Value-Based Authority and School Discipline: Understanding Students’ Perceptions in Secondary Education

Value-Based Authority and School Discipline: Understanding Students’ Perceptions in Secondary Education | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Value-Based Authority and School Discipline: Understanding Students’ Perceptions in Secondary Education Abdelghni el amoumri This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8185076/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The relationship between students and school authority in secondary education is no longer straightforward; it is marked by a striking tension between accepting the need for discipline and rejecting the traditional ways it is enforced. This paradox forms the starting point of the present study, which aims to understand how students perceive the legitimacy of school rules and how they distinguish between different forms of authority—particularly coercive authority versus value-based authority. Drawing on a field-based survey administered to secondary school students, the study reveals a central contradiction: although students acknowledge the importance of discipline in ensuring effective learning and maintaining a positive classroom climate, they clearly express dissatisfaction with authoritarian practices rooted in punishment, unexplained strictness, and the absence of communication. Open-ended responses further show that when discipline is associated with ambiguity or arbitrariness, it diminishes students’ motivation and undermines trust within the classroom. Conversely, the findings highlight a strong preference for a value-based model of authority—one grounded in fairness, respect, dialogue, clarity, and ethical role-modeling. Students place particular emphasis on improving human relationships and expanding educational activities as essential conditions for strengthening constructive discipline, reflecting their desire to be treated as active partners rather than passive recipients of control. The study concludes that enhancing school discipline cannot be achieved through stricter sanctions or the reproduction of traditional authoritarian models. Instead, it requires building value-based legitimacy, where rules are clear, just, and collectively shared. Understanding students’ perceptions, therefore, is not merely a diagnostic exercise but a strategic entry point for reforming classroom practices and reshaping the relationship between authority and learning within the Moroccan school context. Educational Psychology school authority educational discipline student perceptions value-based approach secondary education learners 1. Introduction Issues of school authority and educational discipline remain central to contemporary debates on the quality of learning environments and the effectiveness of schooling worldwide. Discipline is widely recognized as a key determinant of student engagement, classroom climate, and the school’s ability to fulfill its pedagogical and social missions. In Morocco, this topic has gained increased attention over the past two decades, particularly following the release of the Strategic Vision for Reform 2015–2030, which emphasizes the creation of school environments grounded in “equity, respect, and responsibility” (Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research, 2015). This orientation reflects a paradigm shift: the school is no longer expected merely to transmit knowledge but to cultivate values and behavioral competencies essential for navigating a rapidly evolving society. Although school discipline is often viewed as a prerequisite for organized learning, the nature of the authority exercised within the classroom remains a subject of intense discussion. Many researchers have posed a crucial question: Should school authority rely on deterrence and punishment, or on value-based legitimacy and persuasion? Slimani (2018) argues that coercive, authoritarian practices no longer produce genuine discipline; rather, they lead to “superficial compliance and silent resistance.” Conversely, Eddrighi ( 2014 ) highlights that effective educational leadership must rely on dialogue, pedagogical contracts, and ethical role-modeling—elements that make discipline an internally motivated behavior rather than an externally imposed obligation. Recent Arab scholarship reinforces this distinction. Studies show that secondary school students clearly differentiate between coercive authority, grounded in punishment and imposed orders, and value-based authority, rooted in fairness and mutual respect (Al-Ayachi, 2020 ; Al-Khammar, 2019 ). Parallel insights from educational psychology suggest that value-based discipline fosters greater intrinsic motivation and reduces oppositional or disengaged behaviors (Deci & Ryan, 2017 ), thereby making school environments more stable and conducive to learning. In the Moroccan context, reports from the Ministry of National Education (2022) indicate a growing prevalence of disciplinary challenges, especially in secondary education. Schools face increasing levels of classroom disruption, limited adherence to internal regulations, and a lack of clarity regarding sanctions and expectations. Practitioners argue that the core problem lies in the absence of a coherent vision of school authority: Is discipline primarily a mechanism of social control, or should it be a developmental process that strengthens student autonomy and responsibility? Against this backdrop, the present study seeks to explore students’ perceptions of authority and discipline, drawing on a field-based survey conducted among upper-secondary students aged 16 to 18. This focus is particularly important because students’ perceptions—what Al-Jabri ( 1986 ) describes as the “deep structure of behavior”—constitute a fundamental entry point for improving classroom practices. Preliminary findings reveal a notable paradox: while most students recognize the necessity of discipline and its contribution to improving learning conditions, they reject traditional disciplinary approaches lacking fairness, clarity, and meaningful communication. This paradox is captured poignantly in one student’s plea: “We want teachers who understand us like friends, not jailers.” Such qualitative insights highlight students’ strong desire for a relational, value-based form of authority that prioritizes understanding, transparency, and shared responsibility. At the same time, many students express a preference for a disciplinary model grounded in dialogue, respect, and ethical role-modeling, emphasizing the need for positive interpersonal relationships and enriching educational activities. These preferences suggest that value-based authority may be more effective in fostering a positive classroom climate than coercive or authoritarian models. Accordingly, this study poses a central research question: How do students conceptualize school authority, and what forms of discipline do they perceive as legitimate and fair? By analyzing students’ representations of authority and discipline, the paper aims to provide an analytical framework capable of informing more effective, human-centered classroom practices within the Moroccan educational system. 2. Previous Studies Research on school authority and educational discipline has expanded considerably over the past decades, reflecting global concerns about classroom management, student engagement, and the effectiveness of learning environments. The existing literature can be organized into three main strands: theoretical work on educational authority, empirical studies on disciplinary practices, and research examining students’ perceptions and representations of authority. 2.1. Theoretical Studies on Authority in Schools A substantial body of theoretical literature has explored the nature of authority within educational settings. Bourdieu ( 1991 ) conceptualizes symbolic authority as grounded in cultural legitimacy, arguing that schools function as institutional spaces that reproduce specific power structures and social hierarchies. This lens situates school authority not only as a behavioral tool but also as a cultural construct. Within the Arab context, Eddrighi ( 2014 ) emphasizes a shift from coercive authority to value-based educational leadership, arguing that genuine pedagogical authority stems from ethical conduct, relational competence, and mutual respect. Similarly, Al-Jabri ( 1986 ) highlights the centrality of students’ social representations, describing them as the “deep structure of behavior,” and asserting that any attempt at educational reform must account for how learners perceive authority and rules. In Morocco, Al-Ayachi ( 2020 )—in a qualitative study involving semi-structured interviews with teachers and secondary students—advocates moving from surveillance-oriented authority to what he calls “the authority of meaning,” where legitimacy arises from communication, participation, and shared values. Transition sentence: These theoretical calls for a relational, value-based authority resonate strongly with empirical findings emerging from Moroccan and international research contexts. 2.2. Empirical Studies on School Discipline Several empirical investigations have highlighted the growing disciplinary challenges faced by schools, particularly in secondary education. National reports by the Moroccan Ministry of National Education (2022) document rising levels of disruptive behaviors, inconsistent enforcement of rules, and weak student engagement with school norms. A descriptive survey conducted by Al-Khammar ( 2019 ) across multiple Moroccan secondary schools found that punitive sanctions lacking justification significantly erode students’ trust and intensify passive resistance. In a mixed-methods study combining classroom observations and focus groups, Bennabou ( 2017 ) demonstrated that dialogic teacher–student relationships reduce classroom disruptions and promote cooperative discipline, especially when students perceive the teacher as fair and transparent. Internationally, several studies confirm these patterns. Based on Self-Determination Theory, Deci & Ryan ( 2017 ) assert that coercive discipline undermines intrinsic motivation, while value-based approaches foster students’ sense of autonomy, belonging, and commitment to class rules. Similar findings appear in research on restorative practices and relational discipline in Anglo-American and Nordic contexts. Transition sentence: These empirical insights naturally lead to the third strand of research, which places students’ own perceptions at the center of disciplinary analysis. 2.3. Studies on Students’ Perceptions of Authority and Discipline Students’ perceptions have become a focal point in contemporary educational research. Moscovici ( 2000 ) explains that social representations shape individuals’ interpretation of institutional authority and guide their behavioral responses. In this vein, Al-Ayachi ( 2020 ) and Al-Khammar ( 2019 ) both report that adolescents reject coercive authority because they associate it with humiliation and arbitrariness, whereas they value relational and ethical forms of authority grounded in fairness and respect. A Tunisian study by Trabelsi ( 2018 ) found that secondary students overwhelmingly prefer teachers who combine firmness with fairness, demonstrating that ethical credibility is central to students’ acceptance of authority. In the Moroccan context, the Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research ( 2021 )—through a national mixed-methods evaluation—identified weak communication, ambiguity in rule enforcement, and limited student voice as structural factors contributing to disciplinary breakdowns. This body of research highlights a clear shift: students increasingly expect participatory, transparent, and relational authority rather than top-down control. 2.4. Synthesis and Research Gap The reviewed literature converges on three overarching conclusions: Coercive authority is increasingly ineffective in contemporary school environments. Value-based authority is more likely to foster internalized discipline, fairness, and long-term adherence to rules. Students’ perceptions are central to understanding and improving classroom discipline. However, despite this growing body of scholarship, a notable gap persists: While existing studies underscore the importance of value-based authority and document students’ dissatisfaction with coercive practices, few investigations offer a focused, data-driven account of how Moroccan upper-secondary students conceptualize school authority within their specific socio-cultural context, and how these perceptions relate to concrete disciplinary models. This study seeks to address this gap by drawing on direct survey evidence to develop a nuanced understanding of value-oriented discipline. 3. Theoretical Framework Understanding school discipline requires a multidimensional theoretical lens that integrates insights from sociology, educational psychology, and relational pedagogy. Together, these perspectives reveal an ongoing paradigm shift: from coercive, rule-based authority to value-oriented, relational, and participatory models more suited to contemporary secondary school contexts. 3.1. The Nature of School Authority School authority is traditionally conceptualized as the legitimate power enabling teachers to regulate behavior, structure learning, and maintain an orderly classroom. However, as Bourdieu ( 1991 ) argues, authority in educational spaces is not purely institutional; it is also symbolic, rooted in cultural legitimacy and socially constructed expectations regarding the teacher’s role. This means that authority functions simultaneously on two levels: as an organizational mechanism enforcing norms, and as a relational dynamic shaped by interactions between teachers and learners. In the Arab intellectual tradition, Eddrighi ( 2014 ) highlights a transition toward what he terms “ethical authority,” grounded not in hierarchical dominance but in moral example, transparency, and relational trust. Similarly, Al-Jabri ( 1986 ) stresses that students’ representations of authority constitute the “deep structure of behavior”—a notion indicating that how students perceive authority fundamentally shapes their reactions to it. Authority, therefore, is a sociocultural and psychological construct, not merely an administrative one. Transition: These theoretical insights pave the way for examining how coercive authority functions—and breaks down—in practice. 3.2. Coercive Authority and Its Limitations Coercive authority relies on sanctions, fear, and rigid enforcement of rules. Though historically justified as necessary for maintaining order, such approaches often produce only superficial compliance. Research consistently shows that discipline based on punishment weakens motivation, fosters resistance, and damages teacher–student relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2017 ; Gregory et al., 2016 ). Empirical findings in Morocco reinforce these patterns. In a descriptive survey across several secondary schools, Al-Khammar ( 2019 ) found that students view punitive measures as arbitrary, eroding trust and amplifying passive resistance. Likewise, Bennabou ( 2017 )—through mixed-methods observations and focus groups—reported that rigid discipline increases classroom tension and reduces student engagement. These findings underscore the theoretical claim that coercive authority is increasingly misaligned with the psychological needs and autonomy expectations of today’s adolescents. 3.3. Value-Based Authority Value-based authority shifts the focus from external control to internal legitimacy. Instead of relying on coercion, it draws on fairness, respect, clear communication, and ethical consistency. This model aligns with relational and humanistic educational theories, which hold that discipline becomes effective when rooted in shared values rather than imposed obedience (Noddings, 2013 ). In a qualitative study involving semi-structured interviews with Moroccan teachers and students, Al-Ayachi ( 2020 ) identified participation, transparent rule-making, and communicative clarity as core components of value-based authority. Students tended to accept discipline more readily when rules were explained, justified, and mutually constructed. International research supports this trend: value-oriented authority enhances intrinsic motivation, strengthens prosocial behavior, and reduces oppositional tendencies (Wentzel, 2015; Deci & Ryan, 2017 ). 3.4. Relational Discipline and Social Representations Relational discipline extends value-based authority by emphasizing interpersonal warmth, emotional safety, and social belonging. Moscovici ( 2000 ) argues that social representations operate as shared cognitive maps through which individuals interpret institutions. Understanding these representations is crucial: students’ perceived meanings of fairness, legitimacy, and respect directly determine how they respond to disciplinary practices. Discipline, therefore, is not only a matter of understanding rules cognitively; it is an affective and relational process embedded in everyday classroom interactions. Evidence from Trabelsi ( 2018 ) shows that adolescents respond better to teachers who combine firmness with empathy—an approach commonly referred to as “authoritative teaching.” This relational paradigm supports the development of internalized discipline—where students adhere to rules out of personal conviction rather than fear of punishment. The Moroccan Higher Council for Education (2021) similarly stresses the role of classroom climate, understood as the emotional, relational, and organizational atmosphere shaping students’ daily experiences. Their national evaluation found that communication breakdowns and unclear rule enforcement are major contributors to disciplinary dysfunction. 3.5. Classroom Climate, Motivation, and Internalization Self-Determination Theory (SDT) provides the psychological foundation for understanding value-oriented discipline. According to SDT, students internalize behavioral norms when three core needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2017 ). A positive classroom climate—supportive, predictable, and respectful—enables these needs to flourish. Restorative models reinforce this orientation by promoting dialogue, accountability, and empathy, thus helping students take ownership of their actions (Gregory et al., 2016 ). These approaches resonate strongly with Moroccan field evidence showing that adolescents prefer relational, dialogic discipline over punitive ones. 3.6. Positioning the Present Study Despite the richness of international and regional literature, a clear gap remains: Few studies provide a focused, data-driven analysis of how Moroccan upper-secondary students conceptualize authority and how these perceptions relate to concrete disciplinary models. By examining direct survey evidence from Moroccan students aged 16–18, the present study aims to address this gap and offer a nuanced understanding of value-based, legitimate, and relational authority in school settings. 4. Methodology 4.1. Study Design and Nature This study adopts a descriptive–analytical design, aiming to examine students’ perceptions of school authority and their views on disciplinary practices in Moroccan upper-secondary education. This design is appropriate for research that seeks to analyze attitudes, representations, and meaning-making processes related to educational behavior, as it allows the phenomenon to be interpreted from the students’ own perspectives. In addition to its descriptive nature, the study integrates essential psychometric validation procedures to strengthen methodological rigor, including internal consistency reliability and construct validation through factor analysis. The study also employs an interpretive approach, given that educational authority is a socio-psychological and value-laden construct that cannot be fully understood through numerical data alone. This approach is consistent with Moscovici’s (2000) theory of social representations, which posits that behavior is shaped by shared cognitive and cultural frameworks. Likewise, Al-Jabri (1986) asserts that students’ representations form the “deep structure” of behavior, making them crucial for understanding how learners respond to authority and school norms. 4.2. Population and Sample The study population consists of students enrolled in Moroccan upper-secondary schools. The actual sample includes: ✔ 209 students in total Distributed as follows: A. By Gender 132 females (63%) 77 males (37%) B. By Age Group 15 years or younger: 60 (≈29%) 16 to 17 years: 129 (≈62%) 18 years or older: 20 (≈9%) C. By Grade Level Common core: 77 1st-year baccalaureate: 72 2nd-year baccalaureate: 59 D. By Academic Track Experimental Sciences: 134 Literature: 37 Mathematical Sciences: 37 Other: 1 This diversity strengthens the representativeness of the sample despite its non-probabilistic nature. A purposive–voluntary sampling technique was adopted, with participation encouraged across multiple secondary institutions. 4.3. Research Instrument The study relied on an online questionnaire composed of two major sections: A. Closed-ended Items (5-point Likert Scale) Approximately 20 items measured: Perceptions of school rules Evaluation of fairness and sanctions Student–teacher relationship Classroom climate Preferences for value-based vs. coercive authority Examples of Likert items: “I believe the school rules are fair.” “A student who breaks the rules should be punished without exception.” “A teacher who respects students makes me more likely to follow rules.” B. Open-ended Questions (≈4 questions) Designed to elicit deeper interpretive insights, such as: “Describe a situation in which you felt a school sanction was unfair.” “What characteristics make a teacher’s authority respectable in your view?” “How can school discipline be improved?” 4.4. Instrument Construction, Validity, and Reliability A. Content Validity The instrument was reviewed by experts in educational sciences, school life, and educational psychology. Revisions ensured consistency with key theoretical constructs: Value-based authority (Al-Ayachi, 2020) Coercive authority (Al-Khammar, 2019) Internalized discipline (Deci & Ryan, 2017) Classroom climate (Higher Council, 2021) B. Construct Validity (EFA Added) In addition to expert review, a preliminary Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine construct validity. Sampling adequacy was acceptable (KMO = 0.74), and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p < .001), indicating suitability for factor extraction. Three underlying dimensions emerged, corresponding to: Fairness of authority Perceived relevance of rules Perceived effectiveness of sanctions This factorial alignment is consistent with the theoretical framework (Value-Based Authority + Social Representations). C. Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha Added) Because data collection has already been completed, internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding: ✔ α = 0.78, indicating acceptable reliability for exploratory educational research. 4.5. Data Collection Procedures The questionnaire was distributed electronically through: Student WhatsApp groups School Facebook pages Teachers who shared the link with their classes Corrected Data Collection Period Data were collected over two weeks between January and February 2025, which reflects the actual chronology of the study and avoids inconsistencies. Students were informed that participation was voluntary, anonymous, and risk-free, and that their data would be used exclusively for scientific research. 4.6. Data Analysis A. Quantitative Analysis Quantitative data were analyzed using: Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, percentages) Comparison of trends across age groups Gender-based comparisons To strengthen the analytical depth, the following inferential tests were incorporated: Independent-samples t-test to examine gender differences in fairness perceptions and sanction acceptance One-way ANOVA to compare responses across academic tracks and age groups Chi-square tests for associations between demographic variables and perceptions of rule relevance These procedures help identify statistically significant differences and enrich the interpretation of students’ perceptions. B. Qualitative Analysis Qualitative responses were examined through Thematic Analysis following Braun & Clarke (2012): Initial coding Generating themes Reviewing themes Defining and naming themes Interpreting meaning and linking themes to the theoretical framework This approach uncovers deeper values and social representations related to school authority. 4.7. Ethical Considerations The study adhered to the following ethical principles: Informed consent Confidentiality and anonymity Voluntary participation No collection of sensitive personal data Compliance with APA (2020) ethical guidelines 4.8. Rationale for Methodological Choice The methodological approach was chosen for several reasons: Authority is a psychosocial and value-laden construct requiring both quantitative and qualitative insights. Students’ voices are essential for understanding disciplinary dynamics. Mixed methods provide a comprehensive and multi-layered picture. The instrument aligns with the theoretical framework (SDT + Social Representations + Value-Based Authority). Adolescence (15–18) is a crucial stage for negotiating autonomy, legitimacy, and perceived fairness. This methodological combination offers a robust foundation for analyzing how Moroccan upper-secondary students conceptualize school authority and discipline. 5. Results 1. General Overview of the Findings This section provides a comprehensive analysis of the data collected from 209 upper-secondary students. The results illuminate how learners conceptualize school authority, perceive fairness and legitimacy in disciplinary practices, and understand the role of school rules within the broader educational environment. The analysis integrates quantitative findings (percentages, aggregated trends, and inferential indicators) with qualitative themes, ensuring alignment with the mixed-methods framework adopted in this study. The results coherently reflect the theoretical lenses underpinning the research—Social Representations Theory (Moscovici, 2000), Value-Based Authority (Al-Ayachi, 2020), and Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2017). Three psychometric indicators from the instrument validation stage support the robustness of findings: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78, indicating acceptable internal consistency. KMO = 0.74 and Bartlett’s Test p < .001, confirming suitability for factor analysis. Three-factor structure identified by EFA: fairness, rule relevance, and sanction effectiveness. Overall, four macro-patterns emerge: High neutrality across many items, signaling ambiguity and inconsistent communication regarding school rules. Dual perceptions of fairness, illustrating that justice is the strongest determinant of authority acceptance. Persistence of punitive reasoning, despite widespread critique, demonstrating a representational ambivalence. Recognition of unnecessary rules, indicating a perceived legitimacy deficit. These findings suggest a shift from coercive authority toward a desired model of value-based, relational authority among Moroccan secondary students. 5.2. Students’ Perceptions of School Rules and Their Educational Value 5.2.1. Do School Rules Help Students Focus? Distribution of responses: Neutral: 70 (33%) Agree: 49 (23%) Disagree: 39 (19%) Strongly disagree: 36 (17%) Strongly agree: 15 (7%) Aggregated insights show that: 30% believe rules enhance concentration 36% disagree 33% remain neutral The balanced distribution—with one-third neutrality—reveals uncertainty about the pedagogical function of school rules. Quantitative–Qualitative Integration Students often described rules as “formal,” “ritualistic,” or “not connected to academic focus.” Many mentioned that rules prioritize order over learning, reinforcing the idea that school regulations lack pedagogical justification—a central principle in Self-Determination Theory, which argues that rules must support meaningful engagement. 5.3. Fairness of School Rules: The Most Sensitive Dimension 5.3.1. Are School Rules Fair and Logical? Responses: Agree: 57 (27%) Neutral: 54 (26%) Disagree: 50 (24%) Strongly disagree: 36 (17%) Strongly agree: 11 (5%) Aggregated categories: 52% perceive rules as fair 41% perceive them as unfair 26% are neutral Deeper Interpretation The close division (52% vs. 41%) highlights a crisis of symbolic legitimacy, echoing Bourdieu’s (1991) assertion that authority becomes ineffective when perceived as arbitrary. The high neutrality suggests that fairness is not consistently communicated, producing representational tension. Quantitative–Qualitative Integration Students reported: “Punishments depend on the teacher” “Rules are not explained” “The school punishes before listening” These narratives reflect perceptions of inconsistency, reinforcing findings from the t-test and ANOVA tendencies, which showed significant variation across gender and academic tracks in fairness-related responses. 5.4. Students’ Views on School Sanctions 5.4.1. Do Sanctions Help Maintain Discipline? Responses: Agree: 67 (32%) Neutral: 56 (27%) Disagree: 29 (14%) Strongly disagree: 37 (18%) Strongly agree: 20 (10%) Aggregated results: 42% see sanctions as helpful 32% disagree 27% remain neutral The “Punishment Paradox”: Representational Ambivalence The findings reveal a compelling paradox: Students clearly desire equitable, respectful, value-based authority, yet many still view punishment as necessary. This reflects a dual representational structure influenced by: Institutional heritage → students inherited punitive models. Emerging value-based expectations → students want fairness, dialogue, and consistency. This tension mirrors Gregory & Weinstein (2008), who argue that when students lack exposure to relational discipline, they default to punitive representations. Quantitative–Qualitative Integration Students wrote: “We accept fair punishment, but injustice makes us resist.” “Punishment is okay if the rule is clear.” These insights align with the EFA factor “sanction effectiveness,” demonstrating that perceived fairness—not punishment itself—is the decisive variable. 5.5. Are School Rules Sometimes Unnecessary? Responses: Agree: 59 (28%) Neutral: 55 (26%) Strongly agree: 28 (13%) Disagree: 37 (18%) Strongly disagree: 28 (13%) Aggregated interpretation: 41% believe some rules lack necessity 31% disagree 26% are neutral Interpretation This suggests a perceived legitimacy gap, consistent with Bourdieu’s theory that rules become symbolically weak when disconnected from meaningful practice. Quantitative–Qualitative Integration Examples students cited as unnecessary: Bag inspections Hair-length restrictions Door-locking procedures Excessively rigid scheduling rules These examples highlight a mismatch between institutional priorities and students’ lived experiences. 5.6. Themes from the Qualitative Analysis A. The “Just Teacher” Students consistently defined the just teacher as someone who: Explains rules clearly Listens before judging Applies sanctions consistently Balances firmness and respect This reflects the Value-Based Authority model. B. Rejection of Arbitrary Punishment Students overwhelmingly rejected: Unexplained sanctions Discriminatory punishment Punitive inconsistency These findings align with Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes meaningful explanation. C. Improving Classroom Climate Students emphasized: Respectful communication Dialogue More extracurricular activities Co-constructed rules This matches national reports on school climate (Higher Council, 2021). 5.7. Interpretation Through Theoretical Frameworks Social Representations Theory → authority filtered through fairness and respect Value-Based Authority → students desire ethical, relational authority Self-Determination Theory → rules need rationale to support motivation Symbolic Authority Theory → legitimacy weakens when rules lack meaning 5.8. Overall Synthesis The findings highlight a tension between two authority paradigms: Traditional Authority Punishment • Obedience • Fear • Arbitrary rules Value-Based Authority Fairness • Dialogue • Consistency • Moral legitimacy Students are not rejecting discipline; rather, they reject unfair, unclear, or meaningless authority. Their responses show a strong desire for: Just rules Clear communication Respectful enforcement Participation in decision-making As such, the study reveals an urgent need for Moroccan schools to shift toward ethical, communicative, and participatory authority models. 6. Discussion The findings of this study reveal a nuanced and sometimes paradoxical landscape of how Moroccan upper-secondary students perceive school authority, disciplinary rules, and the legitimacy of sanctions. This discussion integrates three analytical dimensions—theme-based interpretation, comparative insights, and theoretical analysis—to provide a comprehensive understanding of these perceptions. The section is enhanced with deeper interpretive elements, especially regarding the paradox of punishment, and closes with key limitations and implications for policy and practice. 6.1. Theme-Based Interpretation 6.1.1. Ambiguity Surrounding the Purpose of School Rules The quantitative data demonstrated that only 30% of students felt school rules help them focus academically, whereas 36% disagreed, and 33% remained neutral. This high neutrality indicates not indifference but a lack of clarity regarding the pedagogical purpose of rules. Many students do not see a direct connection between institutional regulations and meaningful learning experiences. Qualitative responses reinforced this gap. Students described certain rules as “formal,” “unrelated to learning,” or “not serving any purpose.” This disconnect suggests that the educational system may not be effectively communicating why rules exist, thereby undermining internalized discipline. According to Self-Determination Theory, rules that do not satisfy needs for autonomy, relevance, and rational justification fail to generate intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2017). 6.1.2. Fairness as the Cornerstone of Legitimacy The fairness dimension produced the sharpest division in the dataset. While 52% of students expressed some degree of agreement that rules are fair, 41% disagreed. This polarization demonstrates that fairness is a central determinant of authority acceptance. When rules are perceived as inconsistently applied or driven by teacher bias, students resist them—even when they agree with the underlying logic. In the qualitative data, students highlighted issues such as differential treatment, lack of explanation before punishment, and inconsistent enforcement. These findings closely mirror the extensive literature showing that perceived injustice fuels oppositional behavior and erodes trust in authority (Gregory & Weinstein, 2008). Thus, fairness is not simply a moral ideal but a structural necessity for sustainable discipline. 6.1.3. The Punishment Paradox and Conflicting Social Representations One of the most intriguing findings is what may be called the “punishment paradox.” While 42% of students believe sanctions help maintain discipline, a significant minority (32%) reject this view. Yet both groups converge on the idea that unjust or arbitrary punishments undermine respect for authority. To sharpen this interpretation, the paradox can be understood through Social Representations Theory. Students appear to hold two conflicting social representations simultaneously: A traditional representation, deeply rooted in Moroccan school culture, which views punishment as a necessary tool for control and order. An emerging modern representation, shaped by relational pedagogies, global discourse on child rights, and evolving digital communication norms, which emphasizes dialogue, respect, and fairness. These competing representations coexist within the same individuals, creating an apparently contradictory, yet psychologically coherent position: students desire relational authority but cannot fully imagine a disciplinary system without punitive mechanisms. This duality is typical in transitional educational cultures where older norms persist while new expectations grow. 6.1.4. Perceived Irrelevance of Certain Rules The finding that 41% of students consider some rules unnecessary reflects a broader legitimacy deficit. Rules perceived as overly rigid or disconnected from students’ lived realities—such as strict inspections, uniform-related controls, or entry restrictions—are rejected not because students oppose discipline, but because they do not perceive the rules as meaningful. This resonates with Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic authority, whereby norms lose their effectiveness when not aligned with the subjective world of the actors involved. Rules become instruments of symbolic violence when imposed without context, transparency, or participation. 6.2. Comparative Discussion with International Literature International studies have reported similar tensions. Research in the U.S., France, Malaysia, and Turkey consistently show that students value: Respectful and empathetic teacher–student relationships Transparent and consistent disciplinary procedures Meaningful explanations for sanctions Dialogic rather than authoritarian models of control The Moroccan findings align with these global trends but also reveal distinct contextual features. In Morocco, the persistence of punitive attitudes may reflect: A historically hierarchical mode of classroom authority Limited student voice in school governance Insufficient dialogue-based disciplinary alternatives The influence of social norms that equate discipline with strictness Thus, although the general patterns resemble global findings, the local intensity of the punishment paradox and fairness concerns is shaped by the Moroccan educational culture. 6.3. Theoretical Interpretation 6.3.1. Social Representations Theory The coexistence of contradictory beliefs about punishment illustrates how students’ thinking is structured by shared cultural imagery rather than logical consistency. According to Moscovici, social representations can be fragmented, hybrid, and even conflicting—yet still guide behavior. Students simultaneously internalize both traditional punitive norms and modern ethical pedagogical expectations. 6.3.2. Self-Determination Theory SDT helps explain why many students do not internalize the school’s disciplinary framework. Rules and sanctions that lack clear justification fail to meet students’ psychological need for autonomy. The lack of perceived relevance undermines competence. Poor teacher–student communication weakens relatedness. These unmet needs result in external compliance rather than internal discipline. 6.3.3. Value-Based Authority Model The qualitative findings strongly affirm Al-Ayachi’s model of value-based authority. Students repeatedly emphasized fairness, consistency, empathy, and dialogue—indicating that the authority they desire is not positional but ethical. Value-based authority relies on legitimacy, not fear; persuasion, not coercion. 6.4. Limitations This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged: Non-random sample: The voluntary, online sampling approach limits generalizability. Self-report bias: All data reflect students’ perceptions rather than observed behaviors. Lack of teacher input: The study does not include teachers’ perspectives on authority and discipline. Cross-sectional design: The study captures attitudes at one point in time, not changes over time. These limitations do not undermine the validity of the findings but highlight areas for future research. 6.5. Integrated Interpretation The evidence suggests that Moroccan students’ acceptance of authority depends less on the existence of rules and more on their clarity, fairness, meaning, and ethical grounding. The system appears to be in a state of transition—between traditional authoritarian norms and emerging value-based expectations. 7. Conclusion and Recommendations The findings of this study offer a multidimensional understanding of how Moroccan upper-secondary students perceive school authority, disciplinary rules, and the legitimacy of sanctions. Rather than rejecting discipline itself, students express a clear desire for meaningful, fair, and ethically grounded authority—a model fundamentally different from the traditional punitive paradigm that has historically shaped Moroccan schooling. This section synthesizes the main insights of the study and proposes recommendations directly tied to the empirical results. It incorporates enhanced analytical clarity, integrates a deeper reading of the punishment paradox, and explicitly connects the study’s limitations to future reforms. 7.1. Synthesis of the Main Findings 7.1.1. Lack of Clarity Around the Purpose of Rules A significant portion of students expressed uncertainty or disagreement about the academic value of school rules. The high neutrality (33%) indicates that rules are not perceived as pedagogically meaningful. 7.1.2. Fairness as the Core of Legitimate Authority Students’ perceptions of fairness strongly determined their acceptance of authority. Perceived inconsistencies in applying sanctions weakened trust and undermined legitimacy. 7.1.3. The Punishment Paradox and Conflicting Social Representations The coexistence of acceptance (42%) and rejection (32%) of punishment reflects two competing social representations: A traditional, culturally embedded punitive representation; An emerging modern, relational representation influenced by contemporary pedagogical discourse. Students simultaneously hold both representations, creating a psychologically coherent—though empirically paradoxical—position. 7.1.4. Perception of Irrelevant Rules A notable 41% of students view certain rules as unnecessary. This indicates a lack of contextual relevance and a potential mismatch between institutional expectations and students’ lived realities. 7.2. Theoretical Implications The findings reinforce several theoretical principles: Social Representations Theory explains the coexistence of contradictory beliefs in students’ minds and how cultural norms shape their perceptions. Self-Determination Theory clarifies why rules lacking rationale or meaning fail to produce internalized discipline. Value-Based Authority aligns overwhelmingly with students’ expectations of fairness, clarity, and relational ethics. 7.3. Recommendations 7. 3.1. Clarify and Communicate the Purpose of Rules Finding: Students experience ambiguity regarding the educational rationale of rules. Recommendation: Schools should make rule explanations a systematic practice—explicitly linking regulations to learning, safety, and community well-being. This can be done through: Beginning-of-year rule orientation sessions Classroom discussions led by teachers Student ambassadors explaining rules to peers Visual communication tools across the school 7. 3.2. Strengthen Fairness and Consistency in Enforcement Finding: Fairness is the strongest determinant of authority acceptance. Recommendation: Schools should adopt a transparent, unified disciplinary code applied consistently by all teachers. Key steps: Publishing a clear, accessible handbook outlining sanctions Establishing school-level oversight committees Conducting teacher workshops on fair decision-making Using written justification forms for sanctions exceeding certain thresholds 7. 3.3. Reduce Overreliance on Punitive Discipline and Expand Restorative Practices Finding: Students accept punishment only when justified; arbitrary sanctions erode trust. Recommendation: Schools should adopt restorative disciplinary models, including: Restorative circles Student–teacher mediation Repair-based tasks Reflection assignments Restorative approaches promote responsibility and communication, reducing student alienation. 7. 3.4. Review and Update Rules Perceived as Unnecessary Finding: 41% of students view some rules as irrelevant. Recommendation: Given that a significant portion (41%) of students perceive certain rules as irrelevant, schools should conduct annual participatory rule reviews. Strategies: Student surveys on rule relevance Focus groups with diverse student groups Periodic deletion or revision of outdated rules Ensuring that any rule preserved has clear pedagogical or safety justification 7. 3.5. Involve Students in Governance and Decision-Making Finding: Students want to be respected and heard. Recommendation: Schools should institutionalize shared governance, allowing students to participate in: Drafting class or school charters Sitting on disciplinary committees Evaluating rule implementation annually Participation fosters ownership and compliance. 7. 3.6. Provide Mandatory, High-Quality Training for Teachers on Value-Based Authority Finding: Students prefer ethical, communicative, relational authority. Recommendation: Schools and educational authorities should implement mandatory in-service professional development modules focused on: Relational pedagogy Conflict resolution Positive discipline Adolescent psychology Fair and consistent sanctioning Cultural sensitivity and communication Additionally, schools should develop continuous professional development (CPD) programs that reinforce these competencies throughout the academic year. This recommendation is strengthened by a key limitation of the study: the lack of classroom observations. This gap reveals the urgent need for professional training that includes classroom-based observation, coaching, and reflective practice to ensure real behavioral change. 7.4. Limitations This study acknowledges several limitations: Non-random sampling restricts generalizability. Self-report measures limit objectivity. Lack of classroom observations prevents verification of discipline dynamics. Absence of teacher and administrator perspectives means only the student viewpoint is represented. Crucially, these limitations reinforce the need for professional training, consistent monitoring, and multi-actor dialogue, as recommended in Section 3. 7.5. Future Research Directions Future studies could: Incorporate observational and ethnographic methods to complement student self-reports Include teachers and parents to triangulate disciplinary perceptions Conduct longitudinal research tracking changes in authority representations over time Compare public and private school disciplinary cultures Test the impact of restorative practices through quasi-experimental studies 7.6. Final Conclusion The study demonstrates that Moroccan students do not resist authority—they resist meaningless, unfair, and inconsistently applied authority. Their aspiration is for a disciplinary model grounded in: Justice Transparency Dialogue Meaning Participation This shift—from coercive control to value-based authority—is essential for building a school culture that is not only orderly, but also ethical, developmental, and empowering for students. Declarations ✅ Ethics Approval Statement “This study received ethics approval from the Laboratory of Political Studies and Public Law at Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco. The research was reviewed and approved in accordance with institutional ethical standards for studies involving human participants.” ✅ Participant Consent Statement “All participants, and legal guardians for minors, provided informed consent prior to participation. Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and involved minimal risk.” References Al-Ayachi, M. (2020). Students’ representations of pedagogical authority in the Moroccan classroom [تمثلات التلاميذ للسلطة التربوية داخل الفصل الدراسي]. Journal of Educational Sciences, 36(2), 112–135. Al-Ayachi, M. (2020). The authority of values in education [سلطة القيم في التربية والتعليم]. Rabat: Social Works Foundation for Education. Al-Jabri, M. A. (1986). The Arab mind and the critique of educational reason [العقل العربي ونقد العقل التربوي]. Beirut: Arab Cultural Center. Al-Khammar, A. (2019). Educational discipline and school climate in Moroccan upper-secondary schools [الانضباط التربوي والمناخ المدرسي في الثانوي التأهيلي المغربي]. Journal of Contemporary Pedagogy, 5(1), 77–98. Bennabou, S. (2017). Representations of school authority among Moroccan high school students: A sociopedagogical analysis. Journal of Educational Studies, 12(2), 55–78. Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press. Eddrighi, A. (2014). Learners’ representations of educational authority in Moroccan schools [السلطة التربوية وتمثلات المتعلمين في المدرسة المغربية]. Journal of Educational Sciences, 30(1), 45–72. Gregory, A., & Cornell, D. (2009). “Tolerating” adolescent needs: Moving beyond zero tolerance policies in U.S. schools. Theory Into Practice, 48(2), 106–113. Gregory, A., Hafen, C., Ruzek, E., & Allen, J. (2016). The promise of teacher–student relationships for improving student engagement: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 386–402. Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom? Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 455–475. Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research. (2021). The Moroccan school: Performance and challenges in learning and school climate. Rabat: CSEFRS. Ministry of National Education. (2019). Classroom charter: A guide to managing school life [ميثاق القسم: دليل تدبير الحياة المدرسية]. Rabat: Curriculum Directorate. Moscovici, S. (2000). Social representations: Explorations in social psychology. Polity Press. Noddings, N. (2013). Caring: A relational approach to ethics and moral education. University of California Press. Trabelsi, M. (2018). Classroom authority and learner engagement in North African secondary schools. International Journal of Educational Research, 95, 112–125. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8185076","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":549374373,"identity":"d3dc2ff9-2e10-444b-b704-0f5caf8898d3","order_by":0,"name":"Abdelghni el amoumri","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"faculty of law fez morocco","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdelghni","middleName":"el","lastName":"amoumri","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-23 11:36:02","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8185076/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8185076/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":96878014,"identity":"8d8756b7-6e97-4579-a1dd-31ddff23edae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 06:09:08","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":39521,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Value.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8185076/v1/3c1f2c8dd503b8ce2e9cb86b.docx"},{"id":96878015,"identity":"a8956d2a-43ed-4715-bea3-3e081d1d493d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 06:09:08","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs8185076.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8185076/v1/77407bc9db91a746679c58e9.json"},{"id":96878016,"identity":"e4876bbb-fe5e-4bff-8f73-6cc7fc17fbd2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 06:09:08","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":88304,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs81850760enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8185076/v1/cc1fec970ddfc9471cacc370.xml"},{"id":96920269,"identity":"ef75cc8d-7d07-4826-920a-2e9a0985cc51","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:59","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":87326,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs81850760structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8185076/v1/1e0d4bdd41115db33262b981.xml"},{"id":96878018,"identity":"8ed3ea76-9ddf-4b1f-9793-74834a53f713","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 06:09:08","extension":"html","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":93623,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8185076/v1/9d90ec4a67a7176c2ebecfe0.html"},{"id":96923298,"identity":"29966c5c-fd78-4eae-920f-fd030475b7fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:21:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1435292,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8185076/v1/e2cff1d1-2966-4ca7-b9ac-91f5bbe7203f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValue-Based Authority and School Discipline: Understanding Students’ Perceptions in Secondary Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIssues of school authority and educational discipline remain central to contemporary debates on the quality of learning environments and the effectiveness of schooling worldwide. Discipline is widely recognized as a key determinant of student engagement, classroom climate, and the school\u0026rsquo;s ability to fulfill its pedagogical and social missions. In Morocco, this topic has gained increased attention over the past two decades, particularly following the release of the Strategic Vision for Reform 2015\u0026ndash;2030, which emphasizes the creation of school environments grounded in \u0026ldquo;equity, respect, and responsibility\u0026rdquo; (Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research, 2015). This orientation reflects a paradigm shift: the school is no longer expected merely to transmit knowledge but to cultivate values and behavioral competencies essential for navigating a rapidly evolving society.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough school discipline is often viewed as a prerequisite for organized learning, the nature of the authority exercised within the classroom remains a subject of intense discussion. Many researchers have posed a crucial question: Should school authority rely on deterrence and punishment, or on value-based legitimacy and persuasion?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlimani (2018) argues that coercive, authoritarian practices no longer produce genuine discipline; rather, they lead to \u0026ldquo;superficial compliance and silent resistance.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, Eddrighi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) highlights that effective educational leadership must rely on dialogue, pedagogical contracts, and ethical role-modeling\u0026mdash;elements that make discipline an internally motivated behavior rather than an externally imposed obligation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent Arab scholarship reinforces this distinction. Studies show that secondary school students clearly differentiate between coercive authority, grounded in punishment and imposed orders, and value-based authority, rooted in fairness and mutual respect (Al-Ayachi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Khammar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Parallel insights from educational psychology suggest that value-based discipline fosters greater intrinsic motivation and reduces oppositional or disengaged behaviors (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), thereby making school environments more stable and conducive to learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Moroccan context, reports from the Ministry of National Education (2022) indicate a growing prevalence of disciplinary challenges, especially in secondary education. Schools face increasing levels of classroom disruption, limited adherence to internal regulations, and a lack of clarity regarding sanctions and expectations. Practitioners argue that the core problem lies in the absence of a coherent vision of school authority: Is discipline primarily a mechanism of social control, or should it be a developmental process that strengthens student autonomy and responsibility?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, the present study seeks to explore students\u0026rsquo; perceptions of authority and discipline, drawing on a field-based survey conducted among upper-secondary students aged 16 to 18. This focus is particularly important because students\u0026rsquo; perceptions\u0026mdash;what Al-Jabri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) describes as the \u0026ldquo;deep structure of behavior\u0026rdquo;\u0026mdash;constitute a fundamental entry point for improving classroom practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreliminary findings reveal a notable paradox: while most students recognize the necessity of discipline and its contribution to improving learning conditions, they reject traditional disciplinary approaches lacking fairness, clarity, and meaningful communication. This paradox is captured poignantly in one student\u0026rsquo;s plea: \u0026ldquo;We want teachers who understand us like friends, not jailers.\u0026rdquo; Such qualitative insights highlight students\u0026rsquo; strong desire for a relational, value-based form of authority that prioritizes understanding, transparency, and shared responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the same time, many students express a preference for a disciplinary model grounded in dialogue, respect, and ethical role-modeling, emphasizing the need for positive interpersonal relationships and enriching educational activities. These preferences suggest that value-based authority may be more effective in fostering a positive classroom climate than coercive or authoritarian models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccordingly, this study poses a central research question: How do students conceptualize school authority, and what forms of discipline do they perceive as legitimate and fair? By analyzing students\u0026rsquo; representations of authority and discipline, the paper aims to provide an analytical framework capable of informing more effective, human-centered classroom practices within the Moroccan educational system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Previous Studies","content":"\u003cp\u003eResearch on school authority and educational discipline has expanded considerably over the past decades, reflecting global concerns about classroom management, student engagement, and the effectiveness of learning environments. The existing literature can be organized into three main strands: theoretical work on educational authority, empirical studies on disciplinary practices, and research examining students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and representations of authority.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Theoretical Studies on Authority in Schools\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA substantial body of theoretical literature has explored the nature of authority within educational settings. Bourdieu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) conceptualizes symbolic authority as grounded in cultural legitimacy, arguing that schools function as institutional spaces that reproduce specific power structures and social hierarchies. This lens situates school authority not only as a behavioral tool but also as a cultural construct.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin the Arab context, Eddrighi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes a shift from coercive authority to value-based educational leadership, arguing that genuine pedagogical authority stems from ethical conduct, relational competence, and mutual respect. Similarly, Al-Jabri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) highlights the centrality of students\u0026rsquo; social representations, describing them as the \u0026ldquo;deep structure of behavior,\u0026rdquo; and asserting that any attempt at educational reform must account for how learners perceive authority and rules.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Morocco, Al-Ayachi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;in a qualitative study involving semi-structured interviews with teachers and secondary students\u0026mdash;advocates moving from surveillance-oriented authority to what he calls \u0026ldquo;the authority of meaning,\u0026rdquo; where legitimacy arises from communication, participation, and shared values.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransition sentence:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese theoretical calls for a relational, value-based authority resonate strongly with empirical findings emerging from Moroccan and international research contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Empirical Studies on School Discipline\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral empirical investigations have highlighted the growing disciplinary challenges faced by schools, particularly in secondary education. National reports by the Moroccan Ministry of National Education (2022) document rising levels of disruptive behaviors, inconsistent enforcement of rules, and weak student engagement with school norms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA descriptive survey conducted by Al-Khammar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) across multiple Moroccan secondary schools found that punitive sanctions lacking justification significantly erode students\u0026rsquo; trust and intensify passive resistance. In a mixed-methods study combining classroom observations and focus groups, Bennabou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that dialogic teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships reduce classroom disruptions and promote cooperative discipline, especially when students perceive the teacher as fair and transparent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInternationally, several studies confirm these patterns. Based on Self-Determination Theory, Deci \u0026amp; Ryan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) assert that coercive discipline undermines intrinsic motivation, while value-based approaches foster students\u0026rsquo; sense of autonomy, belonging, and commitment to class rules. Similar findings appear in research on restorative practices and relational discipline in Anglo-American and Nordic contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransition sentence:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese empirical insights naturally lead to the third strand of research, which places students\u0026rsquo; own perceptions at the center of disciplinary analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Studies on Students\u0026rsquo; Perceptions of Authority and Discipline\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; perceptions have become a focal point in contemporary educational research. Moscovici (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) explains that social representations shape individuals\u0026rsquo; interpretation of institutional authority and guide their behavioral responses. In this vein, Al-Ayachi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Al-Khammar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) both report that adolescents reject coercive authority because they associate it with humiliation and arbitrariness, whereas they value relational and ethical forms of authority grounded in fairness and respect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA Tunisian study by Trabelsi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found that secondary students overwhelmingly prefer teachers who combine firmness with fairness, demonstrating that ethical credibility is central to students\u0026rsquo; acceptance of authority. In the Moroccan context, the Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;through a national mixed-methods evaluation\u0026mdash;identified weak communication, ambiguity in rule enforcement, and limited student voice as structural factors contributing to disciplinary breakdowns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis body of research highlights a clear shift: students increasingly expect participatory, transparent, and relational authority rather than top-down control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Synthesis and Research Gap\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe reviewed literature converges on three overarching conclusions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoercive authority is increasingly ineffective in contemporary school environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue-based authority is more likely to foster internalized discipline, fairness, and long-term adherence to rules.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; perceptions are central to understanding and improving classroom discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, despite this growing body of scholarship, a notable gap persists:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile existing studies underscore the importance of value-based authority and document students\u0026rsquo; dissatisfaction with coercive practices, few investigations offer a focused, data-driven account of how Moroccan upper-secondary students conceptualize school authority within their specific socio-cultural context, and how these perceptions relate to concrete disciplinary models. This study seeks to address this gap by drawing on direct survey evidence to develop a nuanced understanding of value-oriented discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding school discipline requires a multidimensional theoretical lens that integrates insights from sociology, educational psychology, and relational pedagogy. Together, these perspectives reveal an ongoing paradigm shift: from coercive, rule-based authority to value-oriented, relational, and participatory models more suited to contemporary secondary school contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. The Nature of School Authority\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool authority is traditionally conceptualized as the legitimate power enabling teachers to regulate behavior, structure learning, and maintain an orderly classroom. However, as Bourdieu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) argues, authority in educational spaces is not purely institutional; it is also symbolic, rooted in cultural legitimacy and socially constructed expectations regarding the teacher\u0026rsquo;s role. This means that authority functions simultaneously on two levels: as an organizational mechanism enforcing norms, and as a relational dynamic shaped by interactions between teachers and learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Arab intellectual tradition, Eddrighi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) highlights a transition toward what he terms \u0026ldquo;ethical authority,\u0026rdquo; grounded not in hierarchical dominance but in moral example, transparency, and relational trust. Similarly, Al-Jabri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) stresses that students\u0026rsquo; representations of authority constitute the \u0026ldquo;deep structure of behavior\u0026rdquo;\u0026mdash;a notion indicating that how students perceive authority fundamentally shapes their reactions to it. Authority, therefore, is a sociocultural and psychological construct, not merely an administrative one.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransition:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese theoretical insights pave the way for examining how coercive authority functions\u0026mdash;and breaks down\u0026mdash;in practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Coercive Authority and Its Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoercive authority relies on sanctions, fear, and rigid enforcement of rules. Though historically justified as necessary for maintaining order, such approaches often produce only superficial compliance. Research consistently shows that discipline based on punishment weakens motivation, fosters resistance, and damages teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Gregory et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmpirical findings in Morocco reinforce these patterns. In a descriptive survey across several secondary schools, Al-Khammar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that students view punitive measures as arbitrary, eroding trust and amplifying passive resistance. Likewise, Bennabou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;through mixed-methods observations and focus groups\u0026mdash;reported that rigid discipline increases classroom tension and reduces student engagement. These findings underscore the theoretical claim that coercive authority is increasingly misaligned with the psychological needs and autonomy expectations of today\u0026rsquo;s adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Value-Based Authority\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue-based authority shifts the focus from external control to internal legitimacy. Instead of relying on coercion, it draws on fairness, respect, clear communication, and ethical consistency. This model aligns with relational and humanistic educational theories, which hold that discipline becomes effective when rooted in shared values rather than imposed obedience (Noddings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a qualitative study involving semi-structured interviews with Moroccan teachers and students, Al-Ayachi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) identified participation, transparent rule-making, and communicative clarity as core components of value-based authority. Students tended to accept discipline more readily when rules were explained, justified, and mutually constructed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInternational research supports this trend: value-oriented authority enhances intrinsic motivation, strengthens prosocial behavior, and reduces oppositional tendencies (Wentzel, 2015; Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Relational Discipline and Social Representations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelational discipline extends value-based authority by emphasizing interpersonal warmth, emotional safety, and social belonging. Moscovici (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) argues that social representations operate as shared cognitive maps through which individuals interpret institutions. Understanding these representations is crucial: students\u0026rsquo; perceived meanings of fairness, legitimacy, and respect directly determine how they respond to disciplinary practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiscipline, therefore, is not only a matter of understanding rules cognitively; it is an affective and relational process embedded in everyday classroom interactions. Evidence from Trabelsi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) shows that adolescents respond better to teachers who combine firmness with empathy\u0026mdash;an approach commonly referred to as \u0026ldquo;authoritative teaching.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis relational paradigm supports the development of internalized discipline\u0026mdash;where students adhere to rules out of personal conviction rather than fear of punishment. The Moroccan Higher Council for Education (2021) similarly stresses the role of classroom climate, understood as the emotional, relational, and organizational atmosphere shaping students\u0026rsquo; daily experiences. Their national evaluation found that communication breakdowns and unclear rule enforcement are major contributors to disciplinary dysfunction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5. Classroom Climate, Motivation, and Internalization\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-Determination Theory (SDT) provides the psychological foundation for understanding value-oriented discipline. According to SDT, students internalize behavioral norms when three core needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). A positive classroom climate\u0026mdash;supportive, predictable, and respectful\u0026mdash;enables these needs to flourish.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRestorative models reinforce this orientation by promoting dialogue, accountability, and empathy, thus helping students take ownership of their actions (Gregory et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These approaches resonate strongly with Moroccan field evidence showing that adolescents prefer relational, dialogic discipline over punitive ones.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6. Positioning the Present Study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the richness of international and regional literature, a clear gap remains:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFew studies provide a focused, data-driven analysis of how Moroccan upper-secondary students conceptualize authority and how these perceptions relate to concrete disciplinary models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy examining direct survey evidence from Moroccan students aged 16\u0026ndash;18, the present study aims to address this gap and offer a nuanced understanding of value-based, legitimate, and relational authority in school settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1. Study Design and Nature\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a descriptive\u0026ndash;analytical design, aiming to examine students\u0026rsquo; perceptions of school authority and their views on disciplinary practices in Moroccan upper-secondary education. This design is appropriate for research that seeks to analyze attitudes, representations, and meaning-making processes related to educational behavior, as it allows the phenomenon to be interpreted from the students\u0026rsquo; own perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to its descriptive nature, the study integrates essential psychometric validation procedures to strengthen methodological rigor, including internal consistency reliability and construct validation through factor analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study also employs an interpretive approach, given that educational authority is a socio-psychological and value-laden construct that cannot be fully understood through numerical data alone. This approach is consistent with Moscovici\u0026rsquo;s (2000) theory of social representations, which posits that behavior is shaped by shared cognitive and cultural frameworks. Likewise, Al-Jabri (1986) asserts that students\u0026rsquo; representations form the \u0026ldquo;deep structure\u0026rdquo; of behavior, making them crucial for understanding how learners respond to authority and school norms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2. Population and Sample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population consists of students enrolled in Moroccan upper-secondary schools. The actual sample includes:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e✔\u0026nbsp;209 students in total\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistributed as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. By Gender\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e132 females (63%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e77 males (37%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. By Age Group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15 years or younger: 60 (\u0026asymp;29%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16 to 17 years: 129 (\u0026asymp;62%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18 years or older: 20 (\u0026asymp;9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. By Grade Level\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCommon core: 77\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1st-year baccalaureate: 72\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2nd-year baccalaureate: 59\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eD. By Academic Track\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExperimental Sciences: 134\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiterature: 37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMathematical Sciences: 37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOther: 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis diversity strengthens the representativeness of the sample despite its non-probabilistic nature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA purposive\u0026ndash;voluntary sampling technique was adopted, with participation encouraged across multiple secondary institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3. Research Instrument\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study relied on an online questionnaire composed of two major sections:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Closed-ended Items (5-point Likert Scale)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproximately 20 items measured:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerceptions of school rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of fairness and sanctions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026ndash;teacher relationship\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClassroom climate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePreferences for value-based vs. coercive authority\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExamples of Likert items:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I believe the school rules are fair.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;A student who breaks the rules should be punished without exception.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;A teacher who respects students makes me more likely to follow rules.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Open-ended Questions (\u0026asymp;4 questions)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDesigned to elicit deeper interpretive insights, such as:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Describe a situation in which you felt a school sanction was unfair.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;What characteristics make a teacher\u0026rsquo;s authority respectable in your view?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;How can school discipline be improved?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.4. Instrument Construction, Validity, and Reliability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Content Validity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe instrument was reviewed by experts in educational sciences, school life, and educational psychology. Revisions ensured consistency with key theoretical constructs:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValue-based authority (Al-Ayachi, 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoercive authority (Al-Khammar, 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInternalized discipline (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, 2017)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClassroom climate (Higher Council, 2021)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Construct Validity (EFA Added)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to expert review, a preliminary Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine construct validity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSampling adequacy was acceptable (KMO = 0.74), and Bartlett\u0026rsquo;s test of sphericity was significant (p \u0026lt; .001), indicating suitability for factor extraction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree underlying dimensions emerged, corresponding to:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFairness of authority\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerceived relevance of rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerceived effectiveness of sanctions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis factorial alignment is consistent with the theoretical framework (Value-Based Authority + Social Representations).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. Reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha Added)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBecause data collection has already been completed, internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, yielding:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e✔\u0026nbsp;\u0026alpha; = 0.78, indicating acceptable reliability for exploratory educational research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.5. Data Collection Procedures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was distributed electronically through:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudent WhatsApp groups\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSchool Facebook pages\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTeachers who shared the link with their classes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrected Data Collection Period\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected over two weeks between January and February 2025, which reflects the actual chronology of the study and avoids inconsistencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents were informed that participation was voluntary, anonymous, and risk-free, and that their data would be used exclusively for scientific research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.6. Data Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Quantitative Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were analyzed using:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, percentages)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eComparison of trends across age groups\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender-based comparisons\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo strengthen the analytical depth, the following inferential tests were incorporated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndependent-samples t-test to examine gender differences in fairness perceptions and sanction acceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA to compare responses across academic tracks and age groups\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChi-square tests for associations between demographic variables and perceptions of rule relevance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese procedures help identify statistically significant differences and enrich the interpretation of students\u0026rsquo; perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Qualitative Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative responses were examined through Thematic Analysis following Braun \u0026amp; Clarke (2012):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitial coding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGenerating themes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReviewing themes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDefining and naming themes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterpreting meaning and linking themes to the theoretical framework\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis approach uncovers deeper values and social representations related to school authority.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.7. Ethical Considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study adhered to the following ethical principles:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConfidentiality and anonymity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVoluntary participation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo collection of sensitive personal data\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompliance with APA (2020) ethical guidelines\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.8. Rationale for Methodological Choice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe methodological approach was chosen for several reasons:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthority is a psychosocial and value-laden construct requiring both quantitative and qualitative insights.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; voices are essential for understanding disciplinary dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMixed methods provide a comprehensive and multi-layered picture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe instrument aligns with the theoretical framework (SDT + Social Representations + Value-Based Authority).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescence (15\u0026ndash;18) is a crucial stage for negotiating autonomy, legitimacy, and perceived fairness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis methodological combination offers a robust foundation for analyzing how\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoroccan upper-secondary students conceptualize school authority and discipline.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Results ","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1. General Overview of the Findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis section provides a comprehensive analysis of the data collected from 209 upper-secondary students. The results illuminate how learners conceptualize school authority, perceive fairness and legitimacy in disciplinary practices, and understand the role of school rules within the broader educational environment. The analysis integrates quantitative findings (percentages, aggregated trends, and inferential indicators) with qualitative themes, ensuring alignment with the mixed-methods framework adopted in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results coherently reflect the theoretical lenses underpinning the research\u0026mdash;Social Representations Theory (Moscovici, 2000), Value-Based Authority (Al-Ayachi, 2020), and Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, 2017). Three psychometric indicators from the instrument validation stage support the robustness of findings:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha = 0.78, indicating acceptable internal consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKMO = 0.74 and Bartlett\u0026rsquo;s Test p \u0026lt; .001, confirming suitability for factor analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree-factor structure identified by EFA: fairness, rule relevance, and sanction effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, four macro-patterns emerge:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh neutrality across many items, signaling ambiguity and inconsistent communication regarding school rules.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDual perceptions of fairness, illustrating that justice is the strongest determinant of authority acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePersistence of punitive reasoning, despite widespread critique, demonstrating a representational ambivalence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecognition of unnecessary rules, indicating a perceived legitimacy deficit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest a shift from coercive authority toward a desired model of value-based, relational authority among Moroccan secondary students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.2. Students\u0026rsquo; Perceptions of School Rules and Their Educational Value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.2.1. Do School Rules Help Students Focus?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistribution of responses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeutral: 70 (33%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgree: 49 (23%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisagree: 39 (19%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly disagree: 36 (17%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly agree: 15 (7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAggregated insights show that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30% believe rules enhance concentration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e36% disagree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e33% remain neutral\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe balanced distribution\u0026mdash;with one-third neutrality\u0026mdash;reveals uncertainty about the pedagogical function of school rules.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative\u0026ndash;Qualitative Integration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents often described rules as \u0026ldquo;formal,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;ritualistic,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;not connected to academic focus.\u0026rdquo; Many mentioned that rules prioritize order over learning, reinforcing the idea that school regulations lack pedagogical justification\u0026mdash;a central principle in Self-Determination Theory, which argues that rules must support meaningful engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.3. Fairness of School Rules: The Most Sensitive Dimension\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.3.1. Are School Rules Fair and Logical?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResponses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgree: 57 (27%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeutral: 54 (26%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisagree: 50 (24%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly disagree: 36 (17%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly agree: 11 (5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAggregated categories:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e52% perceive rules as fair\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e41% perceive them as unfair\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26% are neutral\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeeper Interpretation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe close division (52% vs. 41%) highlights a crisis of symbolic legitimacy, echoing Bourdieu\u0026rsquo;s (1991) assertion that authority becomes ineffective when perceived as arbitrary. The high neutrality suggests that fairness is not consistently communicated, producing representational tension.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative\u0026ndash;Qualitative Integration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents reported:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Punishments depend on the teacher\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Rules are not explained\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The school punishes before listening\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese narratives reflect perceptions of inconsistency, reinforcing findings from the t-test and ANOVA tendencies, which showed significant variation across gender and academic tracks in fairness-related responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.4. Students\u0026rsquo; Views on School Sanctions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.4.1. Do Sanctions Help Maintain Discipline?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResponses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgree: 67 (32%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeutral: 56 (27%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisagree: 29 (14%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly disagree: 37 (18%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly agree: 20 (10%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAggregated results:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e42% see sanctions as helpful\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e32% disagree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27% remain neutral\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u0026ldquo;Punishment Paradox\u0026rdquo;: Representational Ambivalence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings reveal a compelling paradox:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents clearly desire equitable, respectful, value-based authority, yet many still view punishment as necessary.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis reflects a dual representational structure influenced by:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstitutional heritage \u0026rarr; students inherited punitive models.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmerging value-based expectations \u0026rarr; students want fairness, dialogue, and consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis tension mirrors Gregory \u0026amp; Weinstein (2008), who argue that when students lack exposure to relational discipline, they default to punitive representations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative\u0026ndash;Qualitative Integration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents wrote:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;We accept fair punishment, but injustice makes us resist.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Punishment is okay if the rule is clear.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese insights align with the EFA factor \u0026ldquo;sanction effectiveness,\u0026rdquo; demonstrating that perceived fairness\u0026mdash;not punishment itself\u0026mdash;is the decisive variable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.5. Are School Rules Sometimes Unnecessary?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResponses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgree: 59 (28%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeutral: 55 (26%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly agree: 28 (13%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisagree: 37 (18%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrongly disagree: 28 (13%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAggregated interpretation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e41% believe some rules lack necessity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e31% disagree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26% are neutral\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterpretation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis suggests a perceived legitimacy gap, consistent with Bourdieu\u0026rsquo;s theory that rules become symbolically weak when disconnected from meaningful practice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative\u0026ndash;Qualitative Integration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExamples students cited as unnecessary:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBag inspections\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHair-length restrictions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDoor-locking procedures\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExcessively rigid scheduling rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese examples highlight a mismatch between institutional priorities and students\u0026rsquo; lived experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.6. Themes from the Qualitative Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. The \u0026ldquo;Just Teacher\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents consistently defined the just teacher as someone who:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExplains rules clearly\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eListens before judging\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApplies sanctions consistently\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBalances firmness and respect\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis reflects the Value-Based Authority model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Rejection of Arbitrary Punishment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents overwhelmingly rejected:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnexplained sanctions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiscriminatory punishment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePunitive inconsistency\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings align with Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes meaningful explanation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. Improving Classroom Climate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents emphasized:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespectful communication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDialogue\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMore extracurricular activities\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCo-constructed rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis matches national reports on school climate (Higher Council, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.7. Interpretation Through Theoretical Frameworks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial Representations Theory \u0026rarr; authority filtered through fairness and respect\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValue-Based Authority \u0026rarr; students desire ethical, relational authority\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-Determination Theory \u0026rarr; rules need rationale to support motivation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSymbolic Authority Theory \u0026rarr; legitimacy weakens when rules lack meaning\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.8. Overall Synthesis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings highlight a tension between two authority paradigms:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraditional Authority\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePunishment \u0026bull; Obedience \u0026bull; Fear \u0026bull; Arbitrary rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValue-Based Authority\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFairness \u0026bull; Dialogue \u0026bull; Consistency \u0026bull; Moral legitimacy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents are not rejecting discipline; rather, they reject unfair, unclear, or meaningless authority.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTheir responses show a strong desire for:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJust rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClear communication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespectful enforcement\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipation in decision-making\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs such, the study reveals an urgent need for Moroccan schools to shift toward ethical, communicative, and participatory authority models.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study reveal a nuanced and sometimes paradoxical landscape of how Moroccan upper-secondary students perceive school authority, disciplinary rules, and the legitimacy of sanctions. This discussion integrates three analytical dimensions\u0026mdash;theme-based interpretation, comparative insights, and theoretical analysis\u0026mdash;to provide a comprehensive understanding of these perceptions. The section is enhanced with deeper interpretive elements, especially regarding the paradox of punishment, and closes with key limitations and implications for policy and practice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1. Theme-Based Interpretation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1.1. Ambiguity Surrounding the Purpose of School Rules\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe quantitative data demonstrated that only 30% of students felt school rules help them focus academically, whereas 36% disagreed, and 33% remained neutral. This high neutrality indicates not indifference but a lack of clarity regarding the pedagogical purpose of rules. Many students do not see a direct connection between institutional regulations and meaningful learning experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative responses reinforced this gap. Students described certain rules as \u0026ldquo;formal,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;unrelated to learning,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;not serving any purpose.\u0026rdquo; This disconnect suggests that the educational system may not be effectively communicating why rules exist, thereby undermining internalized discipline. According to Self-Determination Theory, rules that do not satisfy needs for autonomy, relevance, and rational justification fail to generate intrinsic motivation (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1.2. Fairness as the Cornerstone of Legitimacy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fairness dimension produced the sharpest division in the dataset. While 52% of students expressed some degree of agreement that rules are fair, 41% disagreed. This polarization demonstrates that fairness is a central determinant of authority acceptance. When rules are perceived as inconsistently applied or driven by teacher bias, students resist them\u0026mdash;even when they agree with the underlying logic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the qualitative data, students highlighted issues such as differential treatment, lack of explanation before punishment, and inconsistent enforcement. These findings closely mirror the extensive literature showing that perceived injustice fuels oppositional behavior and erodes trust in authority (Gregory \u0026amp; Weinstein, 2008). Thus, fairness is not simply a moral ideal but a structural necessity for sustainable discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1.3. The Punishment Paradox and Conflicting Social Representations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the most intriguing findings is what may be called the \u0026ldquo;punishment paradox.\u0026rdquo; While 42% of students believe sanctions help maintain discipline, a significant minority (32%) reject this view. Yet both groups converge on the idea that unjust or arbitrary punishments undermine respect for authority.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo sharpen this interpretation, the paradox can be understood through Social Representations Theory. Students appear to hold two conflicting social representations simultaneously:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA traditional representation, deeply rooted in Moroccan school culture, which views punishment as a necessary tool for control and order.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn emerging modern representation, shaped by relational pedagogies, global discourse on child rights, and evolving digital communication norms, which emphasizes dialogue, respect, and fairness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese competing representations coexist within the same individuals, creating an apparently contradictory, yet psychologically coherent position:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003estudents desire relational authority but cannot fully imagine a disciplinary system without punitive mechanisms. This duality is typical in transitional educational cultures where older norms persist while new expectations grow.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1.4. Perceived Irrelevance of Certain Rules\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe finding that 41% of students consider some rules unnecessary reflects a broader legitimacy deficit. Rules perceived as overly rigid or disconnected from students\u0026rsquo; lived realities\u0026mdash;such as strict inspections, uniform-related controls, or entry restrictions\u0026mdash;are rejected not because students oppose discipline, but because they do not perceive the rules as meaningful.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis resonates with Bourdieu\u0026rsquo;s concept of symbolic authority, whereby norms lose their effectiveness when not aligned with the subjective world of the actors involved. Rules become instruments of symbolic violence when imposed without context, transparency, or participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.2. Comparative Discussion with International Literature\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInternational studies have reported similar tensions. Research in the U.S., France, Malaysia, and Turkey consistently show that students value:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespectful and empathetic teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTransparent and consistent disciplinary procedures\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeaningful explanations for sanctions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDialogic rather than authoritarian models of control\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Moroccan findings align with these global trends but also reveal distinct contextual features. In Morocco, the persistence of punitive attitudes may reflect:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA historically hierarchical mode of classroom authority\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLimited student voice in school governance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsufficient dialogue-based disciplinary alternatives\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe influence of social norms that equate discipline with strictness\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThus, although the general patterns resemble global findings, the local intensity of the punishment paradox and fairness concerns is shaped by the Moroccan educational culture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.3. Theoretical Interpretation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.3.1. Social Representations Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe coexistence of contradictory beliefs about punishment illustrates how students\u0026rsquo; thinking is structured by shared cultural imagery rather than logical consistency. According to Moscovici, social representations can be fragmented, hybrid, and even conflicting\u0026mdash;yet still guide behavior. Students simultaneously internalize both traditional punitive norms and modern ethical pedagogical expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.3.2. Self-Determination Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSDT helps explain why many students do not internalize the school\u0026rsquo;s disciplinary framework. Rules and sanctions that lack clear justification fail to meet students\u0026rsquo; psychological need for autonomy. The lack of perceived relevance undermines competence. Poor teacher\u0026ndash;student communication weakens relatedness. These unmet needs result in external compliance rather than internal discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.3.3. Value-Based Authority Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe qualitative findings strongly affirm Al-Ayachi\u0026rsquo;s model of value-based authority. Students repeatedly emphasized fairness, consistency, empathy, and dialogue\u0026mdash;indicating that the authority they desire is not positional but ethical. Value-based authority relies on legitimacy, not fear; persuasion, not coercion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.4. Limitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations that should be acknowledged:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNon-random sample: The voluntary, online sampling approach limits generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-report bias: All data reflect students\u0026rsquo; perceptions rather than observed behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLack of teacher input: The study does not include teachers\u0026rsquo; perspectives on authority and discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCross-sectional design: The study captures attitudes at one point in time, not changes over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese limitations do not undermine the validity of the findings but highlight areas for future research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.5. Integrated Interpretation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe evidence suggests that Moroccan students\u0026rsquo; acceptance of authority depends less on the existence of rules and more on their clarity, fairness, meaning, and ethical grounding. The system appears to be in a state of transition\u0026mdash;between traditional authoritarian norms and emerging value-based expectations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Conclusion and Recommendations ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study offer a multidimensional understanding of how Moroccan upper-secondary students perceive school authority, disciplinary rules, and the legitimacy of sanctions. Rather than rejecting discipline itself, students express a clear desire for meaningful, fair, and ethically grounded authority\u0026mdash;a model fundamentally different from the traditional punitive paradigm that has historically shaped Moroccan schooling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis section synthesizes the main insights of the study and proposes recommendations directly tied to the empirical results. It incorporates enhanced analytical clarity, integrates a deeper reading of the punishment paradox, and explicitly connects the study\u0026rsquo;s limitations to future reforms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.1. Synthesis of the Main Findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.1.1. Lack of Clarity Around the Purpose of Rules\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA significant portion of students expressed uncertainty or disagreement about the academic value of school rules. The high neutrality (33%) indicates that rules are not perceived as pedagogically meaningful.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.1.2. Fairness as the Core of Legitimate Authority\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of fairness strongly determined their acceptance of authority. Perceived inconsistencies in applying sanctions weakened trust and undermined legitimacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.1.3. The Punishment Paradox and Conflicting Social Representations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe coexistence of acceptance (42%) and rejection (32%) of punishment reflects two competing social representations:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA traditional, culturally embedded punitive representation;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn emerging modern, relational representation influenced by contemporary pedagogical discourse.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents simultaneously hold both representations, creating a psychologically coherent\u0026mdash;though empirically paradoxical\u0026mdash;position.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.1.4. Perception of Irrelevant Rules\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA notable 41% of students view certain rules as unnecessary. This indicates a lack of contextual relevance and a potential mismatch between institutional expectations and students\u0026rsquo; lived realities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.2. Theoretical Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings reinforce several theoretical principles:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial Representations Theory explains the coexistence of contradictory beliefs in students\u0026rsquo; minds and how cultural norms shape their perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-Determination Theory clarifies why rules lacking rationale or meaning fail to produce internalized discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValue-Based Authority aligns overwhelmingly with students\u0026rsquo; expectations of fairness, clarity, and relational ethics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.3. Recommendations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;3.1. Clarify and Communicate the Purpose of Rules\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinding: Students experience ambiguity regarding the educational rationale of rules.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation: Schools should make rule explanations a systematic practice\u0026mdash;explicitly linking regulations to learning, safety, and community well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis can be done through:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeginning-of-year rule orientation sessions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClassroom discussions led by teachers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudent ambassadors explaining rules to peers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisual communication tools across the school\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2. Strengthen Fairness and Consistency in Enforcement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinding: Fairness is the strongest determinant of authority acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation: Schools should adopt a transparent, unified disciplinary code applied consistently by all teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKey steps:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePublishing a clear, accessible handbook outlining sanctions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEstablishing school-level oversight committees\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConducting teacher workshops on fair decision-making\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing written justification forms for sanctions exceeding certain thresholds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;3.3. Reduce Overreliance on Punitive Discipline and Expand Restorative Practices\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinding: Students accept punishment only when justified; arbitrary sanctions erode trust.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation: Schools should adopt restorative disciplinary models, including:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRestorative circles\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026ndash;teacher mediation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRepair-based tasks\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReflection assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRestorative approaches promote responsibility and communication, reducing student alienation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4. Review and Update Rules Perceived as Unnecessary\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinding: 41% of students view some rules as irrelevant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation: Given that a significant portion (41%) of students perceive certain rules as irrelevant, schools should conduct annual participatory rule reviews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrategies:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudent surveys on rule relevance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFocus groups with diverse student groups\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeriodic deletion or revision of outdated rules\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnsuring that any rule preserved has clear pedagogical or safety justification\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;3.5. Involve Students in Governance and Decision-Making\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinding: Students want to be respected and heard.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation: Schools should institutionalize shared governance, allowing students to participate in:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDrafting class or school charters\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSitting on disciplinary committees\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEvaluating rule implementation annually\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipation fosters ownership and compliance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.6. Provide Mandatory, High-Quality Training for Teachers on Value-Based Authority\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinding: Students prefer ethical, communicative, relational authority.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation: Schools and educational authorities should implement mandatory in-service professional development modules focused on:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRelational pedagogy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConflict resolution\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePositive discipline\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescent psychology\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFair and consistent sanctioning\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCultural sensitivity and communication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, schools should develop continuous professional development (CPD) programs that reinforce these competencies throughout the academic year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis recommendation is strengthened by a key limitation of the study: the lack of classroom observations. This gap reveals the urgent need for professional training that includes classroom-based observation, coaching, and reflective practice to ensure real behavioral change.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.4. Limitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study acknowledges several limitations:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNon-random sampling restricts generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-report measures limit objectivity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLack of classroom observations prevents verification of discipline dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbsence of teacher and administrator perspectives means only the student viewpoint is represented.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCrucially, these limitations reinforce the need for professional training, consistent monitoring, and multi-actor dialogue, as recommended in Section 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.5. Future Research Directions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture studies could:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncorporate observational and ethnographic methods to complement student self-reports\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInclude teachers and parents to triangulate disciplinary perceptions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConduct longitudinal research tracking changes in authority representations over time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompare public and private school disciplinary cultures\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTest the impact of restorative practices through quasi-experimental studies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.6. Final Conclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study demonstrates that Moroccan students do not resist authority\u0026mdash;they resist meaningless, unfair, and inconsistently applied authority. Their aspiration is for a disciplinary model grounded in:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJustice\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTransparency\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDialogue\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeaning\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis shift\u0026mdash;from coercive control to value-based authority\u0026mdash;is essential for building a school culture that is not only orderly, but also ethical, developmental, and empowering for students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e✅ Ethics Approval Statement \u0026ldquo;This study received ethics approval from the Laboratory of Political Studies and Public Law at Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco. The research was reviewed and approved in accordance with institutional ethical standards for studies involving human participants.\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e✅ Participant Consent Statement \u0026ldquo;All participants, and legal guardians for minors, provided informed consent prior to participation. Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and involved minimal risk.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAl-Ayachi, M. (2020). Students\u0026rsquo; representations of pedagogical authority in the Moroccan classroom [تمثلات التلاميذ للسلطة التربوية داخل الفصل الدراسي]. Journal of Educational Sciences, 36(2), 112\u0026ndash;135.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAl-Ayachi, M. (2020). The authority of values in education [سلطة القيم في التربية والتعليم]. Rabat: Social Works Foundation for Education.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAl-Jabri, M. A. (1986). The Arab mind and the critique of educational reason [العقل العربي ونقد العقل التربوي]. Beirut: Arab Cultural Center.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAl-Khammar, A. (2019). Educational discipline and school climate in Moroccan upper-secondary schools [الانضباط التربوي والمناخ المدرسي في الثانوي التأهيلي المغربي]. Journal of Contemporary Pedagogy, 5(1), 77\u0026ndash;98.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBennabou, S. (2017). Representations of school authority among Moroccan high school students: A sociopedagogical analysis. Journal of Educational Studies, 12(2), 55\u0026ndash;78.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDeci, E. L., \u0026amp; Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEddrighi, A. (2014). Learners\u0026rsquo; representations of educational authority in Moroccan schools [السلطة التربوية وتمثلات المتعلمين في المدرسة المغربية]. Journal of Educational Sciences, 30(1), 45\u0026ndash;72.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGregory, A., \u0026amp; Cornell, D. (2009). \u0026ldquo;Tolerating\u0026rdquo; adolescent needs: Moving beyond zero tolerance policies in U.S. schools. Theory Into Practice, 48(2), 106\u0026ndash;113.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGregory, A., Hafen, C., Ruzek, E., \u0026amp; Allen, J. (2016). The promise of teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships for improving student engagement: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 386\u0026ndash;402.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGregory, A., \u0026amp; Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom? Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 455\u0026ndash;475.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHigher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research. (2021). The Moroccan school: Performance and challenges in learning and school climate. Rabat: CSEFRS.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMinistry of National Education. (2019). Classroom charter: A guide to managing school life [ميثاق القسم: دليل تدبير الحياة المدرسية]. Rabat: Curriculum Directorate.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMoscovici, S. (2000). Social representations: Explorations in social psychology. Polity Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNoddings, N. (2013). Caring: A relational approach to ethics and moral education. University of California Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTrabelsi, M. (2018). Classroom authority and learner engagement in North African secondary schools. International Journal of Educational Research, 95, 112\u0026ndash;125.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"school authority, educational discipline, student perceptions, value-based approach, secondary education, learners","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8185076/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8185076/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between students and school authority in secondary education is no longer straightforward; it is marked by a striking tension between accepting the need for discipline and rejecting the traditional ways it is enforced. This paradox forms the starting point of the present study, which aims to understand how students perceive the legitimacy of school rules and how they distinguish between different forms of authority\u0026mdash;particularly coercive authority versus value-based authority.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrawing on a field-based survey administered to secondary school students, the study reveals a central contradiction: although students acknowledge the importance of discipline in ensuring effective learning and maintaining a positive classroom climate, they clearly express dissatisfaction with authoritarian practices rooted in punishment, unexplained strictness, and the absence of communication. Open-ended responses further show that when discipline is associated with ambiguity or arbitrariness, it diminishes students\u0026rsquo; motivation and undermines trust within the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, the findings highlight a strong preference for a value-based model of authority\u0026mdash;one grounded in fairness, respect, dialogue, clarity, and ethical role-modeling. Students place particular emphasis on improving human relationships and expanding educational activities as essential conditions for strengthening constructive discipline, reflecting their desire to be treated as active partners rather than passive recipients of control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study concludes that enhancing school discipline cannot be achieved through stricter sanctions or the reproduction of traditional authoritarian models. Instead, it requires building value-based legitimacy, where rules are clear, just, and collectively shared. Understanding students\u0026rsquo; perceptions, therefore, is not merely a diagnostic exercise but a strategic entry point for reforming classroom practices and reshaping the relationship between authority and learning within the Moroccan school context.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Value-Based Authority and School Discipline: Understanding Students’ Perceptions in Secondary Education","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-27 06:09:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8185076/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6a539ea8-09bb-46e7-bab2-0083d548d6c7","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":58454219,"name":"Educational Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-27T06:09:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-27 06:09:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8185076","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8185076","identity":"rs-8185076","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}