired (Igogo et al., 2021 ), leading to significant cost implications on mining companies. Since energy-related carbon dioxide emissions represent two-thirds of all greenhouse gases, a transition towards cleaner sources of energy becomes essential (Srivastava & Kumar, 2022 ). Thus, as global efforts towards climate change mitigation intensify, transitioning to cleaner energy alternatives has become not only an environmental necessity but also a strategic imperative for the long-term sustainability of the industry (Amegboleza & Ülkü, 2025 ). Specifically, studies have shown that adopting renewable energies in mining could reduce operational energy costs by as much as 50% in some remote mining locations (Amegboleza & Ülkü, 2025 ). As affordability and reliability are the two primary considerations for adoption of energy source in the mining industry, operators have been considering renewable energy sources, especially since the costs for solar, wind and battery storage systems have been decreasing in recent times (Maennling & Toledano, 2018 ). In Central Africa, the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC), comprising Cameroon, Chad, Gabon, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic (CAR), and Equatorial Guinea, came into effect in 1994. It was the culmination of a process that began in 1962, when the treaty establishing the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) was signed in Brazzaville. It later came into effect in 1966 (Diaw & Lessoua, 2013 ). The CEMAC’s primary goal is to develop harmonious relations among its member states by strengthening economic and trade ties (Diaw & Lessoua, 2013 ). The CEMAC countries rely heavily on the extractive industry for their development (see Table 1 for the various mineral resources across the region). Kibangou ( 2018 ) asserts that it is a central theme for countries in this region to exploit natural resources provided by nature in their natural forms, namely solid, liquid and gaseous forms, for mineral, oil and gas resources, respectively. Thus, the extractive industry represents a significant share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and export earnings of each of these countries. As an illustration, in the year 2005, the subsurface resources in exports of countries in the region, according to the Bank of Central African States (BEAC) were: Cameroon (more than 60%), Central African Republic (49%), Chad (86%), Gabon (90%), Equatorial Guinea (91%), and the Republic of the Congo (92%) (Kibangou, 2018 ). Table 1 CEMAC Countries and major mineral resources Countries Major Mineral Resources References Cameroon Bauxite, Limestone, Cobalt, Diamonds, Gold, Iron Ore, Nickel, Uranium, Granite, Sandstones, Nepheline Syenite, Rutile, Pozzolana (Szczesniak & Chung, 2025 ; Thomas, 2012) Central African Republic Copper, Diamond, Gold, Graphite, Ilmenite, Iron Ore, Kaolin, Kyanite, Lignite, Limestone, Manganese, Monazite, Quartz, Rutile, Salt, Tin, Uranium (AZO Mining, 2012 ; Barry & Moon, 2025 ) Chad Sodium Carbonate, Bauxite, Gold, Uranium, Tin, Tungsten (Szczesniak & Plaza-Toledo, 2025 ) Congo Iron Ore, Magnesium, Diamonds, Potash, Phosphate, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Gold (Pujols, Edgardo, 2025 ) Equatorial Guinea Gold, Diamond, Tantalite, Clay, Granite, Sand (Barry, 2018 ) Gabon Manganese, Potash, Uranium, Niobium, Iron Ore, Lead, Zinc, Diamonds, Marble, Phosphate (Perez, 2025 ) However, the potential of the mining industry in this region has been negatively impacted by energy challenges. In the CEMAC, energy supply is a critical barrier to the sustainability of mining operations. The electricity supply in the Central Africa is poorly distributed and relatively inefficient. In the year 2020, Central Africa’s installed electricity capacity was 13.81 GW, primarily from hydroelectricity and followed by thermal energy (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). There is significant potential for renewable energy, but this remains mostly underutilised (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). In Cameroun, the installed energy production remains well below demand due to its growing population and new industrialisation (Ngono & Ndzana, 2024 ). Similarly, in the DRC, the electrification rate remains low at 9.6% with an installed capacity of just 2790 MW (Imasiku & Thomas, 2020 ). Overall, the mining industry across the CEMAC region faces persistent challenges linked to high and unstable energy costs, unreliable infrastructure, and limited access to sustainable energy sources. These energy-related issues significantly increase operational expenses, reduce competitiveness, and hinder the adoption of environmentally sustainable mining practices. Despite the region’s mineral wealth, inadequate energy policies and weak integration of renewable technologies continue to threaten long-term mining sustainability and regional economic development(Allen, 2021 ; World Bank Group, 2024 ). Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between energy pricing, energy efficiency, and sustainable mining practices within the unique geopolitical and infrastructural context of the CEMAC region. The dearth of such studies in the existing body of knowledge, necessitates this study. The primary question to be addressed in this article is, how do energy costs impact the economic and environmental sustainability of mining activities in the CEMAC region? The subsequent section of this article discusses the methodology for this study which covers discussion on the study area, data sources, analytical methods and justification for the adopted method. Then the results and analysis are outlined focusing on energy cost profiles across CEMAC countries, impact of energy pricing on mining profitability and sustainability practices. Discussions are then provided based on the results of the study. This covers interpretations of findings in relation to global mining trends, implications for sustainable mining policy in the CEMAC region and the role of regional cooperation in reducing energy costs burdens. Finally, conclusion and policy recommendations are provided based on the findings of the study. 2. Methodology 2.1 The study area This study focuses on the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) region, which comprises six member states: Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Located in the heart of Central Africa, the region is rich in natural resources, including oil, gold, cobalt, iron ore, bauxite, and other strategic minerals (Szczesniak & Chung, 2025 ). The CEMAC countries share a common currency (the XAF CFA Franc), monetary policy, and trade policy (Mien, 2022 ). For of the countries in the bloc, crude oil represents a large share of total exports (from 36% in Cameroon to 74% in Chad in 2019) (Mien, 2022 ). Similarly, mining activities are critical to the economic development of CEMAC countries, contributing significantly to export revenues and GDP. Geographically, the region spans tropical rainforest zones in the south (notably Gabon and Congo) to semi-arid zones in the north (such as northern Chad). This presents logistical and infrastructural challenges for resource extraction and energy distribution. The mining sector across the region is highly dependent on fossil-based energy, with limited integration of renewables due to policy, financial, and technological constraints. Additionally, frequent power outages, high electricity tariffs, and inadequate transmission infrastructure exacerbate operational inefficiencies in the mining value chain. Figure 2 illustrates the location and boundaries of the six CEMAC member states within Central Africa which provide the spatial context for this study’s analysis of energy costs and mining sustainability. Table 2 Economic indicators of CEMAC countries (Source: worldometers, 2025 ) CEMAC Countries Land Area (Km 2 ) Population Nominal GDP per capita in $ Unemployment (year of estimate) Cameroon 475,000 29,839,857 1,700 5.18 (2021) Central African Republic 623,000 5,513,282 548 6.5% (2023) Republic of the Congo 342,000 6,476,532 2,384 53% (2012|) Gabon 268,000 2,590,305 9,257 20% (2023) Equatorial Guinea 28,000 1,936,033 7,755 8.7% (2023) Chad 1,259,200 20,966,754 2,300 -- 2.2 Research Approach This study employs a qualitative, exploratory research design in line with (Creswell, 2012 ). It adopts a desk-based literature review approach with comparative analysis. Desk review involves examining the existing documents or data related to a specific topic to gather information. The research employs the use of secondary data from publicly available energy reports, mining sector statistics, and published academic literature. A comparative framework is used to analyse electricity generation, pricing, and consumption across CEMAC countries, thereby drawing implications for sustainable mining operations. This study adopts a desk review combined with a comparative analysis as its primary research approach. The desk review involves the systematic collection and synthesis of existing data from reputable sources such as government reports, academic journals, multilateral development agencies (e.g., AfDB, World Bank, IEA), and industry publications. This method is particularly appropriate for studies examining regional patterns of energy costs and mining sustainability, as it enables the integration of diverse datasets across multiple countries in a cost- and time-efficient manner (Snyder, 2019 ). The comparative analysis framework allows for a structured evaluation of key variables, such as electricity tariffs, mining energy consumption, and sustainability, across the six CEMAC countries. This is essential for identifying similarities, disparities, and systemic challenges within the region. Comparative analysis is especially suitable in regions like CEMAC, where cross-national policy, economic integration, and infrastructural development are interlinked but unevenly implemented. Given the limitations of primary data availability and the regional scope of the study, a desk-based comparative approach ensures both breadth and depth of analysis while maintaining methodological rigour. 3. Results and Analysis 3.1 Energy Access across the CEMAC countries There are three major structures managing electricity in each of the CEMAC countries. The first is the power utility company, which produces and sells on-grid electricity to the entire population. Next are the regulators who regulate prices, consumption, production and distribution. Finally, there is a third party called Central Africa Power Pool (CAPP), which oversees energy policies and infrastructures of member states of this economic region called Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) comprising of ten states, out of which six are from the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC). Other partners include the Central African States Development Bank (CASDB), European Union (EU), Islamic Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, African Development Bank (AfDB), Southern African Power Pool (SAPP), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), China, France, Spain and Japan all financing electricity production and rural electrification in the form of loans and grants (AfDB, 2009 ). Their aim is to increase electricity infrastructures and make it more available to the population in dire need through the provision of finances, expertise and lifting other barriers (PEAC, 2025 ). In recent years, there has been significant progress in the region with construction of dams and gas plants going on, but many challenges remain. However, despite shared regional ambitions for economic integration, energy access across CEMAC countries shows significant disparity. This contrast, on the one hand, underscores deep infrastructural and policy gaps. On the other hand, the contrast exposes the current level of political and economic asymmetries in the CEMAC bloc. As shown in Table 3 , Gabon demonstrates the highest electricity access rate in the region at 91%, indicative of relatively advanced grid infrastructure and sustained government commitment to energy provision. However, despite its commendable coverage, the country's minimal utilization of its abundant renewable energy resources—particularly hydropower—suggests a latent opportunity for diversification and sustainability enhancement. Equatorial Guinea, with an access rate of 66%, also possesses considerable hydroelectric potential. Nonetheless, the country exhibits an over-dependence on fossil fuels, particularly oil, which has impeded the scale-up of renewable energy investments. This reliance exposes the energy sector to exogenous shocks tied to global oil market fluctuations. Cameroon achieves a moderate access rate of 64%. However, energy delivery in the country is characterized by frequent power outages and chronic infrastructural deficits, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas. These operational inefficiencies significantly affect the reliability and quality of supply. By contrast, the Republic of Congo, with 49.5% access. The nation’s outdated transmission and distribution systems further hinder efforts to expand access, particularly to underserved populations. However, the energy access landscape is dire in the Central African Republic (15.5%) and Chad (6.4%), both of which face multifaceted barriers. In the CAR, the lack of infrastructure and limited accessibility to grid services are exacerbated by political instability. Chad, meanwhile, grapples with administrative inefficiencies, corruption, and a fragile financial system that collectively inhibit investment in grid expansion and off-grid alternatives (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). Table 3 Comparative electricity access rate, hydro and solar potential of the six CEMAC member states (Source: Dongsheng et al., 2024 ; Hermann et al., 2014 ) CEMAC Member State Electricity Access Rate (%) Associated Challenges Cameroon 64 Frequent outages, infrastructural deficit Central African Republic 15.5 Severe accessibility limitations, infrastructural deficit Chad 6.4 Corruption, administrative bottlenecks, financial insecurity Congo Rep. 49.5 Outdated infrastructure, energy inefficiency Equatorial Guinea 66 Over-reliance on oil, limited renewable deployment Gabon 91 Minimal use of vast renewable resources 3.2 Energy cost profiles across CEMAC countries The costs of energy sources can be viewed from two lenses. First is the capital requirement of acquiring energy sources that will power the mine plants and trucks. These energy costs typically comprise one of the most significant ongoing costs of mining operations. For example, up to 70% of the total energy costs is devoted to the comminution of the ore alone (Curry et al., 2014 ). However, another dimension of cost that needs to be considered is the environment cost. This latter dimension has become more paramount considering the perceived negative tendencies of the mining industry in terms of greenhouse gas footprint (Igogo et al., 2021 ). Around the world—in countries ranging from India to South Africa, Turkey to the Philippines, Australia, Poland, the United States, and China—health voices have begun to emerge, agitating for the abandonment of extractive, polluting, unhealthy energy sources such as coal and the shift to clean, renewable, healthy alternatives (Wang et al., 2016 ). Thus, Igogo et al. ( 2021 ) argued that renewable energy should be integrated into the extraction, processing, and refining phases of mineral production, including, but not limited to, transportation, drilling, digging, loading, and power generation for mine sites without grid connection. The energy consumption per capita across CEMAC countries reveals stark disparities that reflect underlying issues of affordability, access, and energy system efficiency. As depicted in Fig. 3 , Gabon records the highest energy consumption per capita at 1,065 kWh/year, followed by Equatorial Guinea (745 kWh/year) and the Republic of Congo (459 kWh/year). These higher values suggest relatively better energy infrastructure and potentially more affordable or subsidized electricity costs that facilitate broader consumption. On the other hand, the Central African Republic (25 kWh/year) and Chad (14 kWh/year) have extremely low per capita consumption, indicating limited access, unaffordability, or both. Despite having an installed capacity of 63 MW and generating 142 GWh annually, the Central African Republic's consumption remains among the lowest, pointing to transmission challenges, high costs for end-users, and unreliable service delivery. Cameroon, with a per capita consumption of 284 kWh per year, falls within the middle range but still lags significantly behind the CEMAC average. This suggests that although Cameroon has a larger energy infrastructure, inefficiencies and pricing constraints may be suppressing actual usage. Specifically, Cameroon has the third largest hydroelectric potential, with a theoretical annual capacity of approximately 294 TWh (equivalent to 23 GW). Nevertheless, only 5% of the country’s hydro potential has been explored (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). The distribution of consumption levels indirectly highlights the cost profiles of electricity in each country: where electricity is more affordable and reliable, consumption is higher; where it is costly or unavailable, usage is severely constrained. Electricity tariffs across CEMAC member states display considerable variation, as shown in Fig. 4 . This variation is shaped by differences in generation technologies, fuel dependency, subsidy structures, and regulatory capacity (Ranganathan et al., 2012 ). Countries such as Chad and the Central African Republic have some of the highest average electricity tariffs in the region, estimated at $ 0.30/kWh and $ 0.15/kWh, respectively, despite having some of the lowest electrification rates (see Table 3 ). This discrepancy points to structural inefficiencies and a heavy reliance on costly, diesel-based generation in off-grid or poorly interconnected areas (IEA, 2023a ). In contrast, nations like Gabon and Cameroon report lower tariffs (approximately $ 0.117/kWh and $ 0.109/kWh), aided by relatively stronger grid infrastructure and hydropower utilisation (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). However, these rates do not always reflect electricity affordability or service reliability, particularly in rural and mining-intensive regions. It is important to note, however, that this discussion on electricity tariffs is constrained by the absence of up-to-date, publicly available tariff data across all CEMAC countries. Most available figures are several years old, and tariff structures in some countries are not fully transparent. As a result, while the presented trends offer useful insights, they may not fully capture recent policy reforms, fuel price fluctuations, or infrastructure changes that could significantly impact tariff levels today. Despite these limitations, the observed variations have clear implications for energy-intensive sectors such as mining, where high tariffs and unreliable supply often necessitate off-grid generation, typically through diesel or hybrid systems, which can further isolate operations from national energy planning frameworks. 3.3 Implications of energy costs on the Mining Sector To attract mining investors, a country must have an efficient electricity infrastructure and a reliable distribution network. Many of these small states have failed to upgrade and properly maintain their power grids over the past 30 years (AfDB, 2009 ). As a result, they experience frequent blackouts, load shedding, and low voltage supply. Lack of access to energy remains a critical concern inhibiting development. Today, a large proportion of people do not have access to “modern” aspects of energy such as electricity and renewable energy. Traditional fuels meet most of the energy demand. However, they are very inefficient, and cause significant health problems and air pollution (Félix et al., 2022 ). This may be one of the key reasons why mineral-rich regions of Africa remain underdeveloped in terms of mining activities, with much of their mineral wealth still locked up in-situ. With the goal of industrialising the region by 2035, the quality and capacity of electricity supply in the CEMAC region must be improved and expanded by more than 60% to meet this target and attract increased mining investment (AfDB, 2009 ). The limited supply of electricity from national grids across many CEMAC countries has compelled mining companies to depend heavily on self-generated energy, primarily through diesel-powered plants. This reliance on off-grid, fossil-fuel-based energy sources not only escalates operational expenditures but also introduces significant volatility due to fluctuating global fuel prices. Moreover, it undermines the sector’s sustainability efforts by increasing carbon emissions, thereby posing both economic and environmental challenges to mining operations in the region. The huge power generating plants used by these companies consume a significant volume of diesel fuel. For example, a single mine could store up to 100,000litres of diesel fuel on-site to supply diesel generators. Electricity produced by diesel generator will cost six times more than that of an on-grid power line (Castellano et al., 2015 ). Thus, the use of fossil fuel at mining sites has been described as a significant operational cost of companies in the industry (OECD, 2019 ). The procurement, handling, and transportation of diesel fuel represent significant cost components in mining operations across Central Africa, compounded by persistently high pump prices. Since the early 2000s, oil prices have exhibited a steady upward trajectory due to a combination of global oil market volatility, supply chain disruptions, and domestic distribution-related issues (Mien, 2022 ). According to recent estimates, the average cost of diesel in Central African countries is approximately $ 1.46 per litre, placing a considerable burden on energy-intensive sectors such as mining (see Fig. 5 , for the diesel price trend in Cameroon since year 2020). Due to the limited accessibility of diesel, particularly in remote mining regions, many companies are compelled to construct on-site storage facilities to mitigate supply risks and ensure operational continuity. This decentralised energy model, while necessary, further escalates capital and operational expenditures, highlighting the broader implications of fuel cost dynamics on extractive industries in the region. In the existing dynamics, consumers are usually the ones to suffer the most from the high cost of electricity, as the costs are usually pushed to them by the mineral producers. This has an immense impact on economic growth and prosperity. The use of diesel to power the mining plants and trucks has also been described as a significant source of both local particulate matter and air pollution, as well as the release of Green House Gases (GHGs) (OECD, 2019 ). Thus, mining companies are now exploring cleaner alternative energy sources. As global climate change mitigation efforts intensify, transitioning to cleaner energy alternatives has become not only an environmental necessity but also a strategic imperative for the long-term sustainability of the industry (Amegboleza & Ülkü, 2025 ). The next section of this paper discusses the existing and potential renewable energy infrastructure that can be tapped by mining companies in the CEMAC region. 3.4 Renewable Energy Resources in the CEMAC countries The Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) region is endowed with abundant renewable energy (RE) resources, particularly hydropower, solar, wind, and biomass. Yet, their exploitation remains limited and uneven across member states. The region’s RE potential is significant, with estimates of 234 GW for biomass, 874 GW for concentrated solar-thermal power (CSP), 1989 GW for solar photovoltaic (PV), and 771 GW for wind energy (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). Across the world, several countries, both in emerging and developed nations, are pursuing ambitious RE initiatives to reduce their carbon footprint and meet international climate commitments (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). Thus, recent studies are exploring the potential benefits of investments in RE resources. For example, Dalei and Gupta ( 2024 ) argue that onshore wind and solar technology projects have proved to be of low-risk and have drawn the attention of investors in such energy sources for their projects. However, Dongsheng et al. ( 2024 ) asserts that despite being richly endowed with RE resources, the CEMAC states face significant challenges in harnessing their RE potential due to outdated infrastructure, regulatory barriers, and corruption. This section examines the existing renewable energy landscape in the region and explores strategies for optimizing their development and integration into national energy systems. 3.4.1 Hydro-Electric Energy Hydropower, large and small, remains by far the most important of the renewable sources for electrical power generation worldwide, providing 19% of the planet’s electricity (Mishra et al., 2016 ). Hydro-Electric Power Stations (HEPS) are the most efficient source of electricity in the CEMAC region with many rivers flowing from north to south. Cameroon, for example, has the third-largest hydropower potential in Africa, with a theoretical capacity of 294 TWh per year (approximately 23GW), even though only 5% of this hydro potentials have been exploited (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). HEPS offers the most likely source of electricity with desirable outputs for a mine. The current installed hydropower capacity in the CEMAC countries is shown in Table 4 . The major advantage of HEPS is that they can produce relatively cheap electricity up to a megawatt which can be enough to power a mine and allow for excess electricity, which the mine could then sell to the grid. Across the world, nations are now leveraging on the construction of small hydro project (SHP) to address energy short falls. Although, the definition of SHPs varies significantly from one country to another, a common classification used for the varying degrees of SHPs generally, ranges from Pico-hydro ( 1MW) (Zhang et al., 2012 ). It has a high initial cost to install with a very low cost to operate and maintain, and can generate electricity for a cost as low as 0.02–0.27 US $ KWh (Hermann et al., 2014 ). However, to run a hydro project, it is important to have a source of constant running river with enough speed to power a turbine throughout the year. Specifically, the most sustainable hydropower system is one built on a run-of-river source with a constant and reliable water supply. Otherwise, a large dam or reservoir must be constructed to ensure consistent flow. The size of the water turbine or capacity to generate electricity will depend on the quantity of water flowing through the catchment or mini reservoir (Mishra et al., 2016 ). 3.4.2 Solar energy The CEMAC region possesses vast and largely untapped solar energy potential, with total estimated capacities exceeding 4,000 GW when measured in terms of annual generation potential (Hermann et al., 2014 ). This is the most available energy source in the entire region. The entire Central Africa is exposed to approximately 11 hours of sunlight every day throughout the year, though heavy rains and clouds might interrupt sunshine for some hours. In the Republic of Chad, solar irradiation can reach 6.5Kwh/m 2 /day (Dongsheng et al., 2024 ). Chad stands out as the solar powerhouse, with CSP and PV capacities of approximately 1,172 GW and 1,198 GW, respectively which is suitable for both centralised and decentralised energy systems. Cameroon and the Central African Republic (CAR) follow closely, offering a combined CSP and PV capacity of over 1,500 GW each. These countries present ideal conditions for utility-scale solar developments to support industrialisation and reduce energy costs. In contrast, the Republic of Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea exhibit limited CSP viability (below 1 GW each) but maintain strong PV potential, ranging from 80 GW in Equatorial Guinea to over 770 GW in Congo. This makes PV systems the more practical option for grid expansion and rural electrification. Overall, the region’s abundant solar resources, particularly in Chad, Cameroon, and CAR, position it strategically to lower energy costs and improve energy access through targeted solar investments. Table 4 Hydro and Solar Energy Potential in CEMAC Countries (Source: Dongsheng et al., 2024 ; Hermann et al., 2014 ) CEMAC Member State Hydroelectric potential vs installed capacity Solar energy generation potential Average wind speeds (m/s at 50–100m height) Potential (GW) Installed Capacity (GW) Annual CSP (GW) Annual PV (GW) ASI (KWh /m 2 /day) Cameroun 23 0.80 422.5 1,152 4.5–5.74 2–7 Central Africa Republic 2 - 395.7 602.4 2–5 3–7 Chad - 0.00 1,172.4 1,197.7 4–6.5 2.5–5 Congo Rep 2.5 0.21 0.23 772.7 2–3 2–6 Equatorial Guinea 2.6 0.13 - 80.5 2–2.5 2–6 Gabon 6 0.33 0.68 615.8 2–4 2 Where CSP = Concentrated Solar Power, PV = Photovoltaics, and ASI = Average solar irradiations 3.4.3 Wind energy Wind speeds are not of great quantity in Central Africa, but they are strong enough to generate electricity for some mining activities. For example, Ngwa ( 2023 ) noted that while solar and biomass energy are abundant almost everywhere in Cameroon, wind energy is only feasible in select regions. The minimum wind for a wind turbine to operate is 3.5m/s whereas the maximum wind speed is 25m/s, full production is assured from a rated output speed of 15m/s onwards, as the speed increases above 15m/s, higher winds will not yield more energy as it will remain constant at 15m/s and above (Ayodele et al., 2013 ). Wind turbines are very expensive to install but once installed and operating, it becomes quite affordable to maintain with minimal maintenance costs. Thus, it is one of the cheapest renewable energy sources in terms of operating cost, whereas it has a very high capital cost due to low market competition. The cost of a turbine may vary due to specific parameters such as the location, freight, installation, and contracts. 3.4.4 Biomass residues Biomass is a plant and animal material waste; it’s the oldest source of renewable energy. The entire Central Africa region sits at the equator, making it a rich source for biomass residues that could generate up to 1,000 GWH of electricity. The potential of biomass as a source of energy has been explored in other parts of Africa. For example, biomass accounts for up to 90% of the primary energy supply in Tanzania (Kichonge et al., 2015 ). A simple biomass electricity generation system consists of major components like a fuel storage, handling equipment, furnace for fuel combustion, boiler, pumps, fans, steam turbine, generator, condenser and a cooling tower. But this form of energy should be the last resort because of environmental issues. Thus, to protect the environment, it is advisable to utilise biomass from waste to generate electricity, rather than directly from the natural vegetation or through de-forestation. 3.5 Addressing the Energy Gap The persistent energy deficits observed across the CEMAC region pose significant challenges to the operational efficiency and sustainability of the mining sector. Drawing from the analysis of electricity access, cost structures, and the availability of renewable resources, this section outlines practical, evidence-based recommendations tailored to mining companies operating under constrained energy environments. These insights could help bridge the gap between energy demand and supply, while also promoting resilience, cost-efficiency, and long-term sustainability within the extractive industry of the CEMAC states. 3.5.1 Strategic mine location Delivering electricity at the doorsteps of a consumer, is a giant stride. In Central Africa, the electricity cable network is relatively underdeveloped compared to several other regions around the world. Therefore, any prospecting mining company should consider the proximity of the nearest grid, or the amount of cable required to reach the mine, often at expense of the mining company. A mining activity that requires a grid supply but lacks the financial capacity for an off-grid electricity supply may find it impossible to operate if the mineral deposit is located far from the grid. This makes the proximity of mineral resource to the existing grid lines a strategic consideration in the citing of mining activities. For example, an aluminium smelter, ALUCAM, in Cameroon is located just next door to its 400MW HEPS provider, reducing potential electricity distribution-related costs that arise from the utility (Husband et al., 2009 ). 3.5.2 Investing in Hybrid Energy Systems To address the electricity gap, mining companies could combine diesel generators with solar PV or small-scale hydropower to reduce fuel dependency and operational costs. Nkambule et al. ( 2023 ) explore the potential of hybrid renewable energy systems (HRESs), combining floating solar photovoltaics (FPV), wind turbines, and vanadium redox flow (VRF) battery energy storage systems (BESSs) in the mining sector in South Africa. The study found the hybrid energy systems are economically advantageous, resulting in a significant reduction in the environmental impact of the mining operation. Driven by the ageing coal fleet in the country, a similar study conducted by the CSIR investigates the prospect of a hybrid system to power the South African mining industry, which is necessitated by the rapid rise in electricity costs. The study found that integrating solar source of power with a mix of grid electricity offers significant cost-saving opportunities for the mining industry (Pretorius, 2020 ). To optimise the cost of energy in a hybrid system, the cost per unit of electricity generated when two or more energy sources are combined can be estimated using Eq. ( 1 ) (Nkambule et al., 2023 ): $$\:BCoE=\left(\varSigma\:\right(NPCi)/\varSigma\:(Ei\left)\right)$$ 1 where: BCoE = Blended Cost of Energy NPCi = Net present cost of each energy source/component Ei = Total energy generated by each energy source/component 3.5.3 Energy Efficiency Measures Another initiative that will maximise energy usage is to upgrade machinery and optimize operations to lower electricity demand and reduce energy wastage. As an illustration, in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo, mining operations were found to have the potential to halve energy use simply by improving refinery and processing efficiency, indicating that existing generation capacity could satisfy future demand through enhanced efficiency rather than building new sources (Imasiku & Thomas, 2020 ). With recent innovations, most electrically powered mining equipment has undergone significant changes to reduce power consumption, aligning with the global shift towards renewable energy integration and lowering electricity costs. During equipment selection, mining engineers should prioritise models with low energy demands (in kWh), which are increasingly available in today’s market. For instance, some equipment now operates on gas rather than diesel, offering a cleaner and potentially more cost-effective option in regions with abundant biomass that can be converted into biogas. Similarly, advancements in lighting technology have made it possible, for example, to replace 100-watt bulbs with highly efficient 5-watt LED bulbs, maintaining brightness while drastically reducing energy consumption. This implies that a single 100-watt solar panel could potentially power up to 20 LED bulbs, significantly improving energy efficiency in mine environments. Adopting energy-efficient machinery not only reduces operational costs but also complements the use of hybrid or off-grid renewable energy systems, particularly in remote locations with limited grid access. Mining companies should routinely conduct energy audits to assess equipment efficiency and identify areas where technological upgrades can lead to substantial power savings. 3.5.4 Technical Capacity and Electrical Engineering Expertise The complex nature of mining electrification demands the engagement of skilled electrical engineers and technicians. However, this is a resource that remains scarce in Central Africa, and this hampers the development of resilient and safe energy systems in mines. Africa’s green energy transition has been significantly hindered by a persistent skills gap, particularly in electrical and systems engineering disciplines essential for the design, construction, and maintenance of reliable mining power systems. A report by Payton ( 2024 ) identified the shortage of skill set in the African engineering industry. The report asserts that the continent faces a huge task in preparing its future workforce for opportunities in green industries. To improve energy reliability and reduce inefficiencies, mining companies must prioritise investments in local technical training and capacity development, alongside the establishment of robust preventive maintenance frameworks. 3.5.5 Mining Methods and Energy Use Efficiency The selection of mining and extraction methods exerts a profound influence on electricity consumption. Energy modeling research reveals that core processes, such as rock breaking, excavation, hauling, and milling, can account for up to two-thirds of total mining energy use (Holmberg et al., 2017 ). Consequently, mining engineers should consider non-electric alternatives, such as strategically placed explosives or water-driven mechanical splitters, to precondition materials and reduce downstream energy consumption in crushing and transport. Another strategic initiative involves site-specific planning. One good example is to situate an alluvial gold mining operation near a flowing river which significantly reduces the need for electric water pumping over a long distance. These strategies will improve cost-efficiency in mining operations while also minimising energy usage. 3.5.6 Mineral Type and Geological Terrain The geological characteristics of the orebody and the type of mineral being extracted have direct implications for energy consumption. For instance, mining in mountainous terrains often requires significantly more electricity for transportation due to elevation, especially when using conveyor belts, electric winches, or hoppers. Likewise, commodities such as granite and iron ore are harder (according to Mohs scale of hardness) and thus demand more energy for extraction than softer materials like coal or sandstones. Thus, exploration and junior mining companies should, therefore, consider energy implications when prospecting. Avoiding deeply buried ore bodies or those under thick overburden layers can help reduce electricity costs associated with deep excavation and material handling. The deeper and harder the orebody, the higher the energy input required (Holmberg et al., 2017 ). 3.5.7 Government Legislation and Institutional Commitment Governments in the CEMAC region must prioritise energy sector reforms to enable and encourage off-grid, renewable, and efficient electricity production in the mining industry. A well-structured legal framework, such as enabling cross-border electricity trade, can make power more affordable and stimulate private-sector investment in clean energy technologies. Public-private partnerships and stakeholder engagement are essential to drive innovation and uptake of decentralised energy solutions in the mining sector. Additionally, governments can enhance small-scale mining productivity by subsidising electricity costs for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) operators, thereby reducing barriers to entry (Corbett et al., 2017 ). Regulation of electricity tariffs must balance affordability with infrastructure development. While high prices may incentivise the construction of new power infrastructure, they can also deter investment if not carefully managed. Cross-border electricity transmission agreements, such as those between the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Republic of Congo, demonstrate the potential of regional cooperation in enhancing power availability, even if the exporting country is not energy-surplus but seeks to monetise excess generation. Cross-border electricity trade frameworks, such as those facilitated by African power pools, have demonstrated the potential to lower generation costs by up to USD 0.07 per kWh through regional interconnectivity (Alleyne, 2013 ). 3.6 Renewable Energy Options for Mining: Cost and Feasibility Many factors must be considered to achieve a successful integration of renewable energy sources into mining operations, including technical, regulatory, and environmental aspects, as well as ethical considerations: each of these factors will impact on the applicability of the new energy resource. Another challenge is that it is often difficult for renewable energy source, particularly wind and solar, to generate high kilowatt-hours of electricity, except at a significant initial capital cost. In this regard, Hydroelectric power (HEP) is the most effective because it will produce stable and efficient electricity supply. Although the HEPS has a relatively high initial capital costs, the operating or maintaining costs are usually low with a high return on investment (ROA). Thus, based on this analysis, a small hydro project (SHP), also known as mini HEPS is usually more suited for a prospective mining company willing to invest to address its energy gap in Central Africa. Overall, Table 5 presents a comparative overview of estimated installation costs for four renewable energy technologies: Hydropower Energy Systems (HEPS), solar, wind, and biomass, across three categories of mining operations: artisanal, small-scale, and large-scale mining. The pair “costs” and “feasibility” should always be considered simultaneously. An artisanal mine may require less electricity supply between 100W to 10kW, it can increase to 100kW for a small scale mine and a megawatt for larger mines. These findings indicate that the capital intensity of renewable energy deployment in mining varies according to operational scale. A guide on estimated electricity installation costs for various scales of mining operation is shown in Table 5 . Table 5 Mining activities and electricity installation costs in US $ (Source Maehlum, 2025 ; Rinkesh, 2025 ; WBDG, 2011 ; Renewables First, 2015 ) Type of mining activity Power demand (Consumption) Installation Costs in (US $ ) HEPS Solar Wind Biomass Artisanal Mining 100W-10KW 1,500 − 100,000 1,500 − 50,000 ↑ 28,000 400 − 40,000 Small-Scale 10KW-100KW ↑800,000 ↑700,000 ↑48,000 40,000-300,000 Large Mines 100KW-1MW(s) ↑1million ↑1.5million ↑2 million > 2.5 million “↑” = (prices can vary up to that amount or more) 4. Concluding Remarks This study examined critically the impact of electricity costs on the viability and sustainability of mining operations among the CEMAC states of central Africa. The comparative analytic method adopted in the study helped in comparing energy access, generation, pricing and consumption among the CEMAC countries. This analysis is also supported by empirical findings from literature, which helped in drawing inferences on sustainability of energy in the region, especially for mining operations. The study highlights the variability of electricity access among the CEMAC countries, with Gabon having the highest access rate of 91% while only 6.4% of Chadians have access to electricity. Similarly, the energy consumption per capita across CEMAC countries reveals stark disparities that reflect underlying issues of affordability, access, and energy system efficiency: Gabon records the highest energy consumption per capita at 1,065 kWh/year, while Chad, with only 14 kWh of energy per year, has extremely low per capita consumption, indicating limited access, unaffordability, or both. The notable challenges associated with electricity generation across the CEMAC countries include infrastructure deficit, overreliance on fossil fuels, and limited deployment of renewable energy. Specifically, the infrastructural deficit in the region as well as the fragmented energy policies hinder regional cooperation and investment in the states. The recorded challenges in power generation and distribution in the region have immense implications on the mining sector with most mining companies needing to self-generate their own electricity to power their operations through diesel-powered generating sets. This has implications on the cost efficiency as well as the sustainability of the operations. Thus, this study further examined the renewable energy potential across the states of CEMAC. It was found that the region has immense renewable energy potential in hydro, solar, wind and biomass. Specifically, it was found that even though solar energy is the most available with the Central African region been exposed to approximately 11 hours of sunlight every day throughout the year, they remain largely untapped. Furthermore, considering the intensity of capital required to develop a solar power system or a wind farm that will generate significant energy to power a mine, hydroelectric energy systems (HEPS) may be more suited for energy generation to fill the energy gap in the region, especially for mining purposes. Holistically, unlocking the full potential of the mining sectors of the CEMAC states will involve the introduction of strategic regulation, regional energy planning, and investment in renewable energy infrastructures. The study recommends that future studies deepen the empirical base of this research using field data to model energy consumption patterns as well as socio-environmental implications of renewable energy sources. This will help formulate and develop policies that aide sustainable energy delivery to power the emerging mining sectors of the CEMAC states. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7345397","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":500726608,"identity":"1882205d-6ff7-4dce-9be1-8598d25a1231","order_by":0,"name":"Ewembe Yuka Fontama","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Johannesburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ewembe","middleName":"Yuka","lastName":"Fontama","suffix":""},{"id":500726610,"identity":"458fef8c-b97a-43ca-befb-c34f6a8cd10d","order_by":1,"name":"Steven Michael Rupprecht","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Johannesburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Steven","middleName":"Michael","lastName":"Rupprecht","suffix":""},{"id":500726612,"identity":"b17ef31c-4047-4302-a0d0-e01a7063be2e","order_by":2,"name":"Olushola Daniel Eniowo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAu0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCA0AsB6FI0WJMmhYQSGwgWik/e+/BAx/bbNI3HDzA+OEHQ508QS2SPecSDs5sS8vdcOAAs2QPA5shQesMbuQYHObddhikhUGagYGHkbCW+2/AWtINgLb8ZmCQsCfCFh6wlgSgFjagLQaEw0GyJ8fg4Mx/aYYzDxxss+wxSEgmqIWf/Yzxhw9nbOT5bhw+fONHRZ0tQS0IIHEQqNiAePUg+0gwfhSMglEwCkYWAAArKkDJq8sV9wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Johannesburg","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Olushola","middleName":"Daniel","lastName":"Eniowo","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-11 10:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7345397/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7345397/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-026-00621-2","type":"published","date":"2026-03-30T15:58:07+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89454654,"identity":"55995fe2-ef56-4ecb-878a-83a010fddc25","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-20 06:47:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22753,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSplit of energy consumption across the mining industry (Source: Allen, 2021)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7345397/v1/5bbfee335960e32c6528a156.jpg"},{"id":89454659,"identity":"af0346c1-f04f-4d56-b8df-50b2d2800e58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-20 06:47:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99028,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap showing the CEMAC countries in Central African region\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7345397/v1/68b4badc37528c883fdeb0e6.jpg"},{"id":89454657,"identity":"a25fd4dd-1ef1-4775-9c67-4670ceea93f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-20 06:47:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48592,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEnergy Consumption per capita across CEMAC countries (CountryEconomy, 2023; IEA, 2023b))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7345397/v1/8c1c7580c0183558fd2a17a7.jpg"},{"id":89455829,"identity":"2c421e56-7908-4193-ba68-5ce0c80be192","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-20 06:55:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47206,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eElectricity Tariffs across CEMAC Countries (Source: Ranganathan et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7345397/v1/0d132d05f95e407cfcc596e7.jpg"},{"id":89456318,"identity":"9372548a-74ad-48ac-962d-1a26872dbb02","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-20 07:03:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52456,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiesel Price Trend in Cameroon (2020 – 2024)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7345397/v1/a2d76510c9791d322c16aeb7.jpg"},{"id":106343575,"identity":"6b8b2653-f14e-482b-be1e-27045122f524","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:06:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1424529,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7345397/v1/c46ed843-42ef-4bc0-8d86-ce7ef1b0bf8f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Evaluating Energy Costs for Sustainable Mining: The Case of CEMAC in Central Africa","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe mining industry is energy intensive, consuming up to 38% of global industrial energy use, 15% of the global electricity use, and 11% of global energy use (Igogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The industry requires significant use of energy being a primary industry that produces essential resources for global trends from economic growth, through urbanisation to decarbonisation (Allen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Aramendia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The industry is critical source of raw materials for many industries such as manufacturing, construction, transportation, energy, and the mining industry itself (Igogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is expected that demand for raw materials needed for economic growth will increase as the population grows and many low-income economies shift to middle income status (MIT, 2016). Ballantyne and Powell (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) found that comminution\u0026mdash;reduction of particle sizes of mined materials\u0026mdash;of gold and copper ores consumes up to 0.2% of global and 1.3% of Australia\u0026rsquo;s electricity consumption, indicating that some critical components of the mining value-chain require significantly more energy use than others.(Allen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) describes comminution as the largest energy consumer in a mining operation, consuming about 40% of the total energy. Also, some important factors do affect the level of energy consumption of a mine. As an illustration, low grade minerals usually require higher per unit energy costs, since more waste materials need to be moved to recover the per unit mass of such mineral resource. Thus, as the quality of mineral deposits decreases, the corresponding energy requirement tends to increase (Aramendia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It is forecasted that the future mineral demand and the final energy consumption per unit mass of mineral extracted (energy intensities of mining) will likely increase due to a decrease in mineral resource deposit qualities. This will lead to a corresponding increase in the mining industry\u0026rsquo;s final energy consumption in the future (Aramendia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the increase in demand for mineral resources, combined with declining mineral ore grades, is expected to increase energy demands of the mining industry (Igogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotwithstanding the immense cost implications of energy usage in mining, it remains a critical requirement of the operations. Without sustainable electricity supply, most mining activities become practically impossible since mine equipment is mostly powered by electricity (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for split energy consumption in the industry). Several mining operations depend on electric power with most of them being fossil fuel-fired (Igogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), leading to significant cost implications on mining companies. Since energy-related carbon dioxide emissions represent two-thirds of all greenhouse gases, a transition towards cleaner sources of energy becomes essential (Srivastava \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, as global efforts towards climate change mitigation intensify, transitioning to cleaner energy alternatives has become not only an environmental necessity but also a strategic imperative for the long-term sustainability of the industry (Amegboleza \u0026amp; \u0026Uuml;lk\u0026uuml;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, studies have shown that adopting renewable energies in mining could reduce operational energy costs by as much as 50% in some remote mining locations (Amegboleza \u0026amp; \u0026Uuml;lk\u0026uuml;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). As affordability and reliability are the two primary considerations for adoption of energy source in the mining industry, operators have been considering renewable energy sources, especially since the costs for solar, wind and battery storage systems have been decreasing in recent times (Maennling \u0026amp; Toledano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Central Africa, the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC), comprising Cameroon, Chad, Gabon, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic (CAR), and Equatorial Guinea, came into effect in 1994. It was the culmination of a process that began in 1962, when the treaty establishing the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) was signed in Brazzaville. It later came into effect in 1966 (Diaw \u0026amp; Lessoua, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The CEMAC\u0026rsquo;s primary goal is to develop harmonious relations among its member states by strengthening economic and trade ties (Diaw \u0026amp; Lessoua, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The CEMAC countries rely heavily on the extractive industry for their development (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for the various mineral resources across the region). Kibangou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) asserts that it is a central theme for countries in this region to exploit natural resources provided by nature in their natural forms, namely solid, liquid and gaseous forms, for mineral, oil and gas resources, respectively. Thus, the extractive industry represents a significant share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and export earnings of each of these countries. As an illustration, in the year 2005, the subsurface resources in exports of countries in the region, according to the Bank of Central African States (BEAC) were: Cameroon (more than 60%), Central African Republic (49%), Chad (86%), Gabon (90%), Equatorial Guinea (91%), and the Republic of the Congo (92%) (Kibangou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCEMAC Countries and major mineral resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCountries\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMajor Mineral Resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCameroon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBauxite, Limestone, Cobalt, Diamonds, Gold, Iron Ore, Nickel, Uranium, Granite, Sandstones, Nepheline Syenite, Rutile, Pozzolana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Szczesniak \u0026amp; Chung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Thomas, 2012)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral African Republic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCopper, Diamond, Gold, Graphite, Ilmenite, Iron Ore, Kaolin, Kyanite, Lignite, Limestone, Manganese, Monazite, Quartz, Rutile, Salt, Tin, Uranium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(AZO Mining, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Barry \u0026amp; Moon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChad\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSodium Carbonate, Bauxite, Gold, Uranium, Tin, Tungsten\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Szczesniak \u0026amp; Plaza-Toledo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCongo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIron Ore, Magnesium, Diamonds, Potash, Phosphate, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Gold\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Pujols, Edgardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEquatorial Guinea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGold, Diamond, Tantalite, Clay, Granite, Sand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Barry, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGabon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManganese, Potash, Uranium, Niobium, Iron Ore, Lead, Zinc, Diamonds, Marble, Phosphate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Perez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the potential of the mining industry in this region has been negatively impacted by energy challenges. In the CEMAC, energy supply is a critical barrier to the sustainability of mining operations. The electricity supply in the Central Africa is poorly distributed and relatively inefficient. In the year 2020, Central Africa\u0026rsquo;s installed electricity capacity was 13.81 GW, primarily from hydroelectricity and followed by thermal energy (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). There is significant potential for renewable energy, but this remains mostly underutilised (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In Cameroun, the installed energy production remains well below demand due to its growing population and new industrialisation (Ngono \u0026amp; Ndzana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, in the DRC, the electrification rate remains low at 9.6% with an installed capacity of just 2790 MW (Imasiku \u0026amp; Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, the mining industry across the CEMAC region faces persistent challenges linked to high and unstable energy costs, unreliable infrastructure, and limited access to sustainable energy sources. These energy-related issues significantly increase operational expenses, reduce competitiveness, and hinder the adoption of environmentally sustainable mining practices. Despite the region\u0026rsquo;s mineral wealth, inadequate energy policies and weak integration of renewable technologies continue to threaten long-term mining sustainability and regional economic development(Allen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; World Bank Group, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between energy pricing, energy efficiency, and sustainable mining practices within the unique geopolitical and infrastructural context of the CEMAC region. The dearth of such studies in the existing body of knowledge, necessitates this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe primary question to be addressed in this article is, how do energy costs impact the economic and environmental sustainability of mining activities in the CEMAC region? The subsequent section of this article discusses the methodology for this study which covers discussion on the study area, data sources, analytical methods and justification for the adopted method. Then the results and analysis are outlined focusing on energy cost profiles across CEMAC countries, impact of energy pricing on mining profitability and sustainability practices. Discussions are then provided based on the results of the study. This covers interpretations of findings in relation to global mining trends, implications for sustainable mining policy in the CEMAC region and the role of regional cooperation in reducing energy costs burdens. Finally, conclusion and policy recommendations are provided based on the findings of the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 The study area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) region, which comprises six member states: Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Located in the heart of Central Africa, the region is rich in natural resources, including oil, gold, cobalt, iron ore, bauxite, and other strategic minerals (Szczesniak \u0026amp; Chung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The CEMAC countries share a common currency (the XAF CFA Franc), monetary policy, and trade policy (Mien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For of the countries in the bloc, crude oil represents a large share of total exports (from 36% in Cameroon to 74% in Chad in 2019) (Mien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, mining activities are critical to the economic development of CEMAC countries, contributing significantly to export revenues and GDP. Geographically, the region spans tropical rainforest zones in the south (notably Gabon and Congo) to semi-arid zones in the north (such as northern Chad). This presents logistical and infrastructural challenges for resource extraction and energy distribution. The mining sector across the region is highly dependent on fossil-based energy, with limited integration of renewables due to policy, financial, and technological constraints. Additionally, frequent power outages, high electricity tariffs, and inadequate transmission infrastructure exacerbate operational inefficiencies in the mining value chain. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the location and boundaries of the six CEMAC member states within Central Africa which provide the spatial context for this study\u0026rsquo;s analysis of energy costs and mining sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic indicators of CEMAC countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Source: worldometers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCEMAC Countries\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand Area (Km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePopulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNominal GDP per capita in \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnemployment (year of estimate)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCameroon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e475,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29,839,857\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,700\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.18 (2021)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral African Republic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e623,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,513,282\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e548\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5% (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepublic of the Congo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e342,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,476,532\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,384\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53% (2012|)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGabon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e268,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,590,305\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,257\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20% (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEquatorial Guinea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,936,033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,755\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.7% (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChad\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,259,200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,966,754\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Research Approach\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employs a qualitative, exploratory research design in line with (Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). It adopts a desk-based literature review approach with comparative analysis. Desk review involves examining the existing documents or data related to a specific topic to gather information. The research employs the use of secondary data from publicly available energy reports, mining sector statistics, and published academic literature. A comparative framework is used to analyse electricity generation, pricing, and consumption across CEMAC countries, thereby drawing implications for sustainable mining operations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a desk review combined with a comparative analysis as its primary research approach. The desk review involves the systematic collection and synthesis of existing data from reputable sources such as government reports, academic journals, multilateral development agencies (e.g., AfDB, World Bank, IEA), and industry publications. This method is particularly appropriate for studies examining regional patterns of energy costs and mining sustainability, as it enables the integration of diverse datasets across multiple countries in a cost- and time-efficient manner (Snyder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe comparative analysis framework allows for a structured evaluation of key variables, such as electricity tariffs, mining energy consumption, and sustainability, across the six CEMAC countries. This is essential for identifying similarities, disparities, and systemic challenges within the region. Comparative analysis is especially suitable in regions like CEMAC, where cross-national policy, economic integration, and infrastructural development are interlinked but unevenly implemented. Given the limitations of primary data availability and the regional scope of the study, a desk-based comparative approach ensures both breadth and depth of analysis while maintaining methodological rigour.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Analysis","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Energy Access across the CEMAC countries\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are three major structures managing electricity in each of the CEMAC countries. The first is the power utility company, which produces and sells on-grid electricity to the entire population. Next are the regulators who regulate prices, consumption, production and distribution. Finally, there is a third party called Central Africa Power Pool (CAPP), which oversees energy policies and infrastructures of member states of this economic region called Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) comprising of ten states, out of which six are from the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC). Other partners include the Central African States Development Bank (CASDB), European Union (EU), Islamic Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, African Development Bank (AfDB), Southern African Power Pool (SAPP), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), China, France, Spain and Japan all financing electricity production and rural electrification in the form of loans and grants (AfDB, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Their aim is to increase electricity infrastructures and make it more available to the population in dire need through the provision of finances, expertise and lifting other barriers (PEAC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In recent years, there has been significant progress in the region with construction of dams and gas plants going on, but many challenges remain.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, despite shared regional ambitions for economic integration, energy access across CEMAC countries shows significant disparity. This contrast, on the one hand, underscores deep infrastructural and policy gaps. On the other hand, the contrast exposes the current level of political and economic asymmetries in the CEMAC bloc. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Gabon demonstrates the highest electricity access rate in the region at 91%, indicative of relatively advanced grid infrastructure and sustained government commitment to energy provision. However, despite its commendable coverage, the country's minimal utilization of its abundant renewable energy resources\u0026mdash;particularly hydropower\u0026mdash;suggests a latent opportunity for diversification and sustainability enhancement. Equatorial Guinea, with an access rate of 66%, also possesses considerable hydroelectric potential. Nonetheless, the country exhibits an over-dependence on fossil fuels, particularly oil, which has impeded the scale-up of renewable energy investments. This reliance exposes the energy sector to exogenous shocks tied to global oil market fluctuations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCameroon achieves a moderate access rate of 64%. However, energy delivery in the country is characterized by frequent power outages and chronic infrastructural deficits, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas. These operational inefficiencies significantly affect the reliability and quality of supply. By contrast, the Republic of Congo, with 49.5% access. The nation\u0026rsquo;s outdated transmission and distribution systems further hinder efforts to expand access, particularly to underserved populations. However, the energy access landscape is dire in the Central African Republic (15.5%) and Chad (6.4%), both of which face multifaceted barriers. In the CAR, the lack of infrastructure and limited accessibility to grid services are exacerbated by political instability. Chad, meanwhile, grapples with administrative inefficiencies, corruption, and a fragile financial system that collectively inhibit investment in grid expansion and off-grid alternatives (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparative electricity access rate, hydro and solar potential of the six CEMAC member states\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Source: Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Hermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCEMAC Member State\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectricity Access Rate (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssociated Challenges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCameroon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequent outages, infrastructural deficit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral African Republic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSevere accessibility limitations, infrastructural deficit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChad\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorruption, administrative bottlenecks, financial insecurity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCongo Rep.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdated infrastructure, energy inefficiency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEquatorial Guinea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver-reliance on oil, limited renewable deployment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGabon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinimal use of vast renewable resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Energy cost profiles across CEMAC countries\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe costs of energy sources can be viewed from two lenses. First is the capital requirement of acquiring energy sources that will power the mine plants and trucks. These energy costs typically comprise one of the most significant ongoing costs of mining operations. For example, up to 70% of the total energy costs is devoted to the comminution of the ore alone (Curry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, another dimension of cost that needs to be considered is the environment cost. This latter dimension has become more paramount considering the perceived negative tendencies of the mining industry in terms of greenhouse gas footprint (Igogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Around the world\u0026mdash;in countries ranging from India to South Africa, Turkey to the Philippines, Australia, Poland, the United States, and China\u0026mdash;health voices have begun to emerge, agitating for the abandonment of extractive, polluting, unhealthy energy sources such as coal and the shift to clean, renewable, healthy alternatives (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, Igogo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) argued that renewable energy should be integrated into the extraction, processing, and refining phases of mineral production, including, but not limited to, transportation, drilling, digging, loading, and power generation for mine sites without grid connection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe energy consumption per capita across CEMAC countries reveals stark disparities that reflect underlying issues of affordability, access, and energy system efficiency. As depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Gabon records the highest energy consumption per capita at 1,065 kWh/year, followed by Equatorial Guinea (745 kWh/year) and the Republic of Congo (459 kWh/year). These higher values suggest relatively better energy infrastructure and potentially more affordable or subsidized electricity costs that facilitate broader consumption. On the other hand, the Central African Republic (25 kWh/year) and Chad (14 kWh/year) have extremely low per capita consumption, indicating limited access, unaffordability, or both. Despite having an installed capacity of 63 MW and generating 142 GWh annually, the Central African Republic's consumption remains among the lowest, pointing to transmission challenges, high costs for end-users, and unreliable service delivery. Cameroon, with a per capita consumption of 284 kWh per year, falls within the middle range but still lags significantly behind the CEMAC average. This suggests that although Cameroon has a larger energy infrastructure, inefficiencies and pricing constraints may be suppressing actual usage. Specifically, Cameroon has the third largest hydroelectric potential, with a theoretical annual capacity of approximately 294 TWh (equivalent to 23 GW). Nevertheless, only 5% of the country\u0026rsquo;s hydro potential has been explored (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe distribution of consumption levels indirectly highlights the cost profiles of electricity in each country: where electricity is more affordable and reliable, consumption is higher; where it is costly or unavailable, usage is severely constrained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectricity tariffs across CEMAC member states display considerable variation, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. This variation is shaped by differences in generation technologies, fuel dependency, subsidy structures, and regulatory capacity (Ranganathan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Countries such as Chad and the Central African Republic have some of the highest average electricity tariffs in the region, estimated at \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e0.30/kWh and \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e0.15/kWh, respectively, despite having some of the lowest electrification rates (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This discrepancy points to structural inefficiencies and a heavy reliance on costly, diesel-based generation in off-grid or poorly interconnected areas (IEA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, nations like Gabon and Cameroon report lower tariffs (approximately \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e0.117/kWh and \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e0.109/kWh), aided by relatively stronger grid infrastructure and hydropower utilisation (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, these rates do not always reflect electricity affordability or service reliability, particularly in rural and mining-intensive regions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to note, however, that this discussion on electricity tariffs is constrained by the absence of up-to-date, publicly available tariff data across all CEMAC countries. Most available figures are several years old, and tariff structures in some countries are not fully transparent. As a result, while the presented trends offer useful insights, they may not fully capture recent policy reforms, fuel price fluctuations, or infrastructure changes that could significantly impact tariff levels today. Despite these limitations, the observed variations have clear implications for energy-intensive sectors such as mining, where high tariffs and unreliable supply often necessitate off-grid generation, typically through diesel or hybrid systems, which can further isolate operations from national energy planning frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Implications of energy costs on the Mining Sector\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo attract mining investors, a country must have an efficient electricity infrastructure and a reliable distribution network. Many of these small states have failed to upgrade and properly maintain their power grids over the past 30 years (AfDB, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, they experience frequent blackouts, load shedding, and low voltage supply. Lack of access to energy remains a critical concern inhibiting development. Today, a large proportion of people do not have access to \u0026ldquo;modern\u0026rdquo; aspects of energy such as electricity and renewable energy. Traditional fuels meet most of the energy demand. However, they are very inefficient, and cause significant health problems and air pollution (F\u0026eacute;lix et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This may be one of the key reasons why mineral-rich regions of Africa remain underdeveloped in terms of mining activities, with much of their mineral wealth still locked up in-situ. With the goal of industrialising the region by 2035, the quality and capacity of electricity supply in the CEMAC region must be improved and expanded by more than 60% to meet this target and attract increased mining investment (AfDB, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe limited supply of electricity from national grids across many CEMAC countries has compelled mining companies to depend heavily on self-generated energy, primarily through diesel-powered plants. This reliance on off-grid, fossil-fuel-based energy sources not only escalates operational expenditures but also introduces significant volatility due to fluctuating global fuel prices. Moreover, it undermines the sector\u0026rsquo;s sustainability efforts by increasing carbon emissions, thereby posing both economic and environmental challenges to mining operations in the region. The huge power generating plants used by these companies consume a significant volume of diesel fuel. For example, a single mine could store up to 100,000litres of diesel fuel on-site to supply diesel generators. Electricity produced by diesel generator will cost six times more than that of an on-grid power line (Castellano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the use of fossil fuel at mining sites has been described as a significant operational cost of companies in the industry (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe procurement, handling, and transportation of diesel fuel represent significant cost components in mining operations across Central Africa, compounded by persistently high pump prices. Since the early 2000s, oil prices have exhibited a steady upward trajectory due to a combination of global oil market volatility, supply chain disruptions, and domestic distribution-related issues (Mien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). According to recent estimates, the average cost of diesel in Central African countries is approximately \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.46 per litre, placing a considerable burden on energy-intensive sectors such as mining (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, for the diesel price trend in Cameroon since year 2020). Due to the limited accessibility of diesel, particularly in remote mining regions, many companies are compelled to construct on-site storage facilities to mitigate supply risks and ensure operational continuity. This decentralised energy model, while necessary, further escalates capital and operational expenditures, highlighting the broader implications of fuel cost dynamics on extractive industries in the region. In the existing dynamics, consumers are usually the ones to suffer the most from the high cost of electricity, as the costs are usually pushed to them by the mineral producers. This has an immense impact on economic growth and prosperity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of diesel to power the mining plants and trucks has also been described as a significant source of both local particulate matter and air pollution, as well as the release of Green House Gases (GHGs) (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, mining companies are now exploring cleaner alternative energy sources. As global climate change mitigation efforts intensify, transitioning to cleaner energy alternatives has become not only an environmental necessity but also a strategic imperative for the long-term sustainability of the industry (Amegboleza \u0026amp; \u0026Uuml;lk\u0026uuml;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The next section of this paper discusses the existing and potential renewable energy infrastructure that can be tapped by mining companies in the CEMAC region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Renewable Energy Resources in the CEMAC countries\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) region is endowed with abundant renewable energy (RE) resources, particularly hydropower, solar, wind, and biomass. Yet, their exploitation remains limited and uneven across member states. The region\u0026rsquo;s RE potential is significant, with estimates of 234 GW for biomass, 874 GW for concentrated solar-thermal power (CSP), 1989 GW for solar photovoltaic (PV), and 771 GW for wind energy (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Across the world, several countries, both in emerging and developed nations, are pursuing ambitious RE initiatives to reduce their carbon footprint and meet international climate commitments (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, recent studies are exploring the potential benefits of investments in RE resources. For example, Dalei and Gupta (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) argue that onshore wind and solar technology projects have proved to be of low-risk and have drawn the attention of investors in such energy sources for their projects. However, Dongsheng et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) asserts that despite being richly endowed with RE resources, the CEMAC states face significant challenges in harnessing their RE potential due to outdated infrastructure, regulatory barriers, and corruption. This section examines the existing renewable energy landscape in the region and explores strategies for optimizing their development and integration into national energy systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Hydro-Electric Energy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydropower, large and small, remains by far the most important of the renewable sources for electrical power generation worldwide, providing 19% of the planet\u0026rsquo;s electricity (Mishra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Hydro-Electric Power Stations (HEPS) are the most efficient source of electricity in the CEMAC region with many rivers flowing from north to south. Cameroon, for example, has the third-largest hydropower potential in Africa, with a theoretical capacity of 294 TWh per year (approximately 23GW), even though only 5% of this hydro potentials have been exploited (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). HEPS offers the most likely source of electricity with desirable outputs for a mine. The current installed hydropower capacity in the CEMAC countries is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The major advantage of HEPS is that they can produce relatively cheap electricity up to a megawatt which can be enough to power a mine and allow for excess electricity, which the mine could then sell to the grid. Across the world, nations are now leveraging on the construction of small hydro project (SHP) to address energy short falls. Although, the definition of SHPs varies significantly from one country to another, a common classification used for the varying degrees of SHPs generally, ranges from Pico-hydro (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10KW), Micro-hydro (10-100KW), Mini-hydro (100KW \u0026ndash; 1MW) and a Small-hydro (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1MW) (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). It has a high initial cost to install with a very low cost to operate and maintain, and can generate electricity for a cost as low as 0.02\u0026ndash;0.27 US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eKWh (Hermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, to run a hydro project, it is important to have a source of constant running river with enough speed to power a turbine throughout the year. Specifically, the most sustainable hydropower system is one built on a run-of-river source with a constant and reliable water supply. Otherwise, a large dam or reservoir must be constructed to ensure consistent flow. The size of the water turbine or capacity to generate electricity will depend on the quantity of water flowing through the catchment or mini reservoir (Mishra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Solar energy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe CEMAC region possesses vast and largely untapped solar energy potential, with total estimated capacities exceeding 4,000 GW when measured in terms of annual generation potential (Hermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This is the most available energy source in the entire region. The entire Central Africa is exposed to approximately 11 hours of sunlight every day throughout the year, though heavy rains and clouds might interrupt sunshine for some hours. In the Republic of Chad, solar irradiation can reach 6.5Kwh/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/day (Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Chad stands out as the solar powerhouse, with CSP and PV capacities of approximately 1,172 GW and 1,198 GW, respectively which is suitable for both centralised and decentralised energy systems. Cameroon and the Central African Republic (CAR) follow closely, offering a combined CSP and PV capacity of over 1,500 GW each. These countries present ideal conditions for utility-scale solar developments to support industrialisation and reduce energy costs. In contrast, the Republic of Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea exhibit limited CSP viability (below 1 GW each) but maintain strong PV potential, ranging from 80 GW in Equatorial Guinea to over 770 GW in Congo. This makes PV systems the more practical option for grid expansion and rural electrification. Overall, the region\u0026rsquo;s abundant solar resources, particularly in Chad, Cameroon, and CAR, position it strategically to lower energy costs and improve energy access through targeted solar investments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydro and Solar Energy Potential in CEMAC Countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Source: Dongsheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Hermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCEMAC Member State\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydroelectric potential vs installed capacity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolar energy generation potential\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage wind speeds (m/s at 50\u0026ndash;100m height)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotential (GW)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstalled Capacity (GW)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnual CSP (GW)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnual PV (GW)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASI (KWh /m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/day)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCameroun\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e422.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,152\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.5\u0026ndash;5.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral Africa Republic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e395.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e602.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChad\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,172.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,197.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;6.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026ndash;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCongo Rep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e772.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEquatorial Guinea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;2.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGabon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e615.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhere CSP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Concentrated Solar Power, PV\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Photovoltaics, and ASI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Average solar irradiations\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Wind energy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWind speeds are not of great quantity in Central Africa, but they are strong enough to generate electricity for some mining activities. For example, Ngwa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) noted that while solar and biomass energy are abundant almost everywhere in Cameroon, wind energy is only feasible in select regions. The minimum wind for a wind turbine to operate is 3.5m/s whereas the maximum wind speed is 25m/s, full production is assured from a rated output speed of 15m/s onwards, as the speed increases above 15m/s, higher winds will not yield more energy as it will remain constant at 15m/s and above (Ayodele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Wind turbines are very expensive to install but once installed and operating, it becomes quite affordable to maintain with minimal maintenance costs. Thus, it is one of the cheapest renewable energy sources in terms of operating cost, whereas it has a very high capital cost due to low market competition. The cost of a turbine may vary due to specific parameters such as the location, freight, installation, and contracts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Biomass residues\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiomass is a plant and animal material waste; it\u0026rsquo;s the oldest source of renewable energy. The entire Central Africa region sits at the equator, making it a rich source for biomass residues that could generate up to 1,000 GWH of electricity. The potential of biomass as a source of energy has been explored in other parts of Africa. For example, biomass accounts for up to 90% of the primary energy supply in Tanzania (Kichonge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). A simple biomass electricity generation system consists of major components like a fuel storage, handling equipment, furnace for fuel combustion, boiler, pumps, fans, steam turbine, generator, condenser and a cooling tower. But this form of energy should be the last resort because of environmental issues. Thus, to protect the environment, it is advisable to utilise biomass from waste to generate electricity, rather than directly from the natural vegetation or through de-forestation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Addressing the Energy Gap\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe persistent energy deficits observed across the CEMAC region pose significant challenges to the operational efficiency and sustainability of the mining sector. Drawing from the analysis of electricity access, cost structures, and the availability of renewable resources, this section outlines practical, evidence-based recommendations tailored to mining companies operating under constrained energy environments. These insights could help bridge the gap between energy demand and supply, while also promoting resilience, cost-efficiency, and long-term sustainability within the extractive industry of the CEMAC states.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.1 Strategic mine location\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDelivering electricity at the doorsteps of a consumer, is a giant stride. In Central Africa, the electricity cable network is relatively underdeveloped compared to several other regions around the world. Therefore, any prospecting mining company should consider the proximity of the nearest grid, or the amount of cable required to reach the mine, often at expense of the mining company. A mining activity that requires a grid supply but lacks the financial capacity for an off-grid electricity supply may find it impossible to operate if the mineral deposit is located far from the grid. This makes the proximity of mineral resource to the existing grid lines a strategic consideration in the citing of mining activities. For example, an aluminium smelter, ALUCAM, in Cameroon is located just next door to its 400MW HEPS provider, reducing potential electricity distribution-related costs that arise from the utility (Husband et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.2 Investing in Hybrid Energy Systems\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address the electricity gap, mining companies could combine diesel generators with solar PV or small-scale hydropower to reduce fuel dependency and operational costs. Nkambule et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) explore the potential of hybrid renewable energy systems (HRESs), combining floating solar photovoltaics (FPV), wind turbines, and vanadium redox flow (VRF) battery energy storage systems (BESSs) in the mining sector in South Africa. The study found the hybrid energy systems are economically advantageous, resulting in a significant reduction in the environmental impact of the mining operation. Driven by the ageing coal fleet in the country, a similar study conducted by the CSIR investigates the prospect of a hybrid system to power the South African mining industry, which is necessitated by the rapid rise in electricity costs. The study found that integrating solar source of power with a mix of grid electricity offers significant cost-saving opportunities for the mining industry (Pretorius, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo optimise the cost of energy in a hybrid system, the cost per unit of electricity generated when two or more energy sources are combined can be estimated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) (Nkambule et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:BCoE=\\left(\\varSigma\\:\\right(NPCi)/\\varSigma\\:(Ei\\left)\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBCoE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Blended Cost of Energy\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNPCi\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Net present cost of each energy source/component\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEi\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Total energy generated by each energy source/component\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.3 Energy Efficiency Measures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother initiative that will maximise energy usage is to upgrade machinery and optimize operations to lower electricity demand and reduce energy wastage. As an illustration, in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo, mining operations were found to have the potential to halve energy use simply by improving refinery and processing efficiency, indicating that existing generation capacity could satisfy future demand through enhanced efficiency rather than building new sources (Imasiku \u0026amp; Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). With recent innovations, most electrically powered mining equipment has undergone significant changes to reduce power consumption, aligning with the global shift towards renewable energy integration and lowering electricity costs. During equipment selection, mining engineers should prioritise models with low energy demands (in kWh), which are increasingly available in today\u0026rsquo;s market. For instance, some equipment now operates on gas rather than diesel, offering a cleaner and potentially more cost-effective option in regions with abundant biomass that can be converted into biogas. Similarly, advancements in lighting technology have made it possible, for example, to replace 100-watt bulbs with highly efficient 5-watt LED bulbs, maintaining brightness while drastically reducing energy consumption. This implies that a single 100-watt solar panel could potentially power up to 20 LED bulbs, significantly improving energy efficiency in mine environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdopting energy-efficient machinery not only reduces operational costs but also complements the use of hybrid or off-grid renewable energy systems, particularly in remote locations with limited grid access. Mining companies should routinely conduct energy audits to assess equipment efficiency and identify areas where technological upgrades can lead to substantial power savings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.4 Technical Capacity and Electrical Engineering Expertise\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe complex nature of mining electrification demands the engagement of skilled electrical engineers and technicians. However, this is a resource that remains scarce in Central Africa, and this hampers the development of resilient and safe energy systems in mines. Africa\u0026rsquo;s green energy transition has been significantly hindered by a persistent skills gap, particularly in electrical and systems engineering disciplines essential for the design, construction, and maintenance of reliable mining power systems. A report by Payton (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) identified the shortage of skill set in the African engineering industry. The report asserts that the continent faces a huge task in preparing its future workforce for opportunities in green industries. To improve energy reliability and reduce inefficiencies, mining companies must prioritise investments in local technical training and capacity development, alongside the establishment of robust preventive maintenance frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.5 Mining Methods and Energy Use Efficiency\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe selection of mining and extraction methods exerts a profound influence on electricity consumption. Energy modeling research reveals that core processes, such as rock breaking, excavation, hauling, and milling, can account for up to two-thirds of total mining energy use (Holmberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, mining engineers should consider non-electric alternatives, such as strategically placed explosives or water-driven mechanical splitters, to precondition materials and reduce downstream energy consumption in crushing and transport. Another strategic initiative involves site-specific planning. One good example is to situate an alluvial gold mining operation near a flowing river which significantly reduces the need for electric water pumping over a long distance. These strategies will improve cost-efficiency in mining operations while also minimising energy usage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.6 Mineral Type and Geological Terrain\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe geological characteristics of the orebody and the type of mineral being extracted have direct implications for energy consumption. For instance, mining in mountainous terrains often requires significantly more electricity for transportation due to elevation, especially when using conveyor belts, electric winches, or hoppers. Likewise, commodities such as granite and iron ore are harder (according to Mohs scale of hardness) and thus demand more energy for extraction than softer materials like coal or sandstones. Thus, exploration and junior mining companies should, therefore, consider energy implications when prospecting. Avoiding deeply buried ore bodies or those under thick overburden layers can help reduce electricity costs associated with deep excavation and material handling. The deeper and harder the orebody, the higher the energy input required (Holmberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5.7 Government Legislation and Institutional Commitment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGovernments in the CEMAC region must prioritise energy sector reforms to enable and encourage off-grid, renewable, and efficient electricity production in the mining industry. A well-structured legal framework, such as enabling cross-border electricity trade, can make power more affordable and stimulate private-sector investment in clean energy technologies. Public-private partnerships and stakeholder engagement are essential to drive innovation and uptake of decentralised energy solutions in the mining sector. Additionally, governments can enhance small-scale mining productivity by subsidising electricity costs for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) operators, thereby reducing barriers to entry (Corbett et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegulation of electricity tariffs must balance affordability with infrastructure development. While high prices may incentivise the construction of new power infrastructure, they can also deter investment if not carefully managed. Cross-border electricity transmission agreements, such as those between the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Republic of Congo, demonstrate the potential of regional cooperation in enhancing power availability, even if the exporting country is not energy-surplus but seeks to monetise excess generation. Cross-border electricity trade frameworks, such as those facilitated by African power pools, have demonstrated the potential to lower generation costs by up to USD 0.07 per kWh through regional interconnectivity (Alleyne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6 Renewable Energy Options for Mining: Cost and Feasibility\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMany factors must be considered to achieve a successful integration of renewable energy sources into mining operations, including technical, regulatory, and environmental aspects, as well as ethical considerations: each of these factors will impact on the applicability of the new energy resource. Another challenge is that it is often difficult for renewable energy source, particularly wind and solar, to generate high kilowatt-hours of electricity, except at a significant initial capital cost. In this regard, Hydroelectric power (HEP) is the most effective because it will produce stable and efficient electricity supply. Although the HEPS has a relatively high initial capital costs, the operating or maintaining costs are usually low with a high return on investment (ROA). Thus, based on this analysis, a small hydro project (SHP), also known as mini HEPS is usually more suited for a prospective mining company willing to invest to address its energy gap in Central Africa.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents a comparative overview of estimated installation costs for four renewable energy technologies: Hydropower Energy Systems (HEPS), solar, wind, and biomass, across three categories of mining operations: artisanal, small-scale, and large-scale mining. The pair \u0026ldquo;costs\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;feasibility\u0026rdquo; should always be considered simultaneously. An artisanal mine may require less electricity supply between 100W to 10kW, it can increase to 100kW for a small scale mine and a megawatt for larger mines. These findings indicate that the capital intensity of renewable energy deployment in mining varies according to operational scale.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA guide on estimated electricity installation costs for various scales of mining operation is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMining activities and electricity installation costs in US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Source Maehlum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Rinkesh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; WBDG, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Renewables First, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of mining activity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower demand (Consumption)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstallation Costs in (US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHEPS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWind\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiomass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArtisanal Mining\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100W-10KW\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,500\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;100,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,500\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;50,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; 28,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmall-Scale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10KW-100KW\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;800,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;700,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;48,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40,000-300,000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarge Mines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100KW-1MW(s)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;1million\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;1.5million\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;2\u0026nbsp;million\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u0026nbsp;million\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026uarr;\u0026rdquo; = (prices can vary up to that amount or more)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Concluding Remarks","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined critically the impact of electricity costs on the viability and sustainability of mining operations among the CEMAC states of central Africa. The comparative analytic method adopted in the study helped in comparing energy access, generation, pricing and consumption among the CEMAC countries. This analysis is also supported by empirical findings from literature, which helped in drawing inferences on sustainability of energy in the region, especially for mining operations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study highlights the variability of electricity access among the CEMAC countries, with Gabon having the highest access rate of 91% while only 6.4% of Chadians have access to electricity. Similarly, the energy consumption per capita across CEMAC countries reveals stark disparities that reflect underlying issues of affordability, access, and energy system efficiency: Gabon records the highest energy consumption per capita at 1,065 kWh/year, while Chad, with only 14 kWh of energy per year, has extremely low per capita consumption, indicating limited access, unaffordability, or both. The notable challenges associated with electricity generation across the CEMAC countries include infrastructure deficit, overreliance on fossil fuels, and limited deployment of renewable energy. Specifically, the infrastructural deficit in the region as well as the fragmented energy policies hinder regional cooperation and investment in the states.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe recorded challenges in power generation and distribution in the region have immense implications on the mining sector with most mining companies needing to self-generate their own electricity to power their operations through diesel-powered generating sets. This has implications on the cost efficiency as well as the sustainability of the operations. Thus, this study further examined the renewable energy potential across the states of CEMAC. It was found that the region has immense renewable energy potential in hydro, solar, wind and biomass. Specifically, it was found that even though solar energy is the most available with the Central African region been exposed to approximately 11 hours of sunlight every day throughout the year, they remain largely untapped. Furthermore, considering the intensity of capital required to develop a solar power system or a wind farm that will generate significant energy to power a mine, hydroelectric energy systems (HEPS) may be more suited for energy generation to fill the energy gap in the region, especially for mining purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHolistically, unlocking the full potential of the mining sectors of the CEMAC states will involve the introduction of strategic regulation, regional energy planning, and investment in renewable energy infrastructures. The study recommends that future studies deepen the empirical base of this research using field data to model energy consumption patterns as well as socio-environmental implications of renewable energy sources. This will help formulate and develop policies that aide sustainable energy delivery to power the emerging mining sectors of the CEMAC states.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEY Concpetualise the study; EY and OD wrote the main manuscript; EY and SM provided the methodology; SM supervised the study; EM reviewed and edited the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAfDB. (2009). \u003cem\u003eCameroon - Project to Strengthen and Extend the Electricity Transmission and Distribution Networks\u003c/em\u003e. http://www.afdb.org/en/documents/document/cameroon-project-to-strengthen-and-extend-the-electricity-transmission-and-distribution-networks-appraisal-report-21664/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllen, M. (2021). A high-level study into mining energy use for the key mineral commodities of the future. 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UT-BATTELLE, LLC.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sustainability, Electricity Costs, Competitiveness, Renewable Energy, Mining","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7345397/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7345397/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMining operations are energy-intensive processes that rely heavily on electricity, diesel, and explosives. In the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC), comprising Cameroon, Chad, Gabon, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and Equatorial Guinea, energy supply is a critical barrier to the sustainability of mining operations. Despite the region’s immense hydroelectric potential (estimated at over 650,000 GWh annually), less than 15% of its 44.1 million population has access to electricity. The national grids are poorly interconnected, and supply remains insufficient and unreliable. Consequently, mining companies are often forced to rely on costly diesel-powered generators to sustain operations, which significantly inflates production costs and deters potential investors. This study examines the impact of high electricity costs on the sustainability and competitiveness of mining operations across the CEMAC region. Through comparative analysis and literature synthesis, it evaluates energy sources and costs, infrastructure limitations, and potential solutions. The study also explores how energy insecurity contributes to limited growth and reduced investment in the mining sector. In response to these challenges, the paper identifies and characterises four sustainable energy solutions suitable for the region with focus on the mining sector: hydroelectric power (HEP), solar energy, wind power, and biomass. Recommendations are provided on how these resources can be harnessed to reduce electricity costs and support long-term mining sustainability in Central Africa.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluating Energy Costs for Sustainable Mining: The Case of CEMAC in Central Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-20 06:47:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7345397/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"57686060-ed76-47aa-bb8e-6232628c04a1","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:02:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7345397","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-026-00621-2","journal":{"identity":"mineral-economics","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Mineral Economics"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-30 15:58:07","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 30th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-20 06:47:11","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s13563-026-00621-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-026-00621-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7345397","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7345397","identity":"rs-7345397","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}