Sex, anthropometric, behavioural, and socioeconomic disparities in physical strength of german children and adolescents

Sex, anthropometric, behavioural, and socioeconomic disparities in physical strength of german children and adolescents | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sex, anthropometric, behavioural, and socioeconomic disparities in physical strength of german children and adolescents Thorsten Klein, Anke Hanssen-Doose, Leon Klos, Augustin Kelava, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7701967/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Evidence suggests that sex, body composition, physical activ- ity (PA), and socioeconomic status (SES) significantly influence development of physical strength - a key factor for health - in youth. However most research has focused on isolated age groups or regions, limiting broader generalizability. This study aims to investigate sex, anthropometric, behavioral, and socioeconomic dis- parities in physical strength using representative data from Germany. Methods: We analysed a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal data from 13,735 individuals (aged 4–31 years) assessed in three waves of the Motorik-Modul (MoMo) study (2003-2017). Physical strength was measured using standing long jump, sit-ups, and push-ups. Body fat percentage (BF%) was measured via bioelectrical impedance analysis and age, sex, SES, and PA were self-reported. A latent strength variable was calculated through confirmatory factor analy- sis based on the three strength tasks. Using Generalized Additive Models for Location and Scale with the Gaussian location-scale model family (GAMLSS) disparities based on sex, BF%, PA, and SES were estimated. Marginal effects (Cohen´s d for sex and Pearson’s r for BF%, PA, and SES) were calculated for the ages 10 and 18. Results: GAMLSS explained up to 74.6% of variance in strength-related measures. Sex disparities in physical strength emerged around puberty, with males showing performance increases while females stagnated or declined. By age 18, effect sizes ranged from d=.92 (push-ups and sit-ups) to d=2.22 (standing long jump), highlighting a widening performance gap. BF% had a strong effect, with performance differences widening by late adolescence. At age 18, marginal effects ranged from r=-.45 (sit-ups) to r=-.91 (standing long jump). PA disparities in physical strength increased with age as well, with marginal effects ranging from r=.31 (sit-ups) to r=.36 (push-ups) at age 18. SES had a minor impact, though higher SES was linked to slightly better per- formance, particularly after puberty. Marginal effects for SES at age 18 ranged from r=.11 (pus-ups and sit-ups) to r=.17 (standing long jump). Conclusion: Our findings highlight the importance of addressing sex, anthropometric, and behavioral disparities in youth strength development, especially during puberty. Future research should explore nutritional and psychological factors, alongside detailed body composition and physical activity intensity measures Strength Disparities Children and Adolescents Muscular fitness Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 13 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 28 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Oct, 2025 Editor invited by journal 29 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 25 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 24 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7701967","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":539779236,"identity":"75129f85-dce3-4ea4-aab4-a1fc2628bac0","order_by":0,"name":"Thorsten 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adolescents","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Strength, Disparities, Children and Adolescents, Muscular fitness","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7701967/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7701967/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBackground: Evidence suggests that sex, body composition, physical activ- ity (PA), and socioeconomic status (SES) significantly influence development of physical strength - a key factor for health - in youth. However most research has focused on isolated age groups or regions, limiting broader generalizability. This study aims to investigate sex, anthropometric, behavioral, and socioeconomic dis- parities in physical strength using representative data from Germany.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMethods: We analysed a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal data from 13,735 individuals (aged 4–31 years) assessed in three waves of the Motorik-Modul (MoMo) study (2003-2017). Physical strength was measured using standing long jump, sit-ups, and push-ups. Body fat percentage (BF%) was measured via bioelectrical impedance analysis and age, sex, SES, and PA were self-reported. A latent strength variable was calculated through confirmatory factor analy- sis based on the three strength tasks. Using Generalized Additive Models for Location and Scale with the Gaussian location-scale model family (GAMLSS) disparities based on sex, BF%, PA, and SES were estimated. Marginal effects (Cohen´s d for sex and Pearson’s r for BF%, PA, and SES) were calculated for the ages 10 and 18.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults: GAMLSS explained up to 74.6% of variance in strength-related measures. Sex disparities in physical strength emerged around puberty, with males showing performance increases while females stagnated or declined. By age 18, effect sizes ranged from d=.92 (push-ups and sit-ups) to d=2.22 (standing long jump), highlighting a widening performance gap. BF% had a strong effect, with performance differences widening by late adolescence. At age 18, marginal effects ranged from r=-.45 (sit-ups) to r=-.91 (standing long jump). PA disparities in physical strength increased with age as well, with marginal effects ranging from r=.31 (sit-ups) to r=.36 (push-ups) at age 18. SES had a minor impact, though higher SES was linked to slightly better per- formance, particularly after puberty. Marginal effects for SES at age 18 ranged from r=.11 (pus-ups and sit-ups) to r=.17 (standing long jump).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConclusion: Our findings highlight the importance of addressing sex, anthropometric, and behavioral disparities in youth strength development, especially during puberty. Future research should explore nutritional and psychological factors, alongside detailed body composition and physical activity intensity measures\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sex, anthropometric, behavioural, and socioeconomic disparities in physical strength of german children and adolescents","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-06 10:27:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7701967/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-13T23:04:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"54739556874867809652678493364486120141","date":"2025-11-12T16:05:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"111724139899046013840697426131966793728","date":"2025-11-03T16:20:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-28T11:08:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"35673184482213690309204605255434541931","date":"2025-10-27T13:45:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T09:35:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-29T14:36:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-25T12:17:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-25T12:17:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2025-09-24T09:22:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1e241681-b6ee-487b-adfe-4eec416cbcb1","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-06T10:27:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-06 10:27:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7701967","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7701967","identity":"rs-7701967","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}