From leaves to litter: Use of anthropogenic nesting materials in hibernation nests of the European hedgehog

From leaves to litter: Use of anthropogenic nesting materials in hibernation nests of the European hedgehog | Authorea try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } var _gaq = _gaq || []; _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'G-8VDV14Y67G']); _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']); (function() { var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true; ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s); })(); Skip to main content Preprints Collections Wiley Open Research IET Open Research Ecological Society of Japan All Collections About About Authorea FAQs Contact Us Quick Search anywhere Search for preprint articles, keywords, etc. Search Search ADVANCED SEARCH SCROLL Ecology and Evolution This is a preprint and has not been peer reviewed. Data may be preliminary. 22 October 2025 V1 Latest version Share on From leaves to litter: Use of anthropogenic nesting materials in hibernation nests of the European hedgehog Authors : Katie Crawford 0009-0009-6245-7640 [email protected] , Christine Beardsworth , Ross MacLeod , Davina Hill 0000-0001-9085-6192 , and Julia Nowack Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.22541/au.176115802.26389382/v1 Published Ecology and Evolution Version of record Peer review timeline 341 views 147 downloads Contents Abstract Supplementary Material Information & Authors Metrics & Citations View Options References Figures Tables Media Share Abstract Abstract Urbanisation and human population growth have significantly increased the presence of anthropogenic materials in natural environments, prompting growing interest in how wildlife may be adapting to these changes. One such behavioural response is the incorporation of anthropogenic materials into animal nests, a phenomenon that has raised concerns due to its potential harmful effects, such as entanglement or ingestion. While this behaviour has been documented widely in birds, it remains underreported in other taxa, partly due to the difficulty of locating nests. In this study, we describe multiple instances of anthropogenic materials (including plastic) being incorporated into the hibernation nests of European hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus. These findings suggest that hedgehogs may opportunistically use available anthropogenic materials in nest construction, potentially as a response to urban environments. Our findings help broaden the understanding of mammalian responses to urbanisation and emphasize the need to investigate whether the incorporation of these materials is likely to be harmful or adaptive to hedgehogs or for mammals generally. Introduction Urbanisation has steadily increased alongside global population growth (Sun et al., 2020), leading to profound impacts on natural habitats. These include habitat destruction and fragmentation, as well as increased levels of light, noise, and chemical pollution (Barber et al., 2010; Grimm et al., 2008; Navara & Nelson, 2007). While such changes are generally detrimental to biodiversity, some species have shown the capacity to adapt and even thrive in urban environments (McKinney, 2006). Understanding how species respond and adapt to urbanisation is crucial for informing conservation efforts, particularly for species that are vulnerable within urban environments. Urbanisation is associated with the degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats (Liu et al., 2016), which can reduce natural resources for species (Simkin et al., 2022) including the materials needed for nest building. The incorporation of plastic and other man-made materials into animal nests has been extensively described in birds (Jagiello et al., 2019). Materials found included objects such as confectionary wrappers, cigarette butts and plastic strings, with materials varying by habitat (Jagiello et al., 2019). These materials are especially prevalent in urban environments where their diversity reflects higher levels of plastic waste accumulation (Brglez et al., 2024). A global review on terrestrial and marine birds found 31% of individuals incorporated anthropogenic materials into nests out of 10,790 nests investigated and discovered that although the probability of incorporation should be higher in terrestrial species, there is a bias towards reporting in marine species of birds (Jagiello et al., 2019). Despite this growing body of avian research, there is very little information on non-bird nest builders, including mammals. Consequently, little is known about how widespread the behaviour is across other nest building taxa, material selection or potential fitness consequences. The European hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, is one such nest building mammal commonly found in suburban and urban habitats (Korslund et al., 2024). Hedgehogs typically build three types of nests: day nests for summer shelter, breeding nests where females raise young, and hibernation nests used during the hibernation season when individuals enter torpor and remain in a state of extended inactivity. The latter are normally used for longer periods of time than summer nests (Gago et al., 2023). Hedgehog hibernation nests in the UK, where most studies have taken place, are typically composed of grass and leaves packed together and often occur within areas of structural support, such as underneath bramble, Rubus fruticosus agg. (Morris, 1973). Hibernation nests are typically constructed in woodland patches or natural areas, even when suburban areas are used during the active season (Korslund et al., 2024; Rautio et al., 2014). Hedgehogs have a strong preference for nesting locations in hedgerows and bushes, in both urban and rural areas (Jensen, 2004; Korslund et al., 2024). Hedgehog populations are decreasing in rural areas but stable or possibly increasing in urban areas (Wembridge et al., 2022). This difference is thought to result from a combination of factors, including supplementary feeding regimes, decreased predation risk by badgers, Meles meles, and increased shelter, such as shrubbery, compared to agricultural landscapes, which may provide more hibernation nesting sites (Hubert et al., 2011). As hedgehogs increasingly frequent suburban and urban environments, they are more likely to encounter anthropogenic materials, which they might use as nesting material, despite the potential hazards these materials can pose. While the presence of anthropogenic materials in hedgehog nests was noted in Rautio et al. (2014), no detailed descriptions were provided for hibernation nests specifically. Here, we document the discovery of anthropogenic materials in hibernation nests of European hedgehogs living in suburban habitats in the UK. We suggest that, as in birds, the increased prevalence of hedgehogs in urban environments may lead to an increase in the use of plastics and other anthropogenic substrates as nesting material, and that this behaviour may incur both benefits and risks. Methods We collected data on nest site use during hibernation of 10 individual hedgehogs (4 male, 6 female) across 6 different locations within Merseyside in the Northwest of England (Lat: 53.407485, Long: -2.9882813). Survey locations ranged from more urbanised/residential areas to more suburban or semi-rural greenspaces (such as parks and a disused golf course, see Table 2). To find and capture hedgehogs, we conducted night surveys at various locations across Merseyside. As part of another study, ten individuals captured between 1 st August to 1 st November 2024 were equipped with temperature-sensitive VHF radio transmitters (TW-3 single cell tag with thermistor, Lotek, UK) that allowed us to detect hibernation start and end date. These were attached to the back of the individual, with the thermal attachment touching the skin. Spines were clipped, and the tag glued on using a combination of epoxy resin for attaching to spines and bonding cement (Torbot, Torbot Group Inc., US) to affix it nearer to the skin (Crawford et al., 2025). All tags weighed approximately 12g, which is <2% of the animal’s body mass (adult body mass 700-1000g). We used the tags to find and monitor hibernation nest site use of 10 individuals during their hibernation period, for a total of 207 days (10 th September 2024 - 4 th April 2025). Individuals were radio-tracked and located every 1-3 days, and readings of skin temperature were remotely taken over the course of the winter hibernation period to identify the start and end of hibernation for each individual. During this data collection we identified the location and type of nests used as well as the duration of use and frequency of nest site changes. We noted the microhabitat (e.g. within a log pile, in a garden, under bramble) and recorded each nest location (latitude and longitude) using smartphone GPS (Huawei P30 Pro) and the Google Maps app (Google Maps, 2024). Most nest were too deeply hidden to see without disturbing the animal, but for some nests (N=4), we were able to visibly assess the primary material of the nest (e.g. leaves, grass, etc). In total, four nests were fully or partially dismantled and the materials found in them categorised. In March 2025, two of these nests from residential urban/suburban areas were dissected. One dissection was conducted to retrieve a detached radio tag (hedgehog #385, female) which required removing material out of the hidden nest to access the device. The second was prompted by prior observations of the individual in the nest in September 2024, during which anthropogenic materials had been noted. The nest was subsequently dismantled in March 2025 when the individual was not present (hedgehog ID #366, male). Another hedgehog (#379, female), was briefly uncovered from a nest in November 2024 to ascertain if its tag had detached. This nest was only partially dismantled. The fourth hibernation nest was used by a male hedgehog (hedgehog #376) and located on a disused golf course (rural habitat) and was dissected in February 2025 to retrieve a radio tag that had already been abandoned by the animal. For ethical reasons, all other known nests were left undisturbed as they were occupied and hibernation nests can be reused (Crawford et al., 2025). To evaluate how urban these nest sites were, we calculated the percentage of urban and suburban land within 1km of each of the nests using the 2023 land cover map (resolution 10m 2 ) from the NERC EDS Environmental Information Data Centre (Morton et al., 2024). Nest site use during hibernation Across all 10 hedgehogs, 24 separate nests were used, with individuals occupying 1-3 nests each (Table 1). Mean nest-use duration was 41.4 ± 40.5 (SD) days. Individual nest-use durations ranged from 1-128 days. Three individuals (#332, #366 and #385) occupied the same nest site more than once over the duration of their hibernation. Table 1- Hibernation duration and nest site use for radio tracked hedgehogs in this study (Merseyside, UK) across 2024-2025. #366 23/09/2024 20/02/2025 151 151 M 3 #390 18/11/2024 04/04/2025 138 138 F 2 #370 07/10/2024 13/02/2025 130 130 M 3 #332 10/09/2024 27/02/2025 171 171 M 3 #375 04/12/2024 20/03/2025 107 107 F 3 #379 15/11/2024 04/03/2025 110 110 F 2 #391 04/11/2024 20/03/2025 137 137 F 2 #371 15/11/2024 NA, tag lost 25/11/24 NA 11 F 1 #385 30/09/2024 NA, tag lost 30/11/24 NA 62 F 3 #376 23/10/2024 NA, tag lost 30/11/24 NA 64 M 2 Anthropogenic material in nests Of the four dissected nest sites, anthropogenic material was found in two nests: Hedgehog #366 nested underneath a disused car, with plywood covering the sides of the car. The nest contained various anthropogenic materials, including a plastic bag, duct tape, and several pieces of plastic (Figure 1a-c, Table 2). Leaves were present on the ground, but these were not directly incorporated into the nest. In contrast, hedgehog #385 nested under metal sheeting in a suburban garden within a shaded area of trees and shrubs (Figure 1d and 1e, Table 2) with rope encircling the nest and other anthropogenic materials including foil and expanded polystyrene incorporated in to the nest. This nest also contained natural materials, including leaves and dried grasses, that were woven in with the anthropogenic materials. It was noted that the garden in which this hedgehog nested was littered with anthropogenic waste materials. Of the final two hedgehogs, #376 had a nest comprising woven grass and leaves, situated within a small patch of scrub adjacent to a woodland within a broadly semi-rural area (Table 2). No anthropogenic material was found in this nest. Similarly, the nest of #379 was primarily made of woven grass and straw and did not contain anthropogenic materials. This female nested in a suburban residential area within a wooden hedgehog nest box in a garage (Table 2). Table 2- Descriptions of hedgehog nests, including periods of use, materials discovered and habitat type. #366 M 18/09/2024 07/10/2024 20 Plastic bag, duct tape, various plastic pieces 33.4% 96.2% Residential area (under car) #385 F 09/10/2024 15/01/2025 99 Rope, foil packet, plastic straw packet, plastic residue 15.1% 55.4% Residential area, garden #376 M 26/10/2024 26/12/2024 61 None 1.67% 14.7% Disused golf course (semi-rural) #379 F 15/11/2024 21/11/2024 7 None 5.5% 87% Residential area, hedgehog box in garage Figure 1- Examples of anthropogenic materials within hedgehog nests observed during the study: (a) the nest of individual #366 primarily comprising a plastic bag, (b) stray miscellaneous plastic within the nest of #366, (c) duct tape within the nest of #366, (d) location of the nest of #385 underneath a metal sheet, surrounded by rope and plastic, (e) plastic material in the background and natural material (leaves and grass) pulled from the nest of #385. Discussion This study provides the first detailed descriptions, to our knowledge, of anthropogenic materials being used within hedgehog hibernation nests. Anthropogenic materials were found in two nests in suburban/urban locations. Both nests were built within metal structures and contained a variety of waste materials. Rautio et al. (2014) previously noted that anthropogenic material was present in 6% of hedgehog nests but did not catalogue the types of anthropogenic materials found nor distinguish across nest types (e.g. day nests vs. hibernacula). In our study, the two nests containing anthropogenic material constitute a small proportion of all nests used by the 10 individuals tracked for the winter period. However, we only had cause to dissect 4 nests, and 50% of these nests contained anthropogenic material. Given that two out of the four individuals for which nests were dissected lost their radio tags during the investigation (of which one had a nest containing anthropogenic material and one did not), we have no information on the number of nests these two individuals made after they lost their tag. However, hedgehog #366, whose radio tag remained attached throughout (and whose nest primarily consisted of a plastic bag), used only one other nest site for the duration of hibernation. We do not know whether this other nest also contained anthropogenic materials. Individual #379 also retained their tag and did not re-use the hedgehog nest box site at a later stage of hibernation, although the nest had been used prior to hibernation onset. These observations indicate that anthropogenic materials can be incorporated into hibernation nests within suburban and urban environments and may provide possible functional implications. Given that hedgehogs are often found in suburban and urban areas where natural nest-building resources are scarcer than in natural environments such as a mixture of woodland and fields, the incorporation of anthropogenic materials may serve to compensate for the limited availability of natural resources. This is supported by the two nests with anthropogenic material having the highest percentage of urban land cover (>15%) within 1km. Urban and suburban land within 1km varied between individuals, with the nest of #366 having the highest percentage of both urban and suburban land (96.2%). This individual had a nest almost exclusively composed of anthropogenic materials. Whether such materials are used opportunistically or sought out for their functional properties requires further investigation. In the Chinese bulbul Pycnonotus sinensis , researchers assessed the proportion of anthropogenic materials in nests along with gathering data on reproductive traits and urbanisation index, and discovered that the proportion of anthropogenic materials in their nests increased with urbanisation score (Wang et al., 2009). A similar pattern may occur in European hedgehogs, particularly in environments where natural nesting materials may be less abundant. Incorporation of plastics into nests has been studied primarily in birds. Plastic nest boxes have been shown to create hotter, drier environments for birds (Noel et al., 2023). A study indicated that bird nests that incorporate metal can become hotter at warm temperatures and cooler under cool conditions than wooden nest structures (Imlay et al., 2019). Therefore, metal could aid in creating a cooler microclimate for hibernating hedgehogs during winter, allowing longer torpor bout durations and thus saving energy that would be used in the process of arousal (Geiser & Ruf, 2023). It is also likely that other? anthropogenic materials have different thermal properties from natural materials, including likely higher insulative properties for substances such as foam (Blettler et al., 2020; Jagiello et al., 2023), and that these properties may offer advantages to nest inhabitants, for instance offspring in bird nests may be more easily kept in optimal temperatures (Jagiello et al., 2023). Hedgehogs may similarly benefit from thermal regulation in breeding nests to support offspring, as well as in hibernation and day nests for individual survival. It is also possible that these materials influence conditions beyond temperature, such as humidity. Expanded polystyrene, which was discovered in the nest of hedgehog #385, is both a thermal insulator commonly used in buildings and semi-permeable to water vapour and therefore may provide stable internal conditions in terms of both heat and humidity for nesting (Kumar et al., 2020). In the hazel dormouse, Muscardinus avellanarius, low variability in humidity and shade levels are important conditions for hibernation nest site selection (Findlay-Robinson & Hill, 2024). It is likely that hedgehogs require similarly stable conditions for hibernation nesting sites. Furthermore, anthropogenic materials in nests might have other potential benefits, such as increasing the stability of the nest structure. The use of plastic in bird nests can improve structural stability (Antczak et al., 2010) and even reduce parasite load in certain instances (Suárez-Rodríguez et al., 2013). On the other hand, the incorporation of anthropogenic materials into nests might also have negative consequences for animal welfare. The presence of plastic within nests is well documented to cause mortality in birds (Janic et al., 2023; Townsend & Barker, 2014; Votier et al., 2011) and entanglement is a frequent cause of hedgehog admissions to rescue centres (Thrift et al., 2023). Therefore, incorporating plastic materials into nests could pose a significant risk of entanglement for hedgehogs. These plastics could also pose a risk through ingestion, as studies have indicated a high prevalence of plastic in the faeces of hedgehogs and other mammals (Thrift et at., 2022). The nests identified in this study were investigated opportunistically as part of a larger project, consequently, nests were only disturbed when there was a clear justification for doing so. This resulted in a small sample size, limiting our ability to make conclusions about the frequency of this occurrence. Further observations are needed to understand the range of materials hedgehogs may use within urban environments and whether the types of anthropogenic materials incorporated into nests affect the nest microclimate and if this impacts the success of hibernation. It also remains unclear whether hedgehogs actively select anthropogenic materials for their functional properties or incorporate them incidentally due to reduced availability of natural alternatives. Additional exploration of the drivers of this behaviour and whether incorporation is accidental or selective would help understanding. Nevertheless, the presence of anthropogenic materials in hedgehog hibernation nests highlights a potential shift in nesting behaviour within an urban context. This warrants further investigation to assess both the ecological consequences and the welfare implications for hedgehogs in these areas. Funding The project was possible due to financial support from the School of Biological and Environmental Sciences at Liverpool John Moores University. The project was also funded by the Wild Animal Initiative- grant number: SG23-017 Ethics Ethical approval for the study was obtained from Liverpool John Moores University (licence number: JN_KC/2024-5) and a Licence issued by Natural England in order to carry out the study methods (licence number: 2022-61869-SCI-SCI-3). Acknowledgements We would like to thank Beth Campbell, Natasha O’Reilly, Richard Muir, Josh Cook, Ed Croucher and Ellis McIver-Bezombes for their assistance with fieldwork. Data accessibility statement Data are accessible through figshare: (https://figshare.com/s/0748fbac5f849b68a056) References Barber, J. R., Crooks, K. R., & Fristrup, K. M. (2010). The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms. 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Collection Ecology and Evolution Keywords behavioral ecology ecological experiment terrestrial vertebrate Authors Affiliations Katie Crawford 0009-0009-6245-7640 [email protected] Liverpool John Moores University View all articles by this author Christine Beardsworth Liverpool John Moores University View all articles by this author Ross MacLeod Liverpool John Moores University View all articles by this author Davina Hill 0000-0001-9085-6192 University of Glasgow Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine View all articles by this author Julia Nowack Liverpool John Moores University View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 341 views 147 downloads .FvxKWukQNSOunydq8rnd { width: 100px; } Citations Download citation Katie Crawford, Christine Beardsworth, Ross MacLeod, et al. From leaves to litter: Use of anthropogenic nesting materials in hibernation nests of the European hedgehog. Authorea . 22 October 2025. 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