Evolving Enforcement Approaches to Marine and Fisheries Violations in Indonesia: Trends, Effectiveness, and Spatial Challenges

Evolving Enforcement Approaches to Marine and Fisheries Violations in Indonesia: Trends, Effectiveness, and Spatial Challenges | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evolving Enforcement Approaches to Marine and Fisheries Violations in Indonesia: Trends, Effectiveness, and Spatial Challenges Supo Dwi Diantara, Sakti Wahyu Trenggono, Irwan Meilano, Hamzah Latief, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6775642/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Indonesia’s vast archipelagic waters, rich in marine resources, face persistent challenges from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, unlicensed sea construction, and unauthorized sea sand mining. Using secondary data from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) covering 2017 to 2023, this study examines trends in marine violations, enforcement effectiveness, and spatial patterns across Indonesia’s maritime zones. Results reveal a steady decline in reported cases until 2022, followed by a significant surge in 2023, coinciding with the activation of MMAF’s Command Center for enhanced digital surveillance and interagency coordination. High legal effectiveness ratios (0.95 on average) reflect strong institutional capacity, though 2023’s decline to 0.71 signals emerging bottlenecks in prosecutorial and judicial processes. Notably, a marked shift from criminal prosecutions to administrative sanctions highlights an evolving enforcement strategy that prioritizes efficiency and adaptability, consistent with international best practices. Spatial analysis identifies enforcement vulnerabilities in high-traffic ports like Belawan and Makassar, and in zones with low surveillance vessel density—underscoring the link between weak coverage and elevated violation rates. Conversely, areas with higher vessel presence demonstrate lower violations, supporting the role of robust surveillance in deterrence. However, anomalies in zones like Zona 06, with moderate vessel coverage yet high violation numbers, suggest that social and economic factors also shape compliance outcomes. The findings underscore the need for a balanced governance approach: integrating technology-driven monitoring, legal reforms, and community engagement to strengthen Indonesia’s capacity to combat marine violations and ensure long-term ecological sustainability. Environmental Policy Marine governance fisheries violations enforcement approach trend effectiveness challenges Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 INTRODUCTION Indonesia, a vast archipelago with over 17,000 islands, is home to diverse marine resources that are crucial for its economic prosperity and environmental sustainability. The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) is implementing five key priority programs, including the surveillance and management of its marine and fisheries resources (Trenggono et al., 2025); (Tri Yuwono et al., 2025 ). However, this abundance also makes Indonesia particularly vulnerable to illegal activities. In recent years, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, unauthorized marine construction, and illegal sea sand mining have become persistent issues, threatening marine ecosystems, destabilizing local communities, and compromising national sovereignty (Quran et al., 2024 ). Among these violations, Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing remains one of the most pressing concerns. Indonesia’s vast maritime domain is frequently encroached upon by foreign vessels, particularly from neighboring countries like Vietnam and Malaysia, who operate without proper licenses in Indonesian waters. These intrusions are often difficult to monitor due to the limited capacity for maritime surveillance, especially in remote border regions (Wardhani & Triadi, 2023 ). Equally destructive are local practices such as fish bombing and electric fishing, which cause irreversible damage to coral reef ecosystems and drastically reduce fish stocks. These methods, though illegal, are still used in some coastal communities due to economic pressures and weak enforcement. Over time, this results in the degradation of crucial marine habitats, threatening the sustainability of fisheries and marine tourism (Huwae et al., 2024 ). In addition to fishing violations, the rise of illegal sea sand mining has brought new environmental concerns. Sand mining, especially in areas like Batam, is often conducted without permits, leading to severe coastal erosion, habitat loss, and water quality degradation. Despite existing legal provisions, enforcement against these environmentally harmful activities remains sporadic and inconsistent across jurisdictions (Ananta, 2024 ). One of the main challenges in tackling marine violations in Indonesia lies in the fragmented enforcement structure. Multiple agencies—including the police, navy, fisheries inspectors, and maritime security authorities—share overlapping responsibilities, often without clear coordination. This institutional fragmentation results in delays, inefficiencies, and jurisdictional confusion during enforcement operations (Samiaji, 2015 ). Recognizing these challenges, the Indonesian government formed Task Force 115 in 2015 to enhance coordination and enforcement capacity, particularly against IUU fishing. The task force has contributed to improved surveillance, increased vessel monitoring, and more stringent prosecutions. However, its focus remains largely confined to fisheries, and other violations like illegal construction and sand mining continue to receive less attention from central enforcement bodies (Suherman et al., 2020 ). The financial impact of marine violations is substantial. Illegal fishing alone is estimated to cost the country over IDR 30 trillion annually. Additionally, unregulated marine activities reduce fishery productivity and cause indirect losses through environmental degradation and reduced tourism appeal. These economic consequences are most acutely felt by small-scale fishing communities who rely on healthy marine ecosystems for their livelihoods (Wibowo et al., 2023 ). Although Indonesia has established legal frameworks such as the Fisheries Law (No. 45/2009) and the Mining Law (No. 4/2009), enforcement on the ground remains weak. Offenders are often lightly penalized or go unpunished due to limited monitoring resources and inefficient legal processes. As a result, the legal deterrence necessary to prevent repeat offenses is often lacking (Raharjo & Saputra, 2018 ). Beyond the legal and technical issues, political and social dynamics further complicate enforcement. Corruption, overlapping interests, and limited public awareness frequently obstruct effective marine governance. In many cases, powerful actors benefit from regulatory loopholes or complicity, while coastal communities may lack knowledge about the long-term consequences of marine violations (Nataliana et al., 2023 ). To address these issues, a more integrated approach to marine governance is needed—one that combines policy reform, improved inter-agency coordination, community engagement, and investment in surveillance technologies. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of marine resource violations in Indonesia from 2017 to 2023, using empirical data to explore the nature and trends of violations, enforcement responses, and the broader implications for governance. Through this, it seeks to identify actionable solutions that can support more effective and sustainable marine management (Nasution et al., 2021 ). METHOLOGY This study employed a quantitative and descriptive research approach to analyze the trends, distribution, and enforcement outcomes of marine and fishery violations in Indonesia from 2017 to 2023. The primary objective was to assess the scale of illegal activities in Indonesian waters, the types of violations occurring, and the effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms. The analysis was based entirely on secondary data provided by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) of the Republic of Indonesia. Specifically, annual reports published by the MMAF from 2017 to 2023 served as the official data source. These reports included comprehensive records on the total number of marine and fishery violations recorded each year; the classification of violation types, including illegal sea sand mining, fishing without permits, unreported catch, destructive fishing (e.g., electric fishing and fish bombing), transshipment violations, and unauthorized marine construction; the number of violations that resulted in successful legal prosecution or criminal enforcement; and a geographic distribution map showing the locations of recorded violations across Indonesian maritime zones. Quantitative data were compiled into a structured dataset to allow for temporal trend analysis across the seven-year period. Descriptive statistics were used to examine annual changes in the number and types of violations. This allowed for the identification of years or regions with significant spikes in illegal activity and to track enforcement outcomes over time. To evaluate law enforcement effectiveness, the Effectiveness Ratio was calculated annually as: $$\:\text{E}\text{f}\text{f}\text{e}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{v}\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{s}\text{s}\:\text{R}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}=\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{F}\text{i}\text{n}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{V}\text{e}\text{r}\text{d}\text{i}\text{c}\text{t}\:\text{C}\text{a}\text{s}\text{e}\text{s}\:\left(\text{I}\text{n}\text{k}\text{r}\text{a}\text{c}\text{h}\text{t}\right)}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{C}\text{a}\text{s}\text{e}\text{s}}$$ This ratio served as a key performance indicator for enforcement capacity, indicating the proportion of reported cases successfully processed to a final legal conclusion. To quantify the relationship between the ratio of area per vessel and the number of violation cases, we calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) using the following formula: r = (nΣxy - (Σx)(Σy)) / sqrt[(nΣx² - (Σx)²)(nΣy² - (Σy)²)] Where: n is the number of data points (zones) x represents the ratio of area per vessel y represents the number of violation cases The trendline will be computed by applying a simple linear regression using the least squares approach. This method helps illustrate the overall pattern in the data, as described by the following formula: y = a + bx Where: b = (nΣxy - (Σx)(Σy)) / (nΣx² - (Σx)²) (slope) a = (Σy - bΣx) / n (intercept) Furthermore, to investigate the relationship between surveillance capacity and violation rates, a correlation analysis was conducted between the ratio of area per surveillance vessel (km²/vessel) and the number of violation cases. The data points for this analysis were derived from the zone-based dataset of Indonesian maritime areas. The correlation graph revealed a negative relationship, indicating that zones with higher vessel coverage (smaller area per vessel) tend to report fewer violations—supporting the idea that robust enforcement presence acts as a deterrent. This analysis was visualized through a scatter plot with a trendline generated in R. All data used in this research were publicly available and published by the Indonesian government. No personal or sensitive information was collected, and ethical approval was not required for the use of secondary administrative data. RESULTS The annual trend in marine and fisheries violation cases from 2017 to 2023 showed in the Fig. 1 below. The data show a relatively stable number of cases in 2017 and 2018, with 197 and 193 cases respectively. However, there was a gradual decline from 2019 to 2022, reaching a low of 137 cases in 2022. This downward trend may reflect either a temporary reduction in illegal activities or potential underreporting due to limited enforcement resources. In stark contrast to the preceding downward trend, 2023 saw a dramatic rise in reported marine and fisheries violations, reaching 289 cases—the highest in the seven-year period. This surge closely followed the establishment of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries' (MMAF) Command Center in September 2022, suggesting that the institution's operationalization had a measurable impact on enforcement outcomes. Designed to centralize surveillance, enhance interagency coordination, and enable real-time monitoring, the Command Center significantly improved the Ministry’s capacity to detect and respond to violations. The sharp increase in reported cases just one year after its launch is therefore best interpreted as evidence of enhanced monitoring and enforcement effectiveness rather than a simple resurgence of illegal activities. The effectiveness analysis shows consistently high legal effectiveness, as shown in Table 1 , with an overall effectiveness ratio of 0.95. This ratio—calculated as the number of cases reaching a final verdict (inkracht) divided by the total number of cases—indicates that most violations were followed through to legal resolution. Notably, 2020 recorded a perfect effectiveness ratio of 1.00, as all 106 cases resulted in final verdicts. Similarly, other years like 2021 and 2018 maintained high ratios of 0.976 and 0.956 respectively, even with large case volumes. However, the effectiveness ratio dropped to 0.714 in 2023, the lowest in the seven-year span, despite handling only 56 cases. This suggests a decline in the proportion of cases reaching a legal conclusion, possibly due to increasing legal complexity, more contested prosecutions, or resource limitations. Supporting this, 2023 saw more cases reaching higher judicial stages such as appeals and cassations, which may signal either stronger legal pushback by violators or procedural delays. A unusual pattern in the data is the very low number of cases documented at early legal stages. For example, over seven years, only 9 cases were formally investigated, and only 12 reached the P-21 stage (prosecutorial readiness). This discrepancy raises concerns about underreporting or gaps in legal documentation, which could obscure the true scale and handling of violations. Table 1 Summary of Legal Handling and Effectiveness of Marine and Fisheries Violation Cases (2017–2023) Source : Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. 2023 Year Total Cases Investigation SP3 P-21 Phase II Court Trial Appeal Cassation Judicial Review Final Verdict (Inkracht) Effectiveness Ratio 2023 56 5 - 5 2 1 2 1 - 40 0.71 2022 59 1 2 1 - - - 1 - 54 0.92 2021 167 - 1 3 - - - - - 163 0.98 2020 106 - - - - - - - - 106 1.00 2019 114 1 4 1 - - - - - 108 0.95 2018 161 1 1 1 - - 4 - - 154 0.96 2017 163 1 2 1 - - 2 1 - 156 0.96 TOTAL 826 9 10 12 2 2 8 3 0 781 0.95 In addition to the effectiveness, the distribution of enforcement actions from 2017 to 2023 shows a significant strategic shift from criminal prosecution to administrative sanctions in handling marine and fisheries violations, as described in the Fig. 2 below. During the earlier years (2017–2021), the majority of cases were processed through criminal channels, consistently exceeding 100 cases annually. However, this trend changed sharply in 2022 and especially in 2023, where criminal process cases dropped to 59 and 56 respectively, while administrative sanctions dramatically rose, culminating in 217 cases in 2023. Alongside this change, the other actions were warnings or mediation—has shown a modest but notable increase, particularly in 2023 with 15 cases, the highest across all years. This diversification of enforcement responses emphasizes adaptive and restorative approaches taken by the Ministry, aiming not just to punish but to correct behaviour and prevent future violations. The distribution of violation types in marine and fisheries cases during 2023 offers important context to support the patterns seen in earlier data. Of the 289 total cases handled that year, a significant majority—197 cases—were related to vessel operation without valid fishing licenses or non-compliance with the fishing permit (SIPI). This category alone made up over 68% of all violations, indicating that regulatory non-compliance regarding licensing remains the most critical enforcement issue in Indonesia's fisheries sector. In contrast, as shown in Table 2 below, more severe violations such as use of explosives (18 cases), fish shocking (4 cases), and unauthorized sea sand mining (4 cases) were far fewer but potentially more damaging to marine ecosystems. These acts are to be handled through criminal processes due to their destructive impact and associated safety concerns, supporting why the criminal route still accounted for a portion of 2023’s enforcement actions. Other violations like illegal transhipment (8 cases), non-compliant fishing routes (36 cases), and failure to report or land catches reflect issues in operational transparency and traceability within the fisheries sector. Table 2 Types of Marine and Fisheries Violations and Legal References in 2023 Source : Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. 2023 Type of Violation Alleged Article # Cases No Documents / Non-Compliant with SIPI (Fishing License) Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 Article 98 or Article 27(1) jo PP Article 317(1)(g) jo Article 1(c) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 10 of 2021 jo Article 8(1) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 31 of 2021 197 Forgery of Business Documents Article 27 point 29 Law No. 11 of 2020 amendment to Article 94A jo Article 28A Law No. 45 of 2009 on Fisheries jo Article 55(1) Penalty Code 2 Fishing in Conservation Area Article 7(2)(a, j) Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022, Article 3(1)(j), and Article 2(3) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 31 of 2021 with administrative sanction Article 7(1) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 31 of 2021 1 Failure to Report Catch Article 103(1) and Article 102(2)(b) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 58 of 2020 on Capture Fisheries Business 3 Non-Compliant Fishing Route Article 27A(1) jo. Article 7(2)(c) and Article 41(3) Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries as amended by Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation 36 Failure to Land Catch at Fishing Port Article 41(3) Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries as amended by Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation 1 Explosives Article 84(1) jo Article 8(1) Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries or Article 27 point 34 Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation 18 Fish Shocking Article 84(1) jo Article 8(1) Law No. 45 of 2009 on Fisheries 4 Non-compliance with Business Licensing Documents Article 27A Law No. 6 of 2023 on Business Licensing or Article 92 jo Article 26(91) Law No. 45 of 2009 as amended and supplemented by Law No. 11 of 2020 on Job Creation 12 Unauthorized Sea Sand Mining Article 16A jo Article 6(2) Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation and Article 23(1) jo Article 10(1) Government Regulation No. 26 of 2023 on Marine Sediment Management 4 Transhipment Article 28 Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation jo Ministerial Circular B.1049/MEN-KP/VII/2023 on 17 July 2023 concerning Compliance of Business Actors with Non-Tax State Revenue from Post-Production Fishery Levies 8 Sunken Vessel Cargo Article 5(1) Presidential Regulation No. 8 of 2023 on Management of Sunken Vessel Cargo 3 Total Cases 289 The 2023 distribution of marine and fisheries violations by port highlights several hotspots with high case volumes, as shown in Fig. 3 below. The ports with the highest number of fisheries violations are Belawan (45 cases), Makassar (30 cases), Batam (24 cases), Dobo (15 cases), and Bitung (13 cases). Multiple factors drive the high number of violations in these ports. First, Belawan and Batam are key commercial fishing hubs in Indonesia, situated in outer Indonesian waters that border neighboring countries, making them among the busiest ports. In the east, Makassar sees heavy traffic and large-scale industrial fishing operations, which raises the risk of both deliberate rule-breaking and regulatory oversights. Second, ports like Bitung and Dobo, which lie close to international waters, are more exposed to cross-border IUU (Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated) fishing, serving as gateways for fleets operating in contested or weakly supervised areas. The Fig. 4 below reveals a clear negative correlation between the ratio of area per vessel (km²/vessel) and the number of violation cases across different zones. Specifically, as the area per vessel increases, the number of violations tends to decrease, as shown by the downward-sloping trend line. This suggests that in zones where each vessel must cover a larger area, there were fewer opportunities for infractions or violations because of less intense monitoring in these vast areas. Conversely, smaller areas per vessel are associated with a higher number of violations, because of more effective monitoring by authorities. Notably, zones like Zone 03 and Zone 05 show high numbers of cases despite covering larger areas, while Zone 02 has the fewest violations in a relatively high area-per-vessel context. Overall, this trend underscores the critical importance of strengthening surveillance efforts—including vessel deployment—and addressing underlying factors like local economic pressures and community engagement to effectively curb illegal fishing. The ratio of marine and fisheries coverage zones to the patrol vessel assets, as shown in Fig. 5 , has also been analyzed. Covering a total area of 6,614,590 km², the Ministry must rely on 34 marine surveillance vessels and two surveillance aircraft to monitor these vast waters. Despite these limited resources, the Ministry has actively engaged local fishers as “eyes and ears” on the water. These fishers have been trained as local reporters to swiftly report any fishing violations they witness, particularly in primary fishing grounds and areas near international boundaries that are vulnerable to incursions by foreign vessels. DISCUSSION The observed decline in reported marine and fisheries violations in Indonesia from 2017 to 2022 does not necessarily indicate a genuine reduction in illegal activities. Instead, it points to ongoing challenges in detection and enforcement capacity. A primary factor contributing to this gap is the shortage of skilled personnel and patrol vessels to cover Indonesia’s vast maritime areas, which has hampered the ability to enforce fisheries regulations effectively (Islam & Hasan, 2024 ). The Directorate General of Enforcement of Marine and Fisheries currently operates only 14 monitoring stations, staffed by 413 trained personnel (MMAF, 2023), to oversee this extensive jurisdiction—an insufficient number to provide comprehensive coverage. This challenge is not unique to Indonesia. For example, Namibia has also faced difficulties in fisheries law enforcement due to limited numbers of adequately trained officers, resulting in persistent gaps in monitoring and legal proceedings (Warikandwa, 2023 ). Such staffing and resource shortages, combined with vast and remote fishing areas, have been shown to create misleading trends in violation data, masking the true prevalence of illegal fishing rather than signaling genuine improvements in compliance (Labutap-Noble & Diagsay-Aguja, 2024 ). These patterns align with global observations that enforcement limitations, compounded by geographic and jurisdictional challenges, can distort the apparent scope of illegal fishing practices (Febriyanto & Setiaji, 2022). Additionally, studies emphasize that the accuracy of reported data relies heavily on the capacity of enforcement bodies to conduct surveillance and compile reliable evidence (Österblom, 2014). For Indonesia, these challenges are magnified by its archipelagic geography, requiring significant investments in surveillance infrastructure and legal processes to ensure comprehensive coverage (Kuemlangan et al., 2023 ). Evidence of these limitations is seen in the very low number of cases advancing beyond initial investigation stages from 2017 to 2022, despite a substantial volume of cases overall. However, the sharp increase in reported violations in 2023 suggests a change in enforcement capacity. This shift coincides with the launch of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries’ national Command Center in late 2022, which centralized data collection, streamlined interagency coordination, and enhanced real-time monitoring. The Command Center’s establishment appears to have significantly improved the detection, documentation, and handling of violations, reflecting a broader effort to strengthen institutional frameworks and legal capacity in Indonesia’s marine and fisheries sector. Viewed through a broader lens, the sharp increase in reported cases in 2023 reflects not only domestic improvements in enforcement capacity but also Indonesia’s alignment with global trends in fisheries governance. Across various countries, spikes in recorded violations have often followed the implementation of institutional reforms and technological upgrades, such as satellite surveillance, digital reporting platforms, and centralized enforcement systems (Agnew et al., 2009 ). Rather than indicating a surge in unlawful activity, these increases typically signify that previously undetected or underreported violations are now being captured due to stronger regulatory oversight. In this context, Indonesia’s experience in 2023 can be interpreted as evidence of a maturing enforcement framework—one that is becoming more proactive, data-driven, and integrated. Moreover, this evolution supports international commitments to combat illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, reinforcing Indonesia’s role as a regional leader in sustainable marine governance. This interpretation is consistent with research emphasizing how improved enforcement often leads to increased case visibility. Technological tools like AIS tracking, Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), and satellite surveillance have been instrumental in unveiling hidden violations globally, and their deployment is often associated with a temporary increase in reported infractions (Young, 2019 ). In this light, Indonesia’s 2023 data may mark a turning point in surveillance capacity, rather than a genuine resurgence of illegal activity. The legal effectiveness data further complements this understanding. Between 2017 and 2022, the country maintained a high effectiveness ratio of 0.95, indicating a strong institutional ability to see cases through to legal resolution. These ratios reflect positively on the legal enforcement framework, aligning with global examples where systematic follow-through enhances regulatory credibility and deters future violations (McDonald et al., 2016 ). Indonesia’s legal institutions, during this period, demonstrated a commendable capacity to handle environmental infractions efficiently and with consistency. However, 2023 marked a divergence from this pattern, as the effectiveness ratio dropped to 0.714 despite the handling of only 56 formally documented cases. This decline suggests potential stress on the judicial system, possibly due to an influx of complex or contested cases that extended the legal process. Such challenges have been documented in regions managing cross-border violations or where legal disputes involve sophisticated actors or diplomatic sensitivities (Yin & Wang, 2024 ). The movement of more cases into higher judicial stages, such as appeals and cassation, reinforces this interpretation, reflecting either stronger defense from violators or procedural bottlenecks. Notably, the effectiveness of any enforcement regime is only as strong as its investigative capacity. From 2017 to 2023, very few cases reached early legal stages like investigation and P-21 prosecutorial readiness. This bottleneck at the beginning of the enforcement chain raises concerns about the comprehensiveness of documentation and the possibility of unaddressed violations. Inadequate early documentation has been identified as a significant barrier to effective fisheries enforcement worldwide (Donlan et al., 2020 ). For Indonesia, this gap suggests that enhancing frontline investigative protocols could significantly strengthen the entire legal process. The ratio of maritime surveillance coverage to the number of fisheries violations in Indonesia is quite low. Indonesia has limited maritime surveillance assets for such a large marine area—only 127 units in total, including just 2 maritime patrol aircraft and 6 Class I vessels, as shown in Fig. 5 . This limited capacity makes it extremely challenging to enforce maritime laws and monitor activities throughout the country’s extensive maritime territory. These resource limitations significantly undermine enforcement efforts, especially given the difficulties of coordinating security and implementing regulations across such a vast and complex maritime environment (Apriyanto et al., 2024 ); (Rahmawati et al., 2025 ). A notable structural shift in Indonesia’s fisheries enforcement landscape is the transition from criminal prosecution to administrative sanctioning, a change explicitly initiated by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) to improve regulatory responsiveness. Beginning in 2022 and accelerating in 2023, the number of cases handled through administrative mechanisms rose sharply—217 administrative sanctions were issued in 2023, compared to just 56 criminal prosecutions. This shift reflects MMAF’s strategy to streamline enforcement and reduce reliance on judicial processes for high-frequency, lower-severity violations such as licensing non-compliance. The move mirrors broader international trends where administrative enforcement is increasingly favored for its speed, scalability, and reduced legal overhead in managing large caseloads (Kuemlangan et al., 2023 ). Unlike criminal prosecutions, which are costly and involve lengthy legal processes, prioritizing ultimum remedium with administrative penalties enables authorities to impose fines, revoke or suspend licenses, and ensure compliance corrections more quickly. This administrative approach also helps boost the government’s fiscal capacity, as the money collected from these penalties can be reinvested in monitoring technologies, legal systems, and enforcement personnel (McDonald et al., 2016 ); (Auld et al., 2023 ). In contrast, criminal trials often cost more and lead to fewer processed cases each year, which limits their effectiveness in high-volume enforcement settings. This multipronged enforcement strategy—balancing criminal, administrative, and alternative measures—is increasingly favored by global fisheries governance frameworks. The integration of various enforcement approaches provides flexibility in dealing with both minor and severe infractions, enhancing overall system responsiveness (Auld et al., 2023 ). Indonesia’s shift reflects an institutional alignment with this global best practice, signaling an effort to tailor sanctions appropriately to the nature of each violation. Alongside the rise in administrative measures, Indonesia also increased its use of alternative actions, such as mediation and warnings. In 2023, “Other Actions” reached 15 cases, the highest in the dataset. This development indicates a growing emphasis on behavior correction and compliance-building rather than punishment alone. Research supports the inclusion of restorative measures as part of a broader enforcement strategy, especially in community-based fisheries contexts where long-term sustainability requires stakeholder engagement and education (FAO, 2020 ). A detailed examination of violations in 2023 highlights why a diversified enforcement approach makes sense. Out of 289 cases, 197 were related to licensing issues, such as not having a valid SIPI permit. These administrative lapses—considered ultimum remedium—often do not need criminal prosecution and can be effectively addressed through fines or permit suspensions (Böhm et al., 2016 ). Administrative measures provide an efficient way to manage these frequent, less serious infractions. Conversely, serious violations like using explosives, fish shocking, and illegal sea sand mining—though less common—are much more dangerous to ecosystems and human safety. These offenses require criminal prosecution because of their serious consequences, which is why criminal enforcement remains a crucial part of the legal framework (Kuemlangan et al., 2023 ). Tailoring enforcement to the severity of the violation ensures both fair justice and strong deterrence. Spatial analysis of violations adds another layer of understanding. Ports such as Belawan, Makassar, and Batam accounted for the highest number of violations, reflecting their prominence in Indonesia’s fishing industry. These hubs are particularly vulnerable to licensing fraud, transshipment violations, and non-reporting due to their high operational volumes and logistical complexity (Petrossian, 2015 ). High traffic alone increases opportunities for both deliberate and accidental regulatory breaches. Additionally, ports like Bitung and Dobo, located near international boundaries, are especially prone to IUU fishing by foreign vessels. These regions face challenges not only in enforcement but also in maritime diplomacy, as foreign intrusions often complicate legal proceedings and require cooperative regional governance strategies (Pareda, 2017 ). Strengthening bilateral and multilateral agreements could help mitigate these vulnerabilities and improve enforcement outcomes. The expanded use of digital tools and satellite tracking significantly strengthens the ability to detect fishing violations, opening new avenues for more effective enforcement. In other countries, advanced innovations such as deep learning models for vessel tracking and predictive analytics have already proven successful in supporting proactive monitoring efforts (Mujtaba & Mahapatra, 2022 ). Similarly, the Ministry has implemented the Command Center to oversee fishing vessels larger than 30 Gross Tons (GT) in Indonesian waters. Integrating these digital solutions into daily surveillance operations can boost monitoring precision, minimize response times, and improve the legal enforcement of fishing regulations. The findings also reveal a significant mismatch between the scale of Indonesia’s marine and fisheries coverage zones and the patrol vessel assets available for effective surveillance. With a total area of 6,614,590 km² and only 34 marine surveillance vessels and two aircraft, the Ministry faces considerable challenges in adequately monitoring and enforcing fisheries regulations in these vast waters (Fig. 5 ). This limitation is consistent with broader observations in marine conservation literature, where large marine areas and limited enforcement capacity often hamper the effectiveness of fisheries governance (Agnew et al., 2009 ; Sala et al., 2018). To address these challenges, the Ministry has taken proactive measures by involving local fishers as community-based surveillance partners. This participatory approach leverages the daily presence and knowledge of fishers, making them essential “eyes and ears” on the water (Pomeroy et al., 2007). The Ministry’s initiative to train local fishers as local reporters helps bridge the resource gap and facilitates quicker reporting of illegal fishing activities. Such community-based monitoring strategies have been shown to enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of fisheries management, particularly in areas near international boundaries where the risk of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is high (Cinner et al., 2012). This approach aligns with the growing recognition that inclusive governance models and co-management frameworks can improve compliance and stewardship in fisheries (Gutiérrez et al., 2011). By empowering fishers and building trust in surveillance efforts, Indonesia is fostering a collaborative environment that may ultimately deter incursions by foreign vessels and strengthen maritime sovereignty. However, to fully realize these benefits, continued investment in capacity building, training, and legal protections for local reporters is crucial (Pomeroy & Rivera-Guieb, 2006). Moreover, integrating digital tools such as satellite tracking and machine learning–based vessel monitoring systems could further enhance surveillance accuracy and responsiveness (Mujtaba & Mahapatra, 2022 ). Indonesia’s evolving enforcement landscape from 2017 to 2023 reflects both progress and ongoing challenges in combating IUU fishing. While the increase in administrative sanctions and alternative actions signals a more flexible and responsive legal system, gaps in early-stage legal processing and regional enforcement capacity must be addressed. Moving forward, a balanced strategy that includes legal reform, technological investment, and international cooperation will be crucial to sustaining compliance and protecting Indonesia’s marine resources. CONCLUSION The findings highlight a critical shift in Indonesia's marine and fisheries governance toward a more technologically enabled and institutionally integrated enforcement model. The significant increase in reported violations in 2023, following years of decline, suggests that the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) has made substantial strides in monitoring capability—most notably through the operationalization of its national Command Center in late 2022. This development underscores the importance of investing in digital surveillance infrastructure, inter-agency coordination systems, and real-time data analytics to detect and respond to violations more effectively. The surge in detected cases should be interpreted not as a deterioration of compliance, but as evidence of an increasingly competent enforcement regime that is better equipped to uncover previously hidden or underreported infractions. The ultimum remedium principle has led to a strategic shift away from a solely criminal justice approach toward a broader enforcement strategy that includes administrative and alternative penalties. This change in policy addresses the high number of licensing-related offenses, which are better managed through non-judicial measures like fines, license suspensions, and warnings. As a result, the government can handle these cases more quickly, raise non-tax revenue, and reduce the financial burden of lengthy criminal proceedings. The money generated can be used to strengthen enforcement infrastructure and staff training, creating a cycle that supports better governance. The MMAF’s efforts to follow international best practices also bolster Indonesia’s leadership in regional marine conservation and offer a model that other coastal nations with similar challenges can adopt. Nonetheless, several governance challenges remain. The persistently low number of cases that progress through early investigative and prosecutorial stages suggests weaknesses in frontline legal documentation, transparency, and procedural consistency. Additionally, spatial disparities in enforcement—particularly in high-risk port areas like Bitung, Dobo, and Belawan—point to the need for targeted capacity-building and regional cooperation, especially in zones vulnerable to cross-border IUU fishing. Addressing these issues will require not only technological upgrades but also legal reforms that strengthen case processing from investigation to final verdict. 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Overcoming complexity in illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing to achieve effective regulatory pluralism . Marine Policy, 81, 71–79. McDonald, G. G., Mangin, T., Thomas, L., & Costello, C. (2016). Designing and financing optimal enforcement for small-scale fisheries and dive tourism industries . Marine Policy, 67, 105–117. McDonald, J., MacLeod, K., & Byers, M. (2016). Fiscal capacity and marine governance: International perspectives. Ocean and Coastal Management , 128, 52-59. Miller, D. G. M., Slicer, N. M., & Sabourenkov, E. N. (2014). An action framework to address Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing . Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 6(2), 70–88. Mujtaba, D. F., & Mahapatra, N. (2022). Deep learning for spatiotemporal modeling of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing events . 2022 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI), 423–425. Pareda, E. A. (2017). Penegakan hukum tentang Illegal Unreported And Unregulated (IUU) Fishing di wilayah perbatasan perairan laut Indonesia dan Filipina menurut United Nations Fish Stock Agreement 1995 . Petrossian, G. A. (2015). Preventing illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing: A situational approach . Biological Conservation, 189, 39–48. Rahmawati, D. A., Hartantien, S. K., Kumalasari, D. R., Haryono, H., & Endarto, B. (2025). Legal framework and law enforcement of illegal fishing in Indonesia: A normative juridical approach to the protection of maritime sovereignty. West Science Law and Human Rights . S.W. Trenggono, I. Meilano, H. Latief, S.D. Diantara, W. Sakti, D.G.K. Ketaren, I.N.P. Winata, T. Yuwono, Syamdidi, F.Y. Arthatiani, K. Kasim, and I.N. Radiarta. Innovation in the blue economy and environmental sustainability in marine and fisheries strategy. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management. Volume 11, Issue 2 , April 2025, Pages 497-518 Tri Yuwono, Mutiara Rachmat Putri, Susanna Nurdjaman, Sakti Wahyu Trenggono, Kamaluddin Kasim. Examining the role of Indonesian major fishing ports on contributing to ocean macroplastic pollution. Watershed Ecology and the Environment. Volume 7, 2025, Pages 74-83, ISSN 2589-4714 Yin, M., & Wang, S. (2024). Australia’s jurisdiction and law enforcement in combating IUU fishing in the Southern Ocean . Marine Policy. https://consensus.app/papers/australia-’-s-jurisdiction-and-law-enforcement-in-yin-wang/1ab6eac538b65398a1422fa0257dcd8c/?utm_source=chatgpt Young, D. L. (2019). Deep Nets Spotlight Illegal, Unreported, Unregulated (IUU) Fishing . 2019 IEEE Applied Imagery Pattern Recognition Workshop (AIPR), 1–7. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. 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10:36:25","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6775642/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6775642/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83814068,"identity":"20fc3898-aaec-4df5-b7f4-6b02e8014387","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 07:24:10","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42173,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe frequency of marine and fisheries infractions between 2017 and 2023\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6775642/v1/4f99bce3409f32b75029a771.png"},{"id":83814069,"identity":"0d8b0f49-1828-4d00-b9c7-1af78ac7a28d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 07:24:10","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56295,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAnnual Distribution of Enforcement Actions for Marine and Fisheries Violations (2017–2023).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6775642/v1/0ef3f5638c279ce3ed976c5c.png"},{"id":83814071,"identity":"2e798663-568f-422d-be5f-0b501fba323f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 07:24:10","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":177523,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographic Distribution of Marine and Fisheries Violations in Indonesia (2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource : Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. 2023\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6775642/v1/5746e8a78c7e94d6b80b40f7.png"},{"id":83814070,"identity":"1073db5d-69ab-42c8-97c4-1e81d29c635c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 07:24:10","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65296,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInverse Relationship between Surveillance Vessel Density and Fisheries Violations in Indonesian Zones\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6775642/v1/cd9bd3ea93bae8eaaa81101f.png"},{"id":83814845,"identity":"3e87e06b-3ec0-45c7-8eb7-e9be06e69df0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 07:32:10","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":285337,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of Fisheries Management Areas (FMA) and Maritime Surveillance Assets in Indonesia. Source : Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. 2023\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6775642/v1/9970900f1a0b9f7b81f54b5f.png"},{"id":83816204,"identity":"c3b98bf2-9edd-4fb1-b0d3-8149521522ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 07:48:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1175140,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6775642/v1/cc853143-2053-402b-87bd-bcfd895fc295.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvolving Enforcement Approaches to Marine and Fisheries Violations in Indonesia: Trends, Effectiveness, and Spatial Challenges\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIndonesia, a vast archipelago with over 17,000 islands, is home to diverse marine resources that are crucial for its economic prosperity and environmental sustainability. The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) is implementing five key priority programs, including the surveillance and management of its marine and fisheries resources (Trenggono et al., 2025); (Tri Yuwono et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). However, this abundance also makes Indonesia particularly vulnerable to illegal activities. In recent years, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, unauthorized marine construction, and illegal sea sand mining have become persistent issues, threatening marine ecosystems, destabilizing local communities, and compromising national sovereignty (Quran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong these violations, Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing remains one of the most pressing concerns. Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s vast maritime domain is frequently encroached upon by foreign vessels, particularly from neighboring countries like Vietnam and Malaysia, who operate without proper licenses in Indonesian waters. These intrusions are often difficult to monitor due to the limited capacity for maritime surveillance, especially in remote border regions (Wardhani \u0026amp; Triadi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Equally destructive are local practices such as fish bombing and electric fishing, which cause irreversible damage to coral reef ecosystems and drastically reduce fish stocks. These methods, though illegal, are still used in some coastal communities due to economic pressures and weak enforcement. Over time, this results in the degradation of crucial marine habitats, threatening the sustainability of fisheries and marine tourism (Huwae et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to fishing violations, the rise of illegal sea sand mining has brought new environmental concerns. Sand mining, especially in areas like Batam, is often conducted without permits, leading to severe coastal erosion, habitat loss, and water quality degradation. Despite existing legal provisions, enforcement against these environmentally harmful activities remains sporadic and inconsistent across jurisdictions (Ananta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the main challenges in tackling marine violations in Indonesia lies in the fragmented enforcement structure. Multiple agencies\u0026mdash;including the police, navy, fisheries inspectors, and maritime security authorities\u0026mdash;share overlapping responsibilities, often without clear coordination. This institutional fragmentation results in delays, inefficiencies, and jurisdictional confusion during enforcement operations (Samiaji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognizing these challenges, the Indonesian government formed Task Force 115 in 2015 to enhance coordination and enforcement capacity, particularly against IUU fishing. The task force has contributed to improved surveillance, increased vessel monitoring, and more stringent prosecutions. However, its focus remains largely confined to fisheries, and other violations like illegal construction and sand mining continue to receive less attention from central enforcement bodies (Suherman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe financial impact of marine violations is substantial. Illegal fishing alone is estimated to cost the country over IDR 30 trillion annually. Additionally, unregulated marine activities reduce fishery productivity and cause indirect losses through environmental degradation and reduced tourism appeal. These economic consequences are most acutely felt by small-scale fishing communities who rely on healthy marine ecosystems for their livelihoods (Wibowo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough Indonesia has established legal frameworks such as the Fisheries Law (No. 45/2009) and the Mining Law (No. 4/2009), enforcement on the ground remains weak. Offenders are often lightly penalized or go unpunished due to limited monitoring resources and inefficient legal processes. As a result, the legal deterrence necessary to prevent repeat offenses is often lacking (Raharjo \u0026amp; Saputra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond the legal and technical issues, political and social dynamics further complicate enforcement. Corruption, overlapping interests, and limited public awareness frequently obstruct effective marine governance. In many cases, powerful actors benefit from regulatory loopholes or complicity, while coastal communities may lack knowledge about the long-term consequences of marine violations (Nataliana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). To address these issues, a more integrated approach to marine governance is needed\u0026mdash;one that combines policy reform, improved inter-agency coordination, community engagement, and investment in surveillance technologies. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of marine resource violations in Indonesia from 2017 to 2023, using empirical data to explore the nature and trends of violations, enforcement responses, and the broader implications for governance. Through this, it seeks to identify actionable solutions that can support more effective and sustainable marine management (Nasution et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a quantitative and descriptive research approach to analyze the trends, distribution, and enforcement outcomes of marine and fishery violations in Indonesia from 2017 to 2023. The primary objective was to assess the scale of illegal activities in Indonesian waters, the types of violations occurring, and the effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms. The analysis was based entirely on secondary data provided by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) of the Republic of Indonesia. Specifically, annual reports published by the MMAF from 2017 to 2023 served as the official data source. These reports included comprehensive records on the total number of marine and fishery violations recorded each year; the classification of violation types, including illegal sea sand mining, fishing without permits, unreported catch, destructive fishing (e.g., electric fishing and fish bombing), transshipment violations, and unauthorized marine construction; the number of violations that resulted in successful legal prosecution or criminal enforcement; and a geographic distribution map showing the locations of recorded violations across Indonesian maritime zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were compiled into a structured dataset to allow for temporal trend analysis across the seven-year period. Descriptive statistics were used to examine annual changes in the number and types of violations. This allowed for the identification of years or regions with significant spikes in illegal activity and to track enforcement outcomes over time. To evaluate law enforcement effectiveness, the Effectiveness Ratio was calculated annually as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{E}\\text{f}\\text{f}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\text{s}\\:\\text{R}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}=\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{F}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{V}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\:\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{s}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:\\left(\\text{I}\\text{n}\\text{k}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{c}\\text{h}\\text{t}\\right)}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{s}\\text{e}\\text{s}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis ratio served as a key performance indicator for enforcement capacity, indicating the proportion of reported cases successfully processed to a final legal conclusion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo quantify the relationship between the ratio of area per vessel and the number of violation cases, we calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) using the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003er = (nΣxy - (Σx)(Σy)) / sqrt[(nΣx\u0026sup2; - (Σx)\u0026sup2;)(nΣy\u0026sup2; - (Σy)\u0026sup2;)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en is the number of data points (zones)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ex represents the ratio of area per vessel\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ey represents the number of violation cases\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trendline will be computed by applying a simple linear regression using the least squares approach. This method helps illustrate the overall pattern in the data, as described by the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ey\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;a\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;bx\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eb = (nΣxy - (Σx)(Σy)) / (nΣx\u0026sup2; - (Σx)\u0026sup2;) (slope)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea = (Σy - bΣx) / n (intercept)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, to investigate the relationship between surveillance capacity and violation rates, a correlation analysis was conducted between the ratio of area per surveillance vessel (km\u0026sup2;/vessel) and the number of violation cases. The data points for this analysis were derived from the zone-based dataset of Indonesian maritime areas. The correlation graph revealed a negative relationship, indicating that zones with higher vessel coverage (smaller area per vessel) tend to report fewer violations\u0026mdash;supporting the idea that robust enforcement presence acts as a deterrent. This analysis was visualized through a scatter plot with a trendline generated in R.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data used in this research were publicly available and published by the Indonesian government. No personal or sensitive information was collected, and ethical approval was not required for the use of secondary administrative data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe annual trend in marine and fisheries violation cases from 2017 to 2023 showed in the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below. The data show a relatively stable number of cases in 2017 and 2018, with 197 and 193 cases respectively. However, there was a gradual decline from 2019 to 2022, reaching a low of 137 cases in 2022. This downward trend may reflect either a temporary reduction in illegal activities or potential underreporting due to limited enforcement resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn stark contrast to the preceding downward trend, 2023 saw a dramatic rise in reported marine and fisheries violations, reaching 289 cases\u0026mdash;the highest in the seven-year period. This surge closely followed the establishment of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries' (MMAF) Command Center in September 2022, suggesting that the institution's operationalization had a measurable impact on enforcement outcomes. Designed to centralize surveillance, enhance interagency coordination, and enable real-time monitoring, the Command Center significantly improved the Ministry\u0026rsquo;s capacity to detect and respond to violations. The sharp increase in reported cases just one year after its launch is therefore best interpreted as evidence of enhanced monitoring and enforcement effectiveness rather than a simple resurgence of illegal activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness analysis shows consistently high legal effectiveness, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, with an overall effectiveness ratio of 0.95. This ratio\u0026mdash;calculated as the number of cases reaching a final verdict (inkracht) divided by the total number of cases\u0026mdash;indicates that most violations were followed through to legal resolution. Notably, 2020 recorded a perfect effectiveness ratio of 1.00, as all 106 cases resulted in final verdicts. Similarly, other years like 2021 and 2018 maintained high ratios of 0.976 and 0.956 respectively, even with large case volumes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the effectiveness ratio dropped to 0.714 in 2023, the lowest in the seven-year span, despite handling only 56 cases. This suggests a decline in the proportion of cases reaching a legal conclusion, possibly due to increasing legal complexity, more contested prosecutions, or resource limitations. Supporting this, 2023 saw more cases reaching higher judicial stages such as appeals and cassations, which may signal either stronger legal pushback by violators or procedural delays.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA unusual pattern in the data is the very low number of cases documented at early legal stages. For example, over seven years, only 9 cases were formally investigated, and only 12 reached the P-21 stage (prosecutorial readiness). This discrepancy raises concerns about underreporting or gaps in legal documentation, which could obscure the true scale and handling of violations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of Legal Handling and Effectiveness of Marine and Fisheries Violation Cases (2017\u0026ndash;2023) Source\u003c/em\u003e : Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Cases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSP3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase II\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCourt Trial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppeal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJudicial Review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinal Verdict (Inkracht)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffectiveness Ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTOTAL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e826\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e781\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.95\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the effectiveness, the distribution of enforcement actions from 2017 to 2023 shows a significant strategic shift from criminal prosecution to administrative sanctions in handling marine and fisheries violations, as described in the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below. During the earlier years (2017\u0026ndash;2021), the majority of cases were processed through criminal channels, consistently exceeding 100 cases annually. However, this trend changed sharply in 2022 and especially in 2023, where criminal process cases dropped to 59 and 56 respectively, while administrative sanctions dramatically rose, culminating in 217 cases in 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Alongside this change, the other actions were warnings or mediation\u0026mdash;has shown a modest but notable increase, particularly in 2023 with 15 cases, the highest across all years. This diversification of enforcement responses emphasizes adaptive and restorative approaches taken by the Ministry, aiming not just to punish but to correct behaviour and prevent future violations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of violation types in marine and fisheries cases during 2023 offers important context to support the patterns seen in earlier data. Of the 289 total cases handled that year, a significant majority\u0026mdash;197 cases\u0026mdash;were related to vessel operation without valid fishing licenses or non-compliance with the fishing permit (SIPI). This category alone made up over 68% of all violations, indicating that regulatory non-compliance regarding licensing remains the most critical enforcement issue in Indonesia's fisheries sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below, more severe violations such as use of explosives (18 cases), fish shocking (4 cases), and unauthorized sea sand mining (4 cases) were far fewer but potentially more damaging to marine ecosystems. These acts are to be handled through criminal processes due to their destructive impact and associated safety concerns, supporting why the criminal route still accounted for a portion of 2023\u0026rsquo;s enforcement actions. Other violations like illegal transhipment (8 cases), non-compliant fishing routes (36 cases), and failure to report or land catches reflect issues in operational transparency and traceability within the fisheries sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTypes of Marine and Fisheries Violations and Legal References in 2023 Source\u003c/em\u003e : Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of Violation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlleged Article\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e# Cases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo Documents / Non-Compliant with SIPI (Fishing License)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 Article 98 or Article 27(1) jo PP Article 317(1)(g) jo Article 1(c) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 10 of 2021 jo Article 8(1) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 31 of 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForgery of Business Documents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 27 point 29 Law No. 11 of 2020 amendment to Article 94A jo Article 28A Law No. 45 of 2009 on Fisheries jo Article 55(1) Penalty Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFishing in Conservation Area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 7(2)(a, j) Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022, Article 3(1)(j), and Article 2(3) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 31 of 2021 with administrative sanction Article 7(1) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 31 of 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFailure to Report Catch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 103(1) and Article 102(2)(b) Ministerial Regulation of MMAF No. 58 of 2020 on Capture Fisheries Business\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-Compliant Fishing Route\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 27A(1) jo. Article 7(2)(c) and Article 41(3) Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries as amended by Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFailure to Land Catch at Fishing Port\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 41(3) Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries as amended by Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplosives\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 84(1) jo Article 8(1) Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries or Article 27 point 34 Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFish Shocking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 84(1) jo Article 8(1) Law No. 45 of 2009 on Fisheries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-compliance with Business Licensing Documents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 27A Law No. 6 of 2023 on Business Licensing or Article 92 jo Article 26(91) Law No. 45 of 2009 as amended and supplemented by Law No. 11 of 2020 on Job Creation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnauthorized Sea Sand Mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 16A jo Article 6(2) Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation and Article 23(1) jo Article 10(1) Government Regulation No. 26 of 2023 on Marine Sediment Management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranshipment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 28 Law No. 6 of 2023 on Ratification of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 2 of 2022 on Job Creation jo Ministerial Circular B.1049/MEN-KP/VII/2023 on 17 July 2023 concerning Compliance of Business Actors with Non-Tax State Revenue from Post-Production Fishery Levies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSunken Vessel Cargo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle 5(1) Presidential Regulation No. 8 of 2023 on Management of Sunken Vessel Cargo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal Cases\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e289\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 2023 distribution of marine and fisheries violations by port highlights several hotspots with high case volumes, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e below. The ports with the highest number of fisheries violations are Belawan (45 cases), Makassar (30 cases), Batam (24 cases), Dobo (15 cases), and Bitung (13 cases).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple factors drive the high number of violations in these ports. First, Belawan and Batam are key commercial fishing hubs in Indonesia, situated in outer Indonesian waters that border neighboring countries, making them among the busiest ports. In the east, Makassar sees heavy traffic and large-scale industrial fishing operations, which raises the risk of both deliberate rule-breaking and regulatory oversights.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Second, ports like Bitung and Dobo, which lie close to international waters, are more exposed to cross-border IUU (Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated) fishing, serving as gateways for fleets operating in contested or weakly supervised areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e below reveals a clear negative correlation between the ratio of area per vessel (km\u0026sup2;/vessel) and the number of violation cases across different zones. Specifically, as the area per vessel increases, the number of violations tends to decrease, as shown by the downward-sloping trend line. This suggests that in zones where each vessel must cover a larger area, there were fewer opportunities for infractions or violations because of less intense monitoring in these vast areas. Conversely, smaller areas per vessel are associated with a higher number of violations, because of more effective monitoring by authorities. Notably, zones like Zone 03 and Zone 05 show high numbers of cases despite covering larger areas, while Zone 02 has the fewest violations in a relatively high area-per-vessel context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, this trend underscores the critical importance of strengthening surveillance efforts\u0026mdash;including vessel deployment\u0026mdash;and addressing underlying factors like local economic pressures and community engagement to effectively curb illegal fishing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ratio of marine and fisheries coverage zones to the patrol vessel assets, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, has also been analyzed. Covering a total area of 6,614,590 km\u0026sup2;, the Ministry must rely on 34 marine surveillance vessels and two surveillance aircraft to monitor these vast waters. Despite these limited resources, the Ministry has actively engaged local fishers as \u0026ldquo;eyes and ears\u0026rdquo; on the water. These fishers have been trained as local reporters to swiftly report any fishing violations they witness, particularly in primary fishing grounds and areas near international boundaries that are vulnerable to incursions by foreign vessels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe observed decline in reported marine and fisheries violations in Indonesia from 2017 to 2022 does not necessarily indicate a genuine reduction in illegal activities. Instead, it points to ongoing challenges in detection and enforcement capacity. A primary factor contributing to this gap is the shortage of skilled personnel and patrol vessels to cover Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s vast maritime areas, which has hampered the ability to enforce fisheries regulations effectively (Islam \u0026amp; Hasan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Directorate General of Enforcement of Marine and Fisheries currently operates only 14 monitoring stations, staffed by 413 trained personnel (MMAF, 2023), to oversee this extensive jurisdiction\u0026mdash;an insufficient number to provide comprehensive coverage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis challenge is not unique to Indonesia. For example, Namibia has also faced difficulties in fisheries law enforcement due to limited numbers of adequately trained officers, resulting in persistent gaps in monitoring and legal proceedings (Warikandwa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Such staffing and resource shortages, combined with vast and remote fishing areas, have been shown to create misleading trends in violation data, masking the true prevalence of illegal fishing rather than signaling genuine improvements in compliance (Labutap-Noble \u0026amp; Diagsay-Aguja, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese patterns align with global observations that enforcement limitations, compounded by geographic and jurisdictional challenges, can distort the apparent scope of illegal fishing practices (Febriyanto \u0026amp; Setiaji, 2022). Additionally, studies emphasize that the accuracy of reported data relies heavily on the capacity of enforcement bodies to conduct surveillance and compile reliable evidence (\u0026Ouml;sterblom, 2014). For Indonesia, these challenges are magnified by its archipelagic geography, requiring significant investments in surveillance infrastructure and legal processes to ensure comprehensive coverage (Kuemlangan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence of these limitations is seen in the very low number of cases advancing beyond initial investigation stages from 2017 to 2022, despite a substantial volume of cases overall. However, the sharp increase in reported violations in 2023 suggests a change in enforcement capacity. This shift coincides with the launch of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries\u0026rsquo; national Command Center in late 2022, which centralized data collection, streamlined interagency coordination, and enhanced real-time monitoring. The Command Center\u0026rsquo;s establishment appears to have significantly improved the detection, documentation, and handling of violations, reflecting a broader effort to strengthen institutional frameworks and legal capacity in Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s marine and fisheries sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViewed through a broader lens, the sharp increase in reported cases in 2023 reflects not only domestic improvements in enforcement capacity but also Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s alignment with global trends in fisheries governance. Across various countries, spikes in recorded violations have often followed the implementation of institutional reforms and technological upgrades, such as satellite surveillance, digital reporting platforms, and centralized enforcement systems (Agnew et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Rather than indicating a surge in unlawful activity, these increases typically signify that previously undetected or underreported violations are now being captured due to stronger regulatory oversight. In this context, Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s experience in 2023 can be interpreted as evidence of a maturing enforcement framework\u0026mdash;one that is becoming more proactive, data-driven, and integrated. Moreover, this evolution supports international commitments to combat illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, reinforcing Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s role as a regional leader in sustainable marine governance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis interpretation is consistent with research emphasizing how improved enforcement often leads to increased case visibility. Technological tools like AIS tracking, Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), and satellite surveillance have been instrumental in unveiling hidden violations globally, and their deployment is often associated with a temporary increase in reported infractions (Young, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In this light, Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s 2023 data may mark a turning point in surveillance capacity, rather than a genuine resurgence of illegal activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe legal effectiveness data further complements this understanding. Between 2017 and 2022, the country maintained a high effectiveness ratio of 0.95, indicating a strong institutional ability to see cases through to legal resolution. These ratios reflect positively on the legal enforcement framework, aligning with global examples where systematic follow-through enhances regulatory credibility and deters future violations (McDonald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s legal institutions, during this period, demonstrated a commendable capacity to handle environmental infractions efficiently and with consistency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, 2023 marked a divergence from this pattern, as the effectiveness ratio dropped to 0.714 despite the handling of only 56 formally documented cases. This decline suggests potential stress on the judicial system, possibly due to an influx of complex or contested cases that extended the legal process. Such challenges have been documented in regions managing cross-border violations or where legal disputes involve sophisticated actors or diplomatic sensitivities (Yin \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The movement of more cases into higher judicial stages, such as appeals and cassation, reinforces this interpretation, reflecting either stronger defense from violators or procedural bottlenecks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, the effectiveness of any enforcement regime is only as strong as its investigative capacity. From 2017 to 2023, very few cases reached early legal stages like investigation and P-21 prosecutorial readiness. This bottleneck at the beginning of the enforcement chain raises concerns about the comprehensiveness of documentation and the possibility of unaddressed violations. Inadequate early documentation has been identified as a significant barrier to effective fisheries enforcement worldwide (Donlan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). For Indonesia, this gap suggests that enhancing frontline investigative protocols could significantly strengthen the entire legal process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ratio of maritime surveillance coverage to the number of fisheries violations in Indonesia is quite low. Indonesia has limited maritime surveillance assets for such a large marine area\u0026mdash;only 127 units in total, including just 2 maritime patrol aircraft and 6 Class I vessels, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. This limited capacity makes it extremely challenging to enforce maritime laws and monitor activities throughout the country\u0026rsquo;s extensive maritime territory. These resource limitations significantly undermine enforcement efforts, especially given the difficulties of coordinating security and implementing regulations across such a vast and complex maritime environment (Apriyanto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e); (Rahmawati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA notable structural shift in Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s fisheries enforcement landscape is the transition from criminal prosecution to administrative sanctioning, a change explicitly initiated by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) to improve regulatory responsiveness. Beginning in 2022 and accelerating in 2023, the number of cases handled through administrative mechanisms rose sharply\u0026mdash;217 administrative sanctions were issued in 2023, compared to just 56 criminal prosecutions. This shift reflects MMAF\u0026rsquo;s strategy to streamline enforcement and reduce reliance on judicial processes for high-frequency, lower-severity violations such as licensing non-compliance. The move mirrors broader international trends where administrative enforcement is increasingly favored for its speed, scalability, and reduced legal overhead in managing large caseloads (Kuemlangan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnlike criminal prosecutions, which are costly and involve lengthy legal processes, prioritizing \u003cem\u003eultimum remedium\u003c/em\u003e with administrative penalties enables authorities to impose fines, revoke or suspend licenses, and ensure compliance corrections more quickly. This administrative approach also helps boost the government\u0026rsquo;s fiscal capacity, as the money collected from these penalties can be reinvested in monitoring technologies, legal systems, and enforcement personnel (McDonald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e); (Auld et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, criminal trials often cost more and lead to fewer processed cases each year, which limits their effectiveness in high-volume enforcement settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis multipronged enforcement strategy\u0026mdash;balancing criminal, administrative, and alternative measures\u0026mdash;is increasingly favored by global fisheries governance frameworks. The integration of various enforcement approaches provides flexibility in dealing with both minor and severe infractions, enhancing overall system responsiveness (Auld et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s shift reflects an institutional alignment with this global best practice, signaling an effort to tailor sanctions appropriately to the nature of each violation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlongside the rise in administrative measures, Indonesia also increased its use of alternative actions, such as mediation and warnings. In 2023, \u0026ldquo;Other Actions\u0026rdquo; reached 15 cases, the highest in the dataset. This development indicates a growing emphasis on behavior correction and compliance-building rather than punishment alone. Research supports the inclusion of restorative measures as part of a broader enforcement strategy, especially in community-based fisheries contexts where long-term sustainability requires stakeholder engagement and education (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA detailed examination of violations in 2023 highlights why a diversified enforcement approach makes sense. Out of 289 cases, 197 were related to licensing issues, such as not having a valid SIPI permit. These administrative lapses\u0026mdash;considered ultimum remedium\u0026mdash;often do not need criminal prosecution and can be effectively addressed through fines or permit suspensions (B\u0026ouml;hm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Administrative measures provide an efficient way to manage these frequent, less serious infractions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, serious violations like using explosives, fish shocking, and illegal sea sand mining\u0026mdash;though less common\u0026mdash;are much more dangerous to ecosystems and human safety. These offenses require criminal prosecution because of their serious consequences, which is why criminal enforcement remains a crucial part of the legal framework (Kuemlangan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Tailoring enforcement to the severity of the violation ensures both fair justice and strong deterrence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpatial analysis of violations adds another layer of understanding. Ports such as Belawan, Makassar, and Batam accounted for the highest number of violations, reflecting their prominence in Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s fishing industry. These hubs are particularly vulnerable to licensing fraud, transshipment violations, and non-reporting due to their high operational volumes and logistical complexity (Petrossian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). High traffic alone increases opportunities for both deliberate and accidental regulatory breaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, ports like Bitung and Dobo, located near international boundaries, are especially prone to IUU fishing by foreign vessels. These regions face challenges not only in enforcement but also in maritime diplomacy, as foreign intrusions often complicate legal proceedings and require cooperative regional governance strategies (Pareda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Strengthening bilateral and multilateral agreements could help mitigate these vulnerabilities and improve enforcement outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe expanded use of digital tools and satellite tracking significantly strengthens the ability to detect fishing violations, opening new avenues for more effective enforcement. In other countries, advanced innovations such as deep learning models for vessel tracking and predictive analytics have already proven successful in supporting proactive monitoring efforts (Mujtaba \u0026amp; Mahapatra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the Ministry has implemented the Command Center to oversee fishing vessels larger than 30 Gross Tons (GT) in Indonesian waters. Integrating these digital solutions into daily surveillance operations can boost monitoring precision, minimize response times, and improve the legal enforcement of fishing regulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also reveal a significant mismatch between the scale of Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s marine and fisheries coverage zones and the patrol vessel assets available for effective surveillance. With a total area of 6,614,590 km\u0026sup2; and only 34 marine surveillance vessels and two aircraft, the Ministry faces considerable challenges in adequately monitoring and enforcing fisheries regulations in these vast waters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This limitation is consistent with broader observations in marine conservation literature, where large marine areas and limited enforcement capacity often hamper the effectiveness of fisheries governance (Agnew et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Sala et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these challenges, the Ministry has taken proactive measures by involving local fishers as community-based surveillance partners. This participatory approach leverages the daily presence and knowledge of fishers, making them essential \u0026ldquo;eyes and ears\u0026rdquo; on the water (Pomeroy et al., 2007). The Ministry\u0026rsquo;s initiative to train local fishers as local reporters helps bridge the resource gap and facilitates quicker reporting of illegal fishing activities. Such community-based monitoring strategies have been shown to enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of fisheries management, particularly in areas near international boundaries where the risk of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is high (Cinner et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis approach aligns with the growing recognition that inclusive governance models and co-management frameworks can improve compliance and stewardship in fisheries (Guti\u0026eacute;rrez et al., 2011). By empowering fishers and building trust in surveillance efforts, Indonesia is fostering a collaborative environment that may ultimately deter incursions by foreign vessels and strengthen maritime sovereignty. However, to fully realize these benefits, continued investment in capacity building, training, and legal protections for local reporters is crucial (Pomeroy \u0026amp; Rivera-Guieb, 2006). Moreover, integrating digital tools such as satellite tracking and machine learning\u0026ndash;based vessel monitoring systems could further enhance surveillance accuracy and responsiveness (Mujtaba \u0026amp; Mahapatra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndonesia\u0026rsquo;s evolving enforcement landscape from 2017 to 2023 reflects both progress and ongoing challenges in combating IUU fishing. While the increase in administrative sanctions and alternative actions signals a more flexible and responsive legal system, gaps in early-stage legal processing and regional enforcement capacity must be addressed. Moving forward, a balanced strategy that includes legal reform, technological investment, and international cooperation will be crucial to sustaining compliance and protecting Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s marine resources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings highlight a critical shift in Indonesia's marine and fisheries governance toward a more technologically enabled and institutionally integrated enforcement model. The significant increase in reported violations in 2023, following years of decline, suggests that the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) has made substantial strides in monitoring capability\u0026mdash;most notably through the operationalization of its national Command Center in late 2022. This development underscores the importance of investing in digital surveillance infrastructure, inter-agency coordination systems, and real-time data analytics to detect and respond to violations more effectively. The surge in detected cases should be interpreted not as a deterioration of compliance, but as evidence of an increasingly competent enforcement regime that is better equipped to uncover previously hidden or underreported infractions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eultimum remedium\u003c/em\u003e principle has led to a strategic shift away from a solely criminal justice approach toward a broader enforcement strategy that includes administrative and alternative penalties. This change in policy addresses the high number of licensing-related offenses, which are better managed through non-judicial measures like fines, license suspensions, and warnings. As a result, the government can handle these cases more quickly, raise non-tax revenue, and reduce the financial burden of lengthy criminal proceedings. The money generated can be used to strengthen enforcement infrastructure and staff training, creating a cycle that supports better governance. The MMAF\u0026rsquo;s efforts to follow international best practices also bolster Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s leadership in regional marine conservation and offer a model that other coastal nations with similar challenges can adopt.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonetheless, several governance challenges remain. The persistently low number of cases that progress through early investigative and prosecutorial stages suggests weaknesses in frontline legal documentation, transparency, and procedural consistency. Additionally, spatial disparities in enforcement\u0026mdash;particularly in high-risk port areas like Bitung, Dobo, and Belawan\u0026mdash;point to the need for targeted capacity-building and regional cooperation, especially in zones vulnerable to cross-border IUU fishing. Addressing these issues will require not only technological upgrades but also legal reforms that strengthen case processing from investigation to final verdict. Ultimately, Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s progress reflects a dynamic enforcement system in transition, where continued investment in both institutional capacity and regional partnerships will be essential for sustaining gains and ensuring long-term protection of marine and fisheries resources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnanta, A. E. (2024). \u003cem\u003ePenegakan hukum terhadap pelaku tindak pidana penambangan pasir secara illegal\u003c/em\u003e. Savana: Indonesian Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Law. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eApriyanto, S., Hasibuan, F. Y., \u0026amp; Suganda, A. (2024). Resolving transnational crime in the Indonesian sea border area: Case studies and legal effects. LITERACY: International Scientific Journals of Social, Education, Humanities. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAuld, G., Cashore, B., \u0026amp; Levin, K. (2023). 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R., Haryono, H., \u0026amp; Endarto, B. (2025). Legal framework and law enforcement of illegal fishing in Indonesia: A normative juridical approach to the protection of maritime sovereignty. \u003cem\u003eWest Science Law and Human Rights\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS.W. Trenggono, I. Meilano, H. Latief, S.D. Diantara, W. Sakti, D.G.K. Ketaren, I.N.P. Winata, T. Yuwono, Syamdidi, F.Y. Arthatiani, K. Kasim, and I.N. Radiarta. Innovation in the blue economy and environmental sustainability in marine and fisheries strategy. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management. Volume 11, Issue 2 , April 2025, Pages 497-518\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTri Yuwono, Mutiara Rachmat Putri, Susanna Nurdjaman, Sakti Wahyu Trenggono, Kamaluddin Kasim. Examining the role of Indonesian major fishing ports on contributing to ocean macroplastic pollution. Watershed Ecology and the Environment. Volume 7, 2025, Pages 74-83, ISSN 2589-4714\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYin, M., \u0026amp; Wang, S. (2024). \u003cem\u003eAustralia\u0026rsquo;s jurisdiction and law enforcement in combating IUU fishing in the Southern Ocean\u003c/em\u003e. Marine Policy. https://consensus.app/papers/australia-\u0026rsquo;-s-jurisdiction-and-law-enforcement-in-yin-wang/1ab6eac538b65398a1422fa0257dcd8c/?utm_source=chatgpt\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoung, D. L. (2019). \u003cem\u003eDeep Nets Spotlight Illegal, Unreported, Unregulated (IUU) Fishing\u003c/em\u003e. 2019 IEEE Applied Imagery Pattern Recognition Workshop (AIPR), 1\u0026ndash;7. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Faculty of Earth Science and Technology Bandung Institute of Technology","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Marine governance, fisheries, violations, enforcement approach, trend, effectiveness, challenges","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6775642/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6775642/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIndonesia\u0026rsquo;s vast archipelagic waters, rich in marine resources, face persistent challenges from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, unlicensed sea construction, and unauthorized sea sand mining. Using secondary data from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) covering 2017 to 2023, this study examines trends in marine violations, enforcement effectiveness, and spatial patterns across Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s maritime zones. Results reveal a steady decline in reported cases until 2022, followed by a significant surge in 2023, coinciding with the activation of MMAF\u0026rsquo;s Command Center for enhanced digital surveillance and interagency coordination. High legal effectiveness ratios (0.95 on average) reflect strong institutional capacity, though 2023\u0026rsquo;s decline to 0.71 signals emerging bottlenecks in prosecutorial and judicial processes. Notably, a marked shift from criminal prosecutions to administrative sanctions highlights an evolving enforcement strategy that prioritizes efficiency and adaptability, consistent with international best practices. Spatial analysis identifies enforcement vulnerabilities in high-traffic ports like Belawan and Makassar, and in zones with low surveillance vessel density\u0026mdash;underscoring the link between weak coverage and elevated violation rates. Conversely, areas with higher vessel presence demonstrate lower violations, supporting the role of robust surveillance in deterrence. However, anomalies in zones like Zona 06, with moderate vessel coverage yet high violation numbers, suggest that social and economic factors also shape compliance outcomes. The findings underscore the need for a balanced governance approach: integrating technology-driven monitoring, legal reforms, and community engagement to strengthen Indonesia\u0026rsquo;s capacity to combat marine violations and ensure long-term ecological sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evolving Enforcement Approaches to Marine and Fisheries Violations in Indonesia: Trends, Effectiveness, and Spatial Challenges","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-03 07:24:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6775642/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7a4e3e55-8b3a-4ebc-bcd0-a013a00de7b5","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":49226004,"name":"Environmental Policy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-03T07:24:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-03 07:24:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6775642","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6775642","identity":"rs-6775642","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}