Understanding the Impact of Increasing Legal and Illegal Immigration and Declining Job Opportunities in Somaliland

Understanding the Impact of Increasing Legal and Illegal Immigration and Declining Job Opportunities in Somaliland | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Understanding the Impact of Increasing Legal and Illegal Immigration and Declining Job Opportunities in Somaliland Abdulaziz Bashir Abdi, Egal Jama Gulied This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9185825/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Somaliland has experienced rising levels of both legal and illegal immigration amid declining employment opportunities and growing socio-economic pressures. This study examines the impacts of immigration on labor markets, social cohesion, security, and institutional capacity. A qualitative research design was employed using semi-structured interviews with 19 key informants drawn from government institutions, NGOs, civil society, academia, the private sector, and security agencies. Thematic analysis identified five major findings. First, economic anxiety and labor competition were reported, with immigrants concentrated in low-skilled sectors, contributing to wage suppression and perceived displacement of local workers. Second, security concerns were associated with porous borders and undocumented migration. Third, the growing crisis of unaccompanied minors and street-connected children emerged as a serious humanitarian concern, marked by exposure to exploitation, forced begging, substance abuse, and long-term social risks. Fourth, socio-cultural tensions and integration barriers were linked to differences in social norms and rising xenophobic attitudes. Finally, weak regulatory frameworks, low registration rates, and fragmented institutional responsibilities limited effective migration governance. The study concludes that immigration in Somaliland presents interconnected economic, social, humanitarian, and security challenges, underscoring the need for comprehensive immigration policies, strengthened institutional coordination, improved child protection mechanisms, and structured social integration strategies. Climatology Immigrants immigrations violence job-scarcity security homicide Introduction At the global level, industrialized nations face paradoxical immigration challenges. Canada's expanded immigration policies (2016–2024) unexpectedly exacerbated labor shortages by increasing demand faster than supply (Fortin, 2025 ), while skilled immigrants experienced underemployment and deteriorating mental health (Raihan, Chowdhury, & Turin, 2023 ), Similarly, in the United States, immigrant communities faced heightened homicide risks in commercial settings (Abolarin, Myers, Carmichael, Moore, & Velopulos, 2023 ) and housing instability linked to trauma (Gillespie, Cardeli, Sideridis, Issa, & Ellis, 2020 ). European data reveals that unemployment not immigration correlates with crime, yet public perceptions disproportionately blame migrants (Coccia, Cohn, & Kakar, 2024 ), especially in economically declining sectors (Gusciute, Mühlau, & Layte, 2022 ) In Germany, (Gehrsitz & Ungerer, 2022 ). analyzed the short-run effects of the refugee crisis, finding that the influx of migrants did not displace native workers but that migrants themselves faced challenges in securing employment. The study also observed moderate increases in crime rates and noted that while macro-level migration correlated with increased support for anti-immigrant parties, direct exposure to asylum seekers at the micro-level slightly decreased such support. (Erfani, Chin, Lee, Uppal, & Peeler, 2021 ) examined suicide rates among migrants in immigration detention centers from 2010 to 2020. They reported a significant increase in suicide rates in 2020, with a 5.3-fold rise compared to the previous decade's average, highlighting the mental health challenges faced by detained migrants. In Africa, migration drivers differ starkly. South Africa's crime rates, comparable to war zones, are often wrongly attributed to foreign nationals (Zitha & Jansen van Rensburg, 2024) fueling xenophobic violence (Hlatshwayo, 2023 ). Tanzania reports illegal immigration straining resources and escalating crimes like drug smuggling (KUNDY, 2023 ; RWEZAULA, 2023 ), while Ethiopia's urban refugees grapple with aid dependency and violence (Kindie, Abeje Kassie, & Dube, 2023). Critically, Sub-Saharan Africa's informal labor markets and inequality propel migration (Akande, AbdulKareem, Jimoh, & Nofiu, 2025 ), creating a cycle of displacement and economic precarity. In Nigeria, (Utsua, Habila, & Babale, 2023 ) discussed the challenges faced by the Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS) in managing migration due to porous borders. The study emphasized the role of NIS in verifying travel documents and ensuring national security. (Bala & Inuwa, 2023 ), highlighted issues such as border porosity, bribery, and corruption among immigration officers as root causes of insecurity related to migration. Similarly, (Ifeanyi-Aneke, Ifedi, & Aga, 2021 ) identified approximately 1,400 unmonitored footpaths along Nigeria's borders, stressing the need for better inter-agency collaboration to combat cross-border human trafficking. (Obani & Odalonu, 2023 ) examined the socio-economic impacts of migration in Nigeria, arguing that poverty is a primary driver for Nigerians seeking better opportunities abroad. The study noted a significant loss of skilled personnel, which hampers the country's economic development. Problem Statement Somaliland currently bears a double burden in the migration landscape: it is both a source of outward emigration due to chronic unemployment and poverty, and a growing destination for migrants primarily from neighboring countries such as Ethiopia seeking safety and economic opportunities. While international research has addressed immigration’s labor market impact in wealthier nations (e.g., Canada’s demand-supply imbalance; (Fortin, 2025 ) and border-related security issues in African contexts (e.g., (RWEZAULA, 2023 ), there is, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no existing study that explores how these intertwined dynamics are unfolding in Somaliland. This critical and complex issue remains severely understudied in academic and policy discourses. Despite its weak institutional framework and high levels of unemployment, Somaliland has become a magnet for low-wage migrant labor. Immigrants frequently take up informal, low-skilled jobs such as shoe-shining, car washing, construction, shop guarding, plumbing, barbering, and running small tea and food stalls roles that are increasingly unavailable to local citizens due to fierce competition and employers’ preference for cheap labor. As a result, many Somalilanders, especially youth, face joblessness, deepening poverty, and social frustration. Meanwhile, the growing migrant population faces its own challenges: many live in overcrowded conditions or on the streets, rely on leftover food from restaurants, begging passers, and lack access to healthcare. Pregnant women often give birth without medical support, sometimes under trees, and their children grow up without access to education or protection. This vulnerable upbringing exposes young migrants to a range of risks, including involvement in petty crimes, theft, and bullying, contributing to rising insecurity in urban areas. Against this backdrop, the present study aims to fill the existing research gap by examining the multifaceted consequences of illegal emigration and immigration in Somaliland. It will investigate the socio-economic and security implications for both local and immigrant populations, explore public attitudes and perceptions toward immigrants, and identify policy options that could reduce labor market tension and address emerging xenophobic sentiments. The study applies a qualitative approach using thematic analysis to provide nuanced, evidence-based insights into one of Somaliland’s most pressing social challenges. Research Objectives To examine the consequences of illegal immigration to Somaliland. To identify the socio-economic and security impacts associated with illegal immigration in Somaliland. To explore public perceptions and attitudes toward immigrants in Somaliland. To investigate policy options that could mitigate labor market competition and address xenophobic sentiments. Research questions How does immigration intersect with Somaliland’s declining job market? What are the socio-economic and security implications for local communities? How do public perceptions align with global patterns of anti-immigrant sentiment linked to economic insecurity (Cotofan, Dur, & Meier, 2024 ; Kayran, 2022 ). What policies could mitigate labor market competition and xenophobic backlash? Literature review Migration, both legal and illegal, is a growing global phenomenon that carries complex social, economic, and political implications. A particularly critical dimension involves how societies perceive immigrants, especially those who migrate irregularly. Research by (Markowitz & Slovic, 2021 ), highlights the prevalence of dehumanization a process where individuals are stripped of perceived human traits as a justification for discriminatory treatment of undocumented migrants. This dehumanization can be explicit, morally rationalized, or shaped by subjective, contextual factors. At the international level, particularly in developed nations, migration is often entangled with narratives of crime and insecurity. However, empirical evidence frequently contradicts these assumptions. In the United States, for example, (Nowrasteh, Forrester, & Landgrave, 2022 ). analyzed data from Texas and found that native-born Americans have significantly higher conviction and arrest rates than both legal and undocumented immigrants. Specifically, conviction rates per 100,000 individuals were 1,422 for native-born citizens, compared to 782 for undocumented immigrants and 535 for legal immigrants. Arrest rates followed similar patterns, with 3,449 for native-born individuals, 2,142 for undocumented immigrants, and 1,570 for legal immigrants. These findings directly challenge popular political narratives that associate immigrants with rising crime. Similarly, in Germany, (Gehrsitz & Ungerer, 2022 ) assessed the socio-economic and political consequences of the recent refugee influx. Their findings indicated that migrants had not displaced native workers but faced difficulties in securing employment themselves. While macro-level data showed that rising migration coincided with greater support for anti-immigrant political parties, micro-level analysis revealed that individuals directly exposed to asylum seekers were less likely to support such parties. Notably, the researchers observed only a moderate increase in crime, further contradicting alarmist claims. In the United States, another dimension of migration-related insecurity emerges in detention facilities. (Erfani et al., 2021 ) investigated suicide rates among immigrants in U.S. detention centers from 2010 to 2020. They found that the 2020 suicide rate increased dramatically 5.3 times the previous decade’s average indicating severe mental health challenges among detained migrants. Regionally, in Africa, similar security and governance concerns have emerged.(Utsua et al., 2023 ), examined the implications of unregulated migration across Nigeria’s porous borders. They argue that such unchecked movement has facilitated transborder crimes and put additional pressure on national security systems. This view is reinforced by other African case studies such as (RWEZAULA, 2023 ) research on Tanzania’s border challenges which emphasize the security risks tied to unmanaged migrant flows and the inadequacies of existing immigration frameworks. In contrast, little to no academic attention has been given to the unique case of Somaliland a region that, despite its fragile economy and limited job market, is becoming a hub for immigrants from neighboring countries, particularly Ethiopia. To the best of current knowledge, no comprehensive study has investigated the economic, social, and security implications of migration in Somaliland. This presents a significant research gap, especially given the increasing number of low-wage immigrants occupying informal jobs such as shoe-shining, street vending, construction work, and cleaning services. Many live in precarious conditions, without access to healthcare or education, with children growing up on the streets exposed to, or engaging in, petty crimes and violence. Addressing this neglected area is essential for policy development, humanitarian intervention, and social cohesion in the region. Conceptual frame work This study is guided by a conceptual framework that positions legal and illegal immigration as independent variables interacting with declining job opportunities to influence socioeconomic stability. Socioeconomic stability refers to the capacity of society to maintain economic wellbeing, social cohesion, and security under demographic and labor market pressures (Ranis, Stewart, & Samman, 2006 ). Legal immigration involves state-authorized entry and residence (De Haas, Castles, & Miller, 2019 ), while illegal immigration refers to undocumented or unauthorized cross-border movement (Cornelius, 1994). Declining job opportunities reflect reductions in labor market accessibility, job security, and wage quality (Adrjan & Lydon, 2020 ; Howell & Kalleberg, 2019 ; Juhn, 1992 ; Schmitt, 2008 ). Methods Study Design This study adopts a qualitative, cross-sectional research design to explore the impact of increasing legal and illegal immigration alongside declining job opportunities in Hargeisa, Somaliland a city that has become both a transit point and a destination for thousands of immigrants from Ethiopia in search of a better life. To gain rich, in-depth insights, the researchers conducted face-to-face key informant interviews (KIs). This approach was chosen specifically to capture the lived experiences and perceptions of both legal and illegal immigration. Data collection took place between June 25th and August 16th, 2025. Using purposive sampling, the research team recruited 19 experts with relevant knowledge on the topic. Thematic analysis was conducted in the Somali language to maintain the credibility and authenticity of participants' narratives, preserving cultural and contextual nuances. Thematic analysis, as noted by (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018 ), is well-suited for identifying recurring patterns in participants' experiences, thoughts, and behaviors. After completing 19 interviews, the research team concluded that data saturation had been achieved, with sufficient information collected to meet the study’s objectives. Study Setting The research was conducted in Hargeisa, the capital city of Somaliland, which has increasingly become a hub for both legal and illegal immigrants. Participants were drawn from a range of sectors to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the issue. These included business owners, government officials such as representatives from the Ministry of Resettlement and Humanitarian Affairs (MORHA), and the Ministry of labor social affairs and family (MOLSAF) as well as academic experts from local universities who specialize in migration, youth activities, NGOs officers and social policy. This diverse participant base provided rich, multi-perspective insights into the impact of immigration and employment challenges in the region. Sampling and Participants The study employed purposive sampling to select 19 key informants with substantial knowledge and direct involvement in migration-related issues in Somaliland. Purposive sampling strengthens the rigour and trustworthiness of qualitative research by aligning with the study’s methodology, aims, and objectives. It enhances the research’s credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Campbell et al., 2020 ). Participants were intentionally chosen based on their expertise, professional background, and relevance to the study’s focus, ensuring rich and insightful data. Data Collection Methods Data collection was facilitated using a semi-structured interview guide. Semi-structured interviews were selected due to their proven balance between flexibility and scholarly rigor, designed to ensure consistency while allowing the flexibility to explore emerging themes (Kallio, Pietilä, Johnson, & Kangasniemi, 2016 ). All interviews were originally conducted in Somali, the participants’ native language, and were later translated into English for transcription and analysis. These interviews explored participants’ professional experiences and their observations regarding the challenges posed by migration. The semi-structured format allowed for open-ended responses, enabling the research team to capture nuanced insights, personal perspectives, and practical recommendations. This flexible approach ensured that rich qualitative data were collected while maintaining consistency across all interviews. Data Analysis The study employed thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes within the data, following a three-step process: transcription, coding, and theme identification. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, with questions asked in the participants’ mother tongue and translated into English to preserve contextual accuracy and meaning (van Nes, Abma, Jonsson, & Deeg, 2010 ). High-quality audio recordings supported precise transcription. The data were then systematically coded using NVivo software, based on the study’s core objectives: examining the consequences of illegal emigration, identifying its socio-economic and security impacts, exploring public perceptions of immigrants, and investigating policy options to mitigate labor market competition and xenophobic sentiments. Key themes were subsequently synthesized from the coded content to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impact of increasing legal and illegal immigration alongside declining job opportunities in Somaliland, enabling evidence-based conclusions and practical recommendations. Ethical Considerations Participants were fully informed about the study’s purpose, objectives, and procedures, and were made aware of their right to withdraw at any time without consequences. All interviews were conducted in quiet, convenient settings following participants’ oral consent and prior approval. To ensure privacy, all data were anonymized, protecting participants’ identities throughout the research process, with only aggregated findings reported. Participation was entirely voluntary, with no incentives provided, ensuring that involvement was based on free and informed choice. Findings The demographic characteristics of the respondents who participated in the interviews are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Respondent demographics Response Code Role/Position Gender Region R1 NGO Officer Female Hargeisa R2 NGO Officer Female Hargeisa R3 NGO Worker Male Hargeisa R4 MORHA Officer Male Hargeisa R5 MORHA Officer Male Hargeisa R6 MOLSAF Worker Male Hargeisa R7 Civil Society Representative Female Hargeisa R8 Social Affairs Practitioner Female Hargeisa R9 Civil Society Representative Male Hargeisa R10 Youth Activist Female Hargeisa R11 Small Business Owner Male Hargeisa R12 Small Business Owner Male Hargeisa R13 University Lecturer Male Hargeisa R14 University Lecturer Male Hargeisa R15 MORHA Officer Male Hargeisa R16 Security Expert Male Hargeisa R17 Peacebuilding Elder Male Hargeisa R18 Political Analyst Male Hargeisa R19 Economist Male Hargeisa The Crisis of Unaccompanied Minors and Street Homelessness This theme focuses on the highly visible presence of homeless immigrant children, their vulnerability, exposure to substance abuse, and the widespread perception that they may become a future source of organized crime and violence. One respondent linked the growing number of homeless immigrant children to serious long-term security concerns: Wherever you go in Somaliland, you see five, eight, or even ten children living on the streets. It is increasing. Many have no fathers, and we do not know where they came from. In Hargeisa, mothers sleep outside with five children in front of houses. Some of them are forced by their parents to beg on the streets and around mosques all day without rest, and they are punished if they do not obey. This is becoming a serious problem. [Interviewee 5] He suggested that the increasing presence of homeless families and children may indicate deepening social insecurity and vulnerability. Another respondent expressed strong concern about homeless immigrant children sleeping on the streets. She associated their lack of parental guidance, exposure to substance abuse, and absence of cultural or clan structures with the risk of future criminal behavior. According to her, these children may engage in theft, violence, or serious crimes as they grow older: …they are homeless children… they sleep in the streets drinking alcohol and adopting other drugs… as they are growing, they are learning experiences and that causing them to steal something bigger. They may kill the women and rape it… They have no any references like parents or clans. [Interviewee 2] Another respondent similarly believes that the absence of education and supervision may lead unaccompanied children into harmful activities. She warned that such children could become street bullies or thieves and may potentially harm women: When the children do not educate, they are going to be street bullies. They are going to steal. They may harm the woman and take them from their mobiles. [Interviewee 14] Concerns about the lack of parental oversight were echoed by another participant, who explained that children living without adult guidance become vulnerable to risky behaviors and may pose security threats as they grow older: …as they don’t have parents, they have many issues as they are stray, sleeping in the streets. [Interviewee 1] A further participant described the severe conditions experienced by unaccompanied immigrant children. He noted: …there are worries… some of them die in the streets and the community feels shock. He explained that children deported to Wajaale often return on foot, facing hunger and confusion: They from Ethiopia……. some of them are under age… some of them feel hunger… some of them miss the way and go to Borama. He emphasized the lack of regulations to protect both locals and immigrants: They don’t have borders or rules between the immigrant and society… both native society and immigrants are victim. [Interviewee 4] Finally, another respondent stressed that unaccompanied minors face numerous challenges that may push them toward criminal behavior: Yes, because they have not parents who control them or other people, they rely on… they meet many obstacles in life that can lead them to crimes. [Interviewee 16] This theme highlights concerns surrounding unaccompanied immigrant children, particularly their vulnerability and the potential long-term implications for community stability and security. The respondent noted that although border offices exist to register unaccompanied minors, the absence of parental or familial support creates significant risks over time: “As a government, we have offices at the borders that register and monitor children who arrive without their parents. However, when a child enters the country unaccompanied and grows up without family references, it creates serious security concerns.” (Interviewee 8) The respondent further emphasized that children without identifiable family ties may become socially disconnected and difficult for authorities to trace or monitor: “They have no parents or family behind them. Who are they? Where are they from? If they commit a crime, they can easily leave the country.” (Interviewee 8) 2. Economic Anxiety and Labor Competition This theme brings together participants’ perspectives on job displacement, wage depression, economic contributions, and the broader belief that immigrants directly compete with citizens for low-skilled employment. When asked how the presence of immigrants has affected community relations and daily life, one respondent emphasized concerns about job displacement. He explained: Immigrants are overtaking jobs from the citizens. When they enter the country, they take the lower jobs, and this happens for two reasons: either they have more skills than the citizens, or they have more chances and opportunities that push citizens aside. When asked whether immigrants only fill vacant positions, he added: “I don’t think there are vacant positions that foreigners must fill. Our people can do these jobs teaching, cleaning, cooking. What foreigners do, such as restaurant work or house cleaning, Somali women can also do.” [Interviewee 1] These reflections highlight the perception that immigration reduces job opportunities for local citizens and reshapes daily economic interactions. Another respondent noted that immigrants’ perceived skills influence economic and social attitudes. She explained that many community members believe immigrants possess better abilities than local youth, which undermines confidence in citizens’ capacities and increases employers’ preference for immigrant labor: “They affected many sides like the buildings… the community believed that our youth do not know something and believed the immigrants.” [Interviewee 2] A further concern raised by another respondent is the economic burden caused by immigrants who work for very low wages and those who engage in begging. She explained that while some immigrants contribute productively, many accept extremely low salaries, leading employers to favor them over citizens. She also mentioned that many immigrants do not pay taxes or make significant economic purchases. “Their effect is small although their population is so high… mostly they live on the streets and beg… they influence the economy because the business owners want employees who are working cheap… And they don’t buy something in the country mostly or don’t pay tax.” [Interviewee 6] Another participant acknowledged both positive and negative economic effects. Negatively, immigrants take over low-skilled jobs that locals could perform, pushing some citizens toward poverty. Positively, they contribute to sectors such as agriculture, where locals have withdrawn. “They have both positive and negative effects on the society. The negative one is they are doing the skills that citizens would do… The positive effect is that our people left agriculture; they cultivate it and benefit from their human power… Mostly they lean the society toward the poverty line, as they have taken their lower-skilled jobs.” [Interviewee 19] He further explained immigrants’ wage flexibility: “Because they change the money… when they change into birr, it costs something in their country… they are taking the money directly and sending it back. ” [Interviewee 5] Respondent 12 strongly affirmed that immigrants have displaced locals from many lower-skilled jobs: Yes. In restaurants and cafés, you see four or five workers mostly Ethiopians, whether the business belongs to them or Somalis. For shoe-shining, 90% are immigrants now, especially Ethiopians. Before, it was Somalis. You can’t find Somalis doing this job anymore. Even barbers maybe 80% are immigrants. He added that other immigrant groups are present but few: “After Ethiopians, we have Yemenis and Syrians, but they are very few-less than 5% and they don’t compete for many jobs.” [Interviewee 12] Another respondent explained that immigrants have replaced local citizens in several occupations, including construction, food services and domestic work. She attributed this shift to immigrants’ practical skills and broader experience. “The immigrants pushed them from the position… In the buildings, what builds is [specific immigrant groups] … the food is Ethiopian and Arabs, but before they were Somali. They didn’t learn like real education they have learned skills… our community is not good at those positions… it’s the experience, as they know many skills.” [Interviewee 13] In contrast, one respondent disagreed with the idea that immigrants create job scarcity. She viewed them as contributors who add value rather than competitors. “No, I don’t think so. I don’t think that they have taken their jobs or even caused job scarcity. If the person is doing a job, he is increasing something good for you.” [Interviewee 10] Another participant observed that immigrants dominate small-scale and informal sectors because they are excluded from high-paying jobs. This dominance, however, contributes to job scarcity for less-skilled locals. Of course, yes. As they can’t do the high-paid jobs, they mostly do the lower ones, like the bun and tea shops, shoe shining, barbering… and they pushed the citizens from those jobs. Interviewee similarly noted that immigrants mainly engage in lower-skilled roles: “There are two jobs that they mostly do: working in building, and maid work while the women are working in the houses. Also, they do the guides, keep the houses, and become watchmen.” [Interviewee 17] Another respondent highlighted the economic strain caused by the increasing number of immigrants, explaining that they often arrive without resources and quickly take over low-skilled jobs: The guy who is immigrant has no economy, and they are narrowing the chances for the society… car washing, shoe shining, digging toilets, building, restaurants. He added that employers prefer immigrants due to low wages: They are working lower money than the citizen… the employer is preferring the low cost. He also argued that immigrants contribute little to local economic circulation: “They don’t rent a house, and even they don’t buy the food from the restaurants… mostly they eat the leftovers or cook at home.” [Interviewee 11]. Finally, another respondent acknowledged both the positive and negative aspects. While immigrants enhance agricultural productivity, they are also perceived as occupying jobs that locals could perform jobs which some citizens avoid due to social stigma. “When it comes to work like agriculture, they can produce something… On the other hand, they are doing and filling the vacancies that citizens can do… but as we are doing in the country, we shame from that low money.” [Interviewee 8] The interviewee strongly highlighted competition in lower-skilled jobs as a major source of tension between immigrants and local citizens. This competition was perceived to have reduced employment opportunities for citizens, particularly in manual and service-oriented occupations: “When immigrants arrived, they began doing jobs that citizens used to do, which caused many locals to feel job insecurity and a lack of employment opportunities.” (Interviewee 1) The respondent further explained that immigrants’ willingness to accept lower wages has intensified this competition and increased public dissatisfaction: “Lower-skilled jobs such as barbering, painting, and construction changed after immigrants arrived. Many citizens complain that foreigners have taken their jobs.” (Interviewee 3) Despite these concerns, the respondent also acknowledged the positive economic contributions made by immigrants to the local economy. These contributions were mainly reflected in increased market activity and income generation for citizens: “They have increased the economy. The houses they rent belong to citizens, and the food they eat comes from citizens’ restaurants.” (Interviewee 2) 3. Security Risks of Unregulated Borders This theme examines perceived threats to national and community security, highlighting how unregulated borders, undocumented entry, and suspected criminal activity including theft and murder are linked to the immigrant population. One respondent strongly emphasized that the absence of strict border controls has created serious security vulnerabilities. He argued that without proper checks, individuals including those with criminal backgrounds enter Somaliland with ease. As he explained: …they are passing the borders easily without checking… even others who are not immigrants but left their country for crimes come under it and come to the country. He linked immigration directly to increasing theft and phone snatching, noting: …when you go to the jails you will find out they are immigrants, especially Ethiopian… they take [phones] away from the country and send to Ethiopia to buy strong money. [Interviewee 7] These reflections illustrate the public perception that undocumented immigrants contribute to rising petty crime. Another respondent shared concerns that individuals escaping crime or political instability may enter the country undetected: …they have effect on the community, as ….. can come under them, or sometimes it happens that people who are in crime… escape from their government to enter the country and stay here. [Interviewee 9] When asked about crimes believed to be associated with immigrants, another participant responded: Yes, it happens. Immigrants sometimes commit theft or even murder. You can see this in police stations. But we must also say that citizens commit many harms against immigrants too. If we compare, citizens commit more harassment toward them. [Interviewee 3] This statement highlights a more complex dynamic, where both groups experience vulnerability and tension. Another respondent argued that cultural and religious differences contribute to misunderstandings and conflict. She explained that immigrants may face discrimination, which can heighten tensions. At the same time, she acknowledged that some immigrants particularly those displaced by conflict or lacking education may engage in theft or violent behavior, while citizens also commit crimes against them. They are different than us… they say we are discriminated… they may hurt or kill somebody and escape… most of them are uneducated or displaced from war. [Interviewee 10] Concerns about weak border regulation were also raised by another participant, who noted that insufficient screening allows anyone to enter the country, including individuals with previous criminal records: Our border is open, everybody can come into it… they are not checking the person, their record and prior crimes. [Interviewee 15] Security concerns were repeatedly linked to weak border regulation and monitoring. “In security, they have a lot of effect… when foreigners commit crimes like theft or rape, these cases exist and are seen in courts.” [Interviewee 18] The respondent stressed that undocumented individuals are difficult to trace: “They have no clear references. If they do crime in the country, they can leave it.” [Interviewee 7] 4. Socio-Cultural Tensions and Integration Barriers This theme captures the non-economic sources of tension between immigrants and local communities, focusing on cultural and religious differences, social behaviors such as begging, prejudice, and the resulting mistrust and xenophobia. One respondent emphasized that immigrants influence the community socially and culturally, particularly when their cultural and religious practices differ significantly from Somali norms. He noted that while Arabs share some similarities with Somalis, Ethiopians especially [specific group of immigrants] groups are culturally distinct, which contributes to tension and slows social integration: They have on them, especially when comes the culture and religion are different. [Specific immigrants] and Somalis have distinct culture with Somalis, while …….. are not. [Interviewee 9] Another respondent reported that immigration has contributed to small-scale community conflicts, particularly among teenagers. He also noted recurring disputes in workplaces, such as misunderstandings between customers and immigrant workers during services like car washing: There may happen clashes between the teenagers… Also, they are working there are conflict between the customer and employee for instance if they are washing a car, he may accidentally break something that may cause challenge. [Interviewee 16] Respondent one described widespread negative attitudes toward immigrants, shaped partly by perceptions of cultural difference and non-Muslim religious identities: People believe many immigrants have a bad culture. Many live on the streets and influence the community. Also, many are not Muslim or do not practice Islam, which creates a negative opinion toward them. He added that, unlike countries with clear immigration frameworks, Somaliland lacks policies, making integration difficult: Some countries welcome immigrants because they have policies. But our country has no policy for them. Without a policy, they cause problems, the community harms them, and they also do violence. [Interviewee 13] Public views toward immigrants are mixed. Some community members fear that immigrants may conceal dangerous backgrounds or previous military training, posing potential future risks. At the same time, one respondent recognized that immigrants also bring skills and contribute positively to the market: This person is hiding his background… may they had military training… Tomorrow if they become group, it’s difficult to manage them. Another hand respondent also added emphasizing their value to the market: They may add value to the market… and can bring something new. [Interviewee 1] Another respondent confirmed that crime is a major public concern, though immigrants also experience discrimination: There are many crimes related the uncontrolled immigrants. He added: People look down on them and say to them ‘you are an …….’… as they are needy people. [Interviewee 3] Despite these concerns, this respondent acknowledged several positive attributes of immigrant workers, describing them as skilled, hardworking, and reliable: The employees are honest… they have different skills… if employer tell them to do something they do it. He continued: They are cheap labor… they don’t rest… they work overtime… even agriculture they know how to do it 100 percent. [Interviewee 11] Another respondent discussed opportunistic behaviors among some immigrants, including cases where individuals pretend to have disabilities in order to obtain money. However, he clarified that there is no systematic harassment of low-paid immigrant workers: Yes, you may see men who are imitating that they are handicapper… Later around you may see the man who were handicapper walking normal… make fake appearance to get money from the people. [Interviewee 8] Differences in ethnicity and religion were also viewed as major sources of misunderstanding and tension. One respondent noted: As they live together and have different ethnicity, and religion they may have mistaken. As I believe many clashes and obstacles are among them. [Interviewee 5] Finally, another respondent expressed concern that certain cultural practices he associates with immigrants contradict Somali norms and contribute to social discomfort. He linked these practices to the rise of street children: We don’t have same culture… the woman and men don’t follow together here or sleep together same place as they are not married… but they do. He added: That caused many children who born the streets… at 11 at night you’ll see them, and children are walking the streets. He also argued that some behaviors, such as begging from foreign visitors, harm Somaliland’s reputation: ……White guys who are visitors… they were shouting give us money… that is not culture of Somalis. [Interviewee 12] The respondent acknowledged both cultural exchange and cultural concern, especially regarding children. “Culturally they added value to us and taught us skills we did not know before.” [Interviewee 17] However, he also expressed worry about negative influence: When citizen children see what those children are doing, they may be influenced. Despite these concerns, the respondent downplayed the overall cultural impact: “They don’t have a big effect on our culture.” [Interviewee 10] 5. Institutional Failure and Regulatory Void This theme highlights the absence of clear laws, weak border management, low registration of immigrants, poor institutional coordination, and the resulting risks of exploitation and insecurity. Respondents emphasized that both immigrants and citizens experience harm due to the lack of a coherent legal and administrative framework. One respondent explained that while immigrants are often blamed for crimes, local citizens also commit significant harm against them, showing a situation of mutual vulnerability and mistrust: But we must also say that citizens commit many harms against immigrants too. If we compare, citizens commit more harassment toward them. [Interviewee 1] Another respondent highlighted the risk of exploitation that arises when immigrants lack basic shelter or support, making them vulnerable to abusive working conditions: Yes, it can happen. Immigrants have nowhere to sleep or live. If someone gives them food, they will work for anything. That can lead to slavery-like conditions. [Interviewee 13] A similar concern was raised about extremely low-paid or unpaid jobs. One respondent warned that such exploitation could escalate into modern slavery or forms of domination: …...The low-paid jobs or no paid at all will lead exploitation in the future that can cause colonizing. [Interviewee 8] Respondents consistently stressed the need for a clear and fair policy that protects both immigrants and citizens while preventing tensions: There must be a clear policy that is fair to both immigrants and citizens. It should not give immigrants more rights than citizens or the other way around. There must be a legal framework. [Interviewee 15] Another respondent suggested establishing organized camps as a way to manage immigrants, reduce street homelessness, and provide awareness sessions to prevent misunderstandings or conflicts with citizens: Make them camp, keep them there… give them awareness… tell them to stay away from involving any crimes and inform them as they are refugee the citizen could harm them. [Interviewee 5] Institutional failure was also noted in agencies responsible for handling immigrants. According to one respondent, these institutions often mistreat asylum seekers, fail to welcome them, and even return individuals despite legitimate claims: They manage badly because they don’t welcome them… a person who wanted to renew the letter may yell on them… some of them have the letter of asylum seeking, they bring back to their country. [Interviewee 14] The lack of a stable or properly implemented policy was repeatedly emphasized. One respondent described the government’s approach as inconsistent and ineffective, noting that rounding up immigrants and removing them does not solve the problem: I don’t know how they manage it, but what we see is they don’t have a proper policy. Sometimes they take immigrants into cars and remove them, but after some days, many come back. That is not a policy. [Interviewee 9] The unclear and inconsistently applied nature of Somaliland’s laws was highlighted: Somaliland has rules, yes. But how we use them is different. [Interviewee 2] Another respondent argued that immigrants seeking peace have the right to live and work in Somaliland, but this should not negatively affect citizens’ security or economic wellbeing. Policies should balance protection for both sides: …. when the person is seeking peace… they have right to find peace and have work… They shouldn’t influence the citizen whether comes their security and economic. [Interviewee 10] Institutional fragmentation and lack of coordination were repeatedly identified as major problems. One respondent explained how different institutions push responsibilities onto one another, leaving asylum seekers without proper services. He also noted the extremely low registration rate and the estimated number of undocumented immigrants: Institutions are pushing each other… asylum seekers push back to displacement institution… local government and civil society are pushing each other. The institution that has to do the work are not ready for it. Those registered in the asylum seekers department are not 30%… 70% are missing… they have no data. I think about one hundred fifty thousand Ethiopian immigrants live in the country. We don’t have that capacity… it is agreed they go inside the population and work inside. [Interviewee 16] Another respondent emphasized that effective immigration management requires strong laws, tight border control, regulated camps, and coordination between institutions. He noted that despite having laws on paper, they are not implemented: I think the solution is that borders must be tight… citizen and immigrants must not [stay] in same place and make camps. The authority who are ruling the country has the validation to rule their policy and make their law… the government has law, but it does not work. If you see the world, the UNCHR has the authority to do that… the government should produce a rule on that… the government should make that rule. [Interviewee 4] Finally, another respondent stated that immigration authorities lack the capacity to track the flow of immigrants. The vast majority remain unregistered, leaving the country without reliable data: Immigration has the duty, but I don’t think they do it well. They don’t know who is who, who enters, or who leaves the country. They have not registered 90% of the immigrants. [Interviewee 17] This theme reflects gaps between policy and practice in immigration management. The government should develop and modernize immigration laws and make proper follow-up. While acknowledging institutional readiness at the policy level, the respondent questioned implementation: “As a policy, the government is ready… but there is a gap when it comes to follow-up and checking security impacts.” [Interviewee 11] He also highlighted labor exploitation concerns: “Immigrants are abused by their sponsors… they work long hours and receive low salaries.” [Interviewee… 13] Discussion Structural Vulnerability and the Crisis of Street-Connected Children The findings reveal strong concern regarding unaccompanied minors and street-connected children, framed as a trajectory from homelessness to substance use and eventual criminality. These perceptions align with international evidence showing that street exposure, peer influence, and informal survival strategies significantly increase vulnerability to substance abuse and criminal risk (Banda, Banda, Banda, Mwaene, & Msiska, 2024 ; Dhawan et al., 2023 ; Waheed, Sarfraz, Mahfooz, Reza, & Emmanuel, 2025 ). Similar patterns have been documented across African urban contexts where structural poverty, displacement, and limited social protection drive child street involvement (Manomano, Nyanhoto, & Gutura, 2021 ). Participants’ emphasis on the absence of parental and clan structures reflects established findings that family breakdown and lack of psychosocial support are primary determinants of street homelessness (Embleton, Lee, Gunn, Ayuku, & Braitstein, 2016 ). However, comparative research complicates deterministic narratives. Evidence from Durban shows that street children often demonstrate resilience through religious belief and peer solidarity (Hills, Meyer-Weitz, & Asante, 2016 ), and some actively resist criminal identities (Bah, 2018 ). Thus, while respondents’ concerns reflect real structural risks, outcomes are shaped more by social protection systems and institutional responses than by displacement alone (Hailu, 2024 ). Economic Anxiety, Perceived Competition, and Labor Market Segmentation Economic competition emerged as a dominant theme, particularly in low-skilled sectors. Participants’ fears of job displacement and wage depression closely mirror findings that natives often perceive immigrants as labor competitors (Hayo & Roth, 2024 ) and that immigration can exert wage pressure in specific contexts (Altonji & Card, 2018 ; Delgado-Prieto, 2021 ). At the same time, empirical studies suggest more complex dynamics. Immigration may shift low-educated natives upward within wage distributions (Adjei, Andersson, Eriksson, & Scocco, 2021 ), and short-term negative effects often dissipate over time, with higher-educated workers benefiting (Ozguzel & Edo, 2023 ). Participants’ observations of immigrant concentration in construction, domestic work, and service sectors reflect labor market segmentation patterns documented elsewhere (Friberg & Midtbøen, 2017 ; Hayo & Roth, 2024 ). However, the recognition that immigrants contribute to agriculture and other labor-intensive sectors aligns with evidence that undocumented and low-skilled migrants can generate complementary employment and broader economic gains (Albert, 2017 ; Ozguzel & Edo, 2023 ). Overall, the Somaliland case reflects a tension between perceived zero-sum competition and empirically documented complementarity. Economic anxiety appears rooted less in aggregate labor effects and more in visible occupational shifts, wage flexibility, and informal sector expansion. Security Concerns, Border Governance, and Perception Gaps Participants frequently linked undocumented entry and weak border regulation to crime and insecurity. Such concerns resonate with research from West Africa demonstrating that ungoverned borders facilitate irregular flows and cross-border insecurity (Aniche, Moyo, & Nshimbi, 2021 ). Evidence from South Africa further shows that community-based interventions can mitigate these risks through localized governance mechanisms (Tshifhumulo, 2025 ). However, comparative crime research complicates the perception–reality relationship. Multiple U.S.-based studies consistently show that undocumented immigrants are less likely than natives to commit violent or property crimes (Adelman, Yang, Reid, Bachmeier, & Maciag, 2020 ; Gunadi, 2019 ; Light & Miller, 2018 ; Nuño & Herrera, 2025 ). Historical evidence from early modern Dutch cities also demonstrates how immigrants have been disproportionately accused of serious offenses (Van Der Heijden, Luk, & Nicolaas, 2025 ), while contemporary attitudes toward immigrant crime are strongly shaped by prejudice and resistance to social change rather than actual crime trends (McCann & Boateng, 2020 ; Nuño & Herrera, 2025 ). The findings therefore reveal a perception gap: while weak documentation and traceability raise legitimate governance concerns, empirical evidence suggests that immigrants are not inherently more crime-prone. Effective border governance and institutional coordination appear central to reducing both actual insecurity and perceived threat (Aniche et al., 2021 ; Tshifhumulo, 2025 ). Socio-Cultural Boundaries and Integration Challenges Cultural and religious differences were consistently framed as barriers to social cohesion. These findings align with scholarship showing that religion and perceived value conflict significantly shape immigrant integration and host acceptance (Kogan, Fong, & Reitz, 2020 ; Rowatt & Al-Kire, 2020 ; Vishkin & Bloom, 2022 ). Prejudice toward immigrants is influenced by both individual and contextual factors, though structured interventions can mitigate hostility (Albarello et al., 2023 ; Esses, 2020 ). Daily interpersonal tensions and workplace conflicts reflect broader evidence that ethnic diversity can generate both in-group hostility and out-group civility simultaneously (Baldassarri & Abascal, 2020 ; Griffiths, 2021 ). Strong religious boundaries, particularly in culturally homogeneous societies, may intensify perceived differences (Simsek, Van Tubergen, & Fleischmann, 2021 ). At the same time, shared social norms and inclusive urban policies can reduce bias, even if they do not eliminate it (Choi, Poertner, & Sambanis, 2019 ; Contini & Carrera, 2022 ). Importantly, participants also acknowledged immigrants’ cultural and economic contributions, echoing research showing that prosocial engagement and intergroup contact can foster cohesion (Alekseev, 2023 ; Baldassarri & Abascal, 2020 ; Vishkin & Bloom, 2022 ). Visible behaviors such as begging, documented elsewhere as adaptive survival strategies (Friberg, 2018 ), may amplify stigma but do not fully define integration trajectories. Conclusions and Recommendations This study finds that rising immigration in Somaliland has intensified economic competition, social tensions, security concerns, and institutional strain, largely due to weak regulation and limited job opportunities. The absence of a coherent immigration framework has increased vulnerability for both local communities and immigrant populations. The study recommends establishing a clear immigration policy, strengthening border and registration systems, improving institutional coordination, protecting vulnerable migrants especially unaccompanied minors and promoting social integration to reduce tensions and enhance social stability. Declarations Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest related to this research. Ethics Approval The study was conducted in accordance with ethical research standards. Oral informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to interviews and data collection. Ethical approval for this research was granted by the Beder International University Ethical Committee, Hargeisa, Somaliland. Consent to Participate All participants provided oral informed consent to take part in the study. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality was maintained at all times. Funding This research received no external funding. Data Availability The datasets generated during this study are securely stored by the corresponding author and may be shared with researchers who provide a reasonable request and purpose. References Abolarin, J., Myers, Q. W., Carmichael, H., Moore, A., & Velopulos, C. G. (2023). Immigrating to unsafe spaces: Unique patterns of homicide in immigrant victims compared to native-born citizens. Journal of surgical research, 288 , 321-328. 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Canada's expanded immigration policies (2016\u0026ndash;2024) unexpectedly exacerbated labor shortages by increasing demand faster than supply (Fortin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), while skilled immigrants experienced underemployment and deteriorating mental health (Raihan, Chowdhury, \u0026amp; Turin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), Similarly, in the United States, immigrant communities faced heightened homicide risks in commercial settings (Abolarin, Myers, Carmichael, Moore, \u0026amp; Velopulos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and housing instability linked to trauma (Gillespie, Cardeli, Sideridis, Issa, \u0026amp; Ellis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). European data reveals that unemployment not immigration correlates with crime, yet public perceptions disproportionately blame migrants (Coccia, Cohn, \u0026amp; Kakar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), especially in economically declining sectors (Gusciute, M\u0026uuml;hlau, \u0026amp; Layte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Germany, (Gehrsitz \u0026amp; Ungerer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). analyzed the short-run effects of the refugee crisis, finding that the influx of migrants did not displace native workers but that migrants themselves faced challenges in securing employment. The study also observed moderate increases in crime rates and noted that while macro-level migration correlated with increased support for anti-immigrant parties, direct exposure to asylum seekers at the micro-level slightly decreased such support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Erfani, Chin, Lee, Uppal, \u0026amp; Peeler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) examined suicide rates among migrants in immigration detention centers from 2010 to 2020. They reported a significant increase in suicide rates in 2020, with a 5.3-fold rise compared to the previous decade's average, highlighting the mental health challenges faced by detained migrants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Africa, migration drivers differ starkly. South Africa's crime rates, comparable to war zones, are often wrongly attributed to foreign nationals (Zitha \u0026amp; Jansen van Rensburg, 2024) fueling xenophobic violence (Hlatshwayo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Tanzania reports illegal immigration straining resources and escalating crimes like drug smuggling (KUNDY, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; RWEZAULA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), while Ethiopia's urban refugees grapple with aid dependency and violence (Kindie, Abeje Kassie, \u0026amp; Dube, 2023). Critically, Sub-Saharan Africa's informal labor markets and inequality propel migration (Akande, AbdulKareem, Jimoh, \u0026amp; Nofiu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), creating a cycle of displacement and economic precarity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, (Utsua, Habila, \u0026amp; Babale, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) discussed the challenges faced by the Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS) in managing migration due to porous borders. The study emphasized the role of NIS in verifying travel documents and ensuring national security.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Bala \u0026amp; Inuwa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), highlighted issues such as border porosity, bribery, and corruption among immigration officers as root causes of insecurity related to migration. Similarly, (Ifeanyi-Aneke, Ifedi, \u0026amp; Aga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) identified approximately 1,400 unmonitored footpaths along Nigeria's borders, stressing the need for better inter-agency collaboration to combat cross-border human trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Obani \u0026amp; Odalonu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) examined the socio-economic impacts of migration in Nigeria, arguing that poverty is a primary driver for Nigerians seeking better opportunities abroad. The study noted a significant loss of skilled personnel, which hampers the country's economic development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProblem Statement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSomaliland currently bears a double burden in the migration landscape: it is both a source of outward emigration due to chronic unemployment and poverty, and a growing destination for migrants primarily from neighboring countries such as Ethiopia seeking safety and economic opportunities. While international research has addressed immigration\u0026rsquo;s labor market impact in wealthier nations (e.g., Canada\u0026rsquo;s demand-supply imbalance; (Fortin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) and border-related security issues in African contexts (e.g., (RWEZAULA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), there is, to the best of the researcher\u0026rsquo;s knowledge, no existing study that explores how these intertwined dynamics are unfolding in Somaliland. This critical and complex issue remains severely understudied in academic and policy discourses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its weak institutional framework and high levels of unemployment, Somaliland has become a magnet for low-wage migrant labor. Immigrants frequently take up informal, low-skilled jobs such as shoe-shining, car washing, construction, shop guarding, plumbing, barbering, and running small tea and food stalls roles that are increasingly unavailable to local citizens due to fierce competition and employers\u0026rsquo; preference for cheap labor. As a result, many Somalilanders, especially youth, face joblessness, deepening poverty, and social frustration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, the growing migrant population faces its own challenges: many live in overcrowded conditions or on the streets, rely on leftover food from restaurants, begging passers, and lack access to healthcare. Pregnant women often give birth without medical support, sometimes under trees, and their children grow up without access to education or protection. This vulnerable upbringing exposes young migrants to a range of risks, including involvement in petty crimes, theft, and bullying, contributing to rising insecurity in urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, the present study aims to fill the existing research gap by examining the multifaceted consequences of illegal emigration and immigration in Somaliland. It will investigate the socio-economic and security implications for both local and immigrant populations, explore public attitudes and perceptions toward immigrants, and identify policy options that could reduce labor market tension and address emerging xenophobic sentiments. The study applies a qualitative approach using thematic analysis to provide nuanced, evidence-based insights into one of Somaliland\u0026rsquo;s most pressing social challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch Objectives\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine the consequences of illegal immigration to Somaliland.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the socio-economic and security impacts associated with illegal immigration in Somaliland.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore public perceptions and attitudes toward immigrants in Somaliland.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate policy options that could mitigate labor market competition and address xenophobic sentiments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eResearch questions\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow does immigration intersect with Somaliland\u0026rsquo;s declining job market?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are the socio-economic and security implications for local communities?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do public perceptions align with global patterns of anti-immigrant sentiment linked to economic insecurity (Cotofan, Dur, \u0026amp; Meier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Kayran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat policies could mitigate labor market competition and xenophobic backlash?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLiterature review\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMigration, both legal and illegal, is a growing global phenomenon that carries complex social, economic, and political implications. A particularly critical dimension involves how societies perceive immigrants, especially those who migrate irregularly. Research by (Markowitz \u0026amp; Slovic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), highlights the prevalence of \u003cem\u003edehumanization\u003c/em\u003e a process where individuals are stripped of perceived human traits as a justification for discriminatory treatment of undocumented migrants. This dehumanization can be explicit, morally rationalized, or shaped by subjective, contextual factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the international level, particularly in developed nations, migration is often entangled with narratives of crime and insecurity. However, empirical evidence frequently contradicts these assumptions. In the United States, for example, (Nowrasteh, Forrester, \u0026amp; Landgrave, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). analyzed data from Texas and found that native-born Americans have significantly higher conviction and arrest rates than both legal and undocumented immigrants. Specifically, conviction rates per 100,000 individuals were 1,422 for native-born citizens, compared to 782 for undocumented immigrants and 535 for legal immigrants. Arrest rates followed similar patterns, with 3,449 for native-born individuals, 2,142 for undocumented immigrants, and 1,570 for legal immigrants. These findings directly challenge popular political narratives that associate immigrants with rising crime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, in Germany, (Gehrsitz \u0026amp; Ungerer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) assessed the socio-economic and political consequences of the recent refugee influx. Their findings indicated that migrants had not displaced native workers but faced difficulties in securing employment themselves. While macro-level data showed that rising migration coincided with greater support for anti-immigrant political parties, micro-level analysis revealed that individuals directly exposed to asylum seekers were less likely to support such parties. Notably, the researchers observed only a moderate increase in crime, further contradicting alarmist claims.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the United States, another dimension of migration-related insecurity emerges in detention facilities. (Erfani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) investigated suicide rates among immigrants in U.S. detention centers from 2010 to 2020. They found that the 2020 suicide rate increased dramatically 5.3 times the previous decade\u0026rsquo;s average indicating severe mental health challenges among detained migrants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegionally, in Africa, similar security and governance concerns have emerged.(Utsua et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), examined the implications of unregulated migration across Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s porous borders. They argue that such unchecked movement has facilitated transborder crimes and put additional pressure on national security systems. This view is reinforced by other African case studies such as (RWEZAULA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) research on Tanzania\u0026rsquo;s border challenges which emphasize the security risks tied to unmanaged migrant flows and the inadequacies of existing immigration frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, little to no academic attention has been given to the unique case of Somaliland a region that, despite its fragile economy and limited job market, is becoming a hub for immigrants from neighboring countries, particularly Ethiopia. To the best of current knowledge, no comprehensive study has investigated the economic, social, and security implications of migration in Somaliland. This presents a significant research gap, especially given the increasing number of low-wage immigrants occupying informal jobs such as shoe-shining, street vending, construction work, and cleaning services. Many live in precarious conditions, without access to healthcare or education, with children growing up on the streets exposed to, or engaging in, petty crimes and violence. Addressing this neglected area is essential for policy development, humanitarian intervention, and social cohesion in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConceptual frame work\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is guided by a conceptual framework that positions legal and illegal immigration as independent variables interacting with declining job opportunities to influence socioeconomic stability. Socioeconomic stability refers to the capacity of society to maintain economic wellbeing, social cohesion, and security under demographic and labor market pressures (Ranis, Stewart, \u0026amp; Samman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Legal immigration involves state-authorized entry and residence (De Haas, Castles, \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), while illegal immigration refers to undocumented or unauthorized cross-border movement (Cornelius, 1994). Declining job opportunities reflect reductions in labor market accessibility, job security, and wage quality (Adrjan \u0026amp; Lydon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Howell \u0026amp; Kalleberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Juhn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Schmitt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a qualitative, cross-sectional research design to explore the impact of increasing legal and illegal immigration alongside declining job opportunities in Hargeisa, Somaliland a city that has become both a transit point and a destination for thousands of immigrants from Ethiopia in search of a better life. To gain rich, in-depth insights, the researchers conducted face-to-face key informant interviews (KIs). This approach was chosen specifically to capture the lived experiences and perceptions of both legal and illegal immigration. Data collection took place between June 25th and August 16th, 2025. Using purposive sampling, the research team recruited 19 experts with relevant knowledge on the topic. Thematic analysis was conducted in the Somali language to maintain the credibility and authenticity of participants' narratives, preserving cultural and contextual nuances. Thematic analysis, as noted by (Castleberry \u0026amp; Nolen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), is well-suited for identifying recurring patterns in participants' experiences, thoughts, and behaviors. After completing 19 interviews, the research team concluded that data saturation had been achieved, with sufficient information collected to meet the study’s objectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Setting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was conducted in Hargeisa, the capital city of Somaliland, which has increasingly become a hub for both legal and illegal immigrants. Participants were drawn from a range of sectors to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the issue. These included business owners, government officials such as representatives from the Ministry of Resettlement and Humanitarian Affairs (MORHA), and the Ministry of labor social affairs and family (MOLSAF) as well as academic experts from local universities who specialize in migration, youth activities, NGOs officers and social policy. This diverse participant base provided rich, multi-perspective insights into the impact of immigration and employment challenges in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study employed purposive sampling to select 19 key informants with substantial knowledge and direct involvement in migration-related issues in Somaliland. Purposive sampling strengthens the rigour and trustworthiness of qualitative research by aligning with the study’s methodology, aims, and objectives. It enhances the research’s credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Campbell et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Participants were intentionally chosen based on their expertise, professional background, and relevance to the study’s focus, ensuring rich and insightful data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection Methods\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection was facilitated using a semi-structured interview guide. Semi-structured interviews were selected due to their proven balance between flexibility and scholarly rigor, designed to ensure consistency while allowing the flexibility to explore emerging themes (Kallio, Pietilä, Johnson, \u0026amp; Kangasniemi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). All interviews were originally conducted in Somali, the participants’ native language, and were later translated into English for transcription and analysis. These interviews explored participants’ professional experiences and their observations regarding the challenges posed by migration. The semi-structured format allowed for open-ended responses, enabling the research team to capture nuanced insights, personal perspectives, and practical recommendations. This flexible approach ensured that rich qualitative data were collected while maintaining consistency across all interviews.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study employed thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes within the data, following a three-step process: transcription, coding, and theme identification. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, with questions asked in the participants’ mother tongue and translated into English to preserve contextual accuracy and meaning (van Nes, Abma, Jonsson, \u0026amp; Deeg, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). High-quality audio recordings supported precise transcription. The data were then systematically coded using NVivo software, based on the study’s core objectives: examining the consequences of illegal emigration, identifying its socio-economic and security impacts, exploring public perceptions of immigrants, and investigating policy options to mitigate labor market competition and xenophobic sentiments. Key themes were subsequently synthesized from the coded content to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impact of increasing legal and illegal immigration alongside declining job opportunities in Somaliland, enabling evidence-based conclusions and practical recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were fully informed about the study’s purpose, objectives, and procedures, and were made aware of their right to withdraw at any time without consequences. All interviews were conducted in quiet, convenient settings following participants’ oral consent and prior approval. To ensure privacy, all data were anonymized, protecting participants’ identities throughout the research process, with only aggregated findings reported. Participation was entirely voluntary, with no incentives provided, ensuring that involvement was based on free and informed choice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe demographic characteristics of the respondents who participated in the interviews are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent demographics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRole/Position\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNGO Officer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNGO Officer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNGO Worker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMORHA Officer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMORHA Officer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOLSAF Worker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCivil Society Representative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial Affairs Practitioner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCivil Society Representative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Activist\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall Business Owner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall Business Owner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity Lecturer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity Lecturer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMORHA Officer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecurity Expert\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeacebuilding Elder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolitical Analyst\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomist\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargeisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe Crisis of Unaccompanied Minors and Street Homelessness\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme focuses on the highly visible presence of homeless immigrant children, their vulnerability, exposure to substance abuse, and the widespread perception that they may become a future source of organized crime and violence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne respondent linked the growing number of homeless immigrant children to serious long-term security concerns:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWherever you go in Somaliland, you see five, eight, or even ten children living on the streets. It is increasing. Many have no fathers, and we do not know where they came from. In Hargeisa, mothers sleep outside with five children in front of houses. Some of them are forced by their parents to beg on the streets and around mosques all day without rest, and they are punished if they do not obey. This is becoming a serious problem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe suggested that the increasing presence of homeless families and children may indicate deepening social insecurity and vulnerability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent expressed strong concern about homeless immigrant children sleeping on the streets. She associated their lack of parental guidance, exposure to substance abuse, and absence of cultural or clan structures with the risk of future criminal behavior. According to her, these children may engage in theft, violence, or serious crimes as they grow older:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…they are homeless children… they sleep in the streets drinking alcohol and adopting other drugs… as they are growing, they are learning experiences and that causing them to steal something bigger. They may kill the women and rape it… They have no any references like parents or clans.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 2]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent similarly believes that the absence of education and supervision may lead unaccompanied children into harmful activities. She warned that such children could become street bullies or thieves and may potentially harm women:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen the children do not educate, they are going to be street bullies. They are going to steal. They may harm the woman and take them from their mobiles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 14]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcerns about the lack of parental oversight were echoed by another participant, who explained that children living without adult guidance become vulnerable to risky behaviors and may pose security threats as they grow older:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…as they don’t have parents, they have many issues as they are stray, sleeping in the streets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA further participant described the severe conditions experienced by unaccompanied immigrant children. He noted:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…there are worries… some of them die in the streets and the community feels shock.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe explained that children deported to Wajaale often return on foot, facing hunger and confusion:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey from Ethiopia……. some of them are under age… some of them feel hunger… some of them miss the way and go to Borama.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe emphasized the lack of regulations to protect both locals and immigrants:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey don’t have borders or rules between the immigrant and society… both native society and immigrants are victim.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 4]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, another respondent stressed that unaccompanied minors face numerous challenges that may push them toward criminal behavior:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e Yes, because they have not parents who control them or other people, they rely on… they meet many obstacles in life that can lead them to crimes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 16]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme highlights concerns surrounding unaccompanied immigrant children, particularly their vulnerability and the potential long-term implications for community stability and security. The respondent noted that although border offices exist to register unaccompanied minors, the absence of parental or familial support creates significant risks over time:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e “As a government, we have offices at the borders that register and monitor children who arrive without their parents. However, when a child enters the country unaccompanied and grows up without family references, it creates serious security concerns.”\u003c/em\u003e (Interviewee 8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe respondent further emphasized that children without identifiable family ties may become socially disconnected and difficult for authorities to trace or monitor:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e“They have no parents or family behind them. Who are they? Where are they from? If they commit a crime, they can easily leave the country.”\u003c/em\u003e (Interviewee 8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2. Economic Anxiety and Labor Competition\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme brings together participants’ perspectives on job displacement, wage depression, economic contributions, and the broader belief that immigrants directly compete with citizens for low-skilled employment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen asked how the presence of immigrants has affected community relations and daily life, one respondent emphasized concerns about job displacement. He explained:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImmigrants are overtaking jobs from the citizens. When they enter the country, they take the lower jobs, and this happens for two reasons: either they have more skills than the citizens, or they have more chances and opportunities that push citizens aside.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen asked whether immigrants only fill vacant positions, he added:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“I don’t think there are vacant positions that foreigners must fill. Our people can do these jobs teaching, cleaning, cooking. What foreigners do, such as restaurant work or house cleaning, Somali women can also do.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese reflections highlight the perception that immigration reduces job opportunities for local citizens and reshapes daily economic interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent noted that immigrants’ perceived skills influence economic and social attitudes. She explained that many community members believe immigrants possess better abilities than local youth, which undermines confidence in citizens’ capacities and increases employers’ preference for immigrant labor:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“They affected many sides like the buildings… the community believed that our youth do not know something and believed the immigrants.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 2]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA further concern raised by another respondent is the economic burden caused by immigrants who work for very low wages and those who engage in begging. She explained that while some immigrants contribute productively, many accept extremely low salaries, leading employers to favor them over citizens. She also mentioned that many immigrants do not pay taxes or make significant economic purchases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“Their effect is small although their population is so high… mostly they live on the streets and beg… they influence the economy because the business owners want employees who are working cheap… And they don’t buy something in the country mostly or don’t pay tax.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 6]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother participant acknowledged both positive and negative economic effects. Negatively, immigrants take over low-skilled jobs that locals could perform, pushing some citizens toward poverty. Positively, they contribute to sectors such as agriculture, where locals have withdrawn.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“They have both positive and negative effects on the society. The negative one is they are doing the skills that citizens would do… The positive effect is that our people left agriculture; they cultivate it and benefit from their human power… Mostly they lean the society toward the poverty line, as they have taken their lower-skilled jobs.” [Interviewee 19]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe further explained immigrants’ wage flexibility: \u003cem\u003e“Because they change the money… when they change into birr, it costs something in their country… they are taking the money directly and sending it back.\u003c/em\u003e” \u003cem\u003e[Interviewee 5]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent 12 strongly affirmed that immigrants have displaced locals from many lower-skilled jobs:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes. In restaurants and cafés, you see four or five workers mostly Ethiopians, whether the business belongs to them or Somalis. For shoe-shining, 90% are immigrants now, especially Ethiopians. Before, it was Somalis. You can’t find Somalis doing this job anymore. Even barbers maybe 80% are immigrants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe added that other immigrant groups are present but few: \u003cem\u003e“After Ethiopians, we have Yemenis and Syrians, but they are very few-less than 5% and they don’t compete for many jobs.” [Interviewee 12]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent explained that immigrants have replaced local citizens in several occupations, including construction, food services and domestic work. She attributed this shift to immigrants’ practical skills and broader experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“The immigrants pushed them from the position… In the buildings, what builds is [specific immigrant groups] … the food is Ethiopian and Arabs, but before they were Somali. They didn’t learn like real education they have learned skills… our community is not good at those positions… it’s the experience, as they know many skills.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 13]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, one respondent disagreed with the idea that immigrants create job scarcity. She viewed them as contributors who add value rather than competitors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“No, I don’t think so. I don’t think that they have taken their jobs or even caused job scarcity. If the person is doing a job, he is increasing something good for you.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 10]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother participant observed that immigrants dominate small-scale and informal sectors because they are excluded from high-paying jobs. This dominance, however, contributes to job scarcity for less-skilled locals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOf course, yes. As they can’t do the high-paid jobs, they mostly do the lower ones, like the bun and tea shops, shoe shining, barbering… and they pushed the citizens from those jobs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviewee similarly noted that immigrants mainly engage in lower-skilled roles:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“There are two jobs that they mostly do: working in building, and maid work while the women are working in the houses. Also, they do the guides, keep the houses, and become watchmen.” [Interviewee 17]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent highlighted the economic strain caused by the increasing number of immigrants, explaining that they often arrive without resources and quickly take over low-skilled jobs:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe guy who is immigrant has no economy, and they are narrowing the chances for the society… car washing, shoe shining, digging toilets, building, restaurants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe added that employers prefer immigrants due to low wages:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey are working lower money than the citizen… the employer is preferring the low cost.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe also argued that immigrants contribute little to local economic circulation: \u003cem\u003e“They don’t rent a house, and even they don’t buy the food from the restaurants… mostly they eat the leftovers or cook at home.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 11].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, another respondent acknowledged both the positive and negative aspects. While immigrants enhance agricultural productivity, they are also perceived as occupying jobs that locals could perform jobs which some citizens avoid due to social stigma.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“When it comes to work like agriculture, they can produce something… On the other hand, they are doing and filling the vacancies that citizens can do… but as we are doing in the country, we shame from that low money.”\u003c/em\u003e [Interviewee 8]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviewee strongly highlighted competition in lower-skilled jobs as a major source of tension between immigrants and local citizens. This competition was perceived to have reduced employment opportunities for citizens, particularly in manual and service-oriented occupations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“When immigrants arrived, they began doing jobs that citizens used to do, which caused many locals to feel job insecurity and a lack of employment opportunities.”\u003c/em\u003e (Interviewee 1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe respondent further explained that immigrants’ willingness to accept lower wages has intensified this competition and increased public dissatisfaction:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“Lower-skilled jobs such as barbering, painting, and construction changed after immigrants arrived. Many citizens complain that foreigners have taken their jobs.”\u003c/em\u003e (Interviewee 3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these concerns, the respondent also acknowledged the positive economic contributions made by immigrants to the local economy. These contributions were mainly reflected in increased market activity and income generation for citizens:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“They have increased the economy. The houses they rent belong to citizens, and the food they eat comes from citizens’ restaurants.”\u003c/em\u003e (Interviewee 2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3. Security Risks of Unregulated Borders\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme examines perceived threats to national and community security, highlighting how unregulated borders, undocumented entry, and suspected criminal activity including theft and murder are linked to the immigrant population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne respondent strongly emphasized that the absence of strict border controls has created serious security vulnerabilities. He argued that without proper checks, individuals including those with criminal backgrounds enter Somaliland with ease. As he explained:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…they are passing the borders easily without checking… even others who are not immigrants but left their country for crimes come under it and come to the country.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe linked immigration directly to increasing theft and phone snatching, noting:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…when you go to the jails you will find out they are immigrants, especially Ethiopian… they take [phones] away from the country and send to Ethiopia to buy strong money.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 7]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese reflections illustrate the public perception that undocumented immigrants contribute to rising petty crime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent shared concerns that individuals escaping crime or political instability may enter the country undetected:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…they have effect on the community, as ….. can come under them, or sometimes it happens that people who are in crime… escape from their government to enter the country and stay here.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 9]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen asked about crimes believed to be associated with immigrants, another participant responded:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes, it happens. Immigrants sometimes commit theft or even murder. You can see this in police stations. But we must also say that citizens commit many harms against immigrants too. If we compare, citizens commit more harassment toward them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 3]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis statement highlights a more complex dynamic, where both groups experience vulnerability and tension.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent argued that cultural and religious differences contribute to misunderstandings and conflict. She explained that immigrants may face discrimination, which can heighten tensions. At the same time, she acknowledged that some immigrants particularly those displaced by conflict or lacking education may engage in theft or violent behavior, while citizens also commit crimes against them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey are different than us… they say we are discriminated… they may hurt or kill somebody and escape… most of them are uneducated or displaced from war.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 10]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcerns about weak border regulation were also raised by another participant, who noted that insufficient screening allows anyone to enter the country, including individuals with previous criminal records:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur border is open, everybody can come into it… they are not checking the person, their record and prior crimes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 15]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecurity concerns were repeatedly linked to weak border regulation and monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“In security, they have a lot of effect… when foreigners commit crimes like theft or rape, these cases exist and are seen in courts.” [Interviewee 18]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe respondent stressed that undocumented individuals are difficult to trace:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“They have no clear references. If they do crime in the country, they can leave it.” [Interviewee 7]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e4. Socio-Cultural Tensions and Integration Barriers\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme captures the non-economic sources of tension between immigrants and local communities, focusing on cultural and religious differences, social behaviors such as begging, prejudice, and the resulting mistrust and xenophobia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne respondent emphasized that immigrants influence the community socially and culturally, particularly when their cultural and religious practices differ significantly from Somali norms. He noted that while Arabs share some similarities with Somalis, Ethiopians especially [specific group of immigrants] groups are culturally distinct, which contributes to tension and slows social integration:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey have on them, especially when comes the culture and religion are different. [Specific immigrants] and Somalis have distinct culture with Somalis, while …….. are not.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 9]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent reported that immigration has contributed to small-scale community conflicts, particularly among teenagers. He also noted recurring disputes in workplaces, such as misunderstandings between customers and immigrant workers during services like car washing:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere may happen clashes between the teenagers… Also, they are working there are conflict between the customer and employee for instance if they are washing a car, he may accidentally break something that may cause challenge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 16]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent one described widespread negative attitudes toward immigrants, shaped partly by perceptions of cultural difference and non-Muslim religious identities:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeople believe many immigrants have a bad culture. Many live on the streets and influence the community. Also, many are not Muslim or do not practice Islam, which creates a negative opinion toward them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe added that, unlike countries with clear immigration frameworks, Somaliland lacks policies, making integration difficult:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome countries welcome immigrants because they have policies. But our country has no policy for them. Without a policy, they cause problems, the community harms them, and they also do violence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 13]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic views toward immigrants are mixed. Some community members fear that immigrants may conceal dangerous backgrounds or previous military training, posing potential future risks. At the same time, one respondent recognized that immigrants also bring skills and contribute positively to the market:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis person is hiding his background… may they had military training… Tomorrow if they become group, it’s difficult to manage them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother hand respondent also added emphasizing their value to the market:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey may add value to the market… and can bring something new.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent confirmed that crime is a major public concern, though immigrants also experience discrimination:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are many crimes related the uncontrolled immigrants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe added:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeople look down on them and say to them ‘you are an …….’… as they are needy people.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 3]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these concerns, this respondent acknowledged several positive attributes of immigrant workers, describing them as skilled, hardworking, and reliable:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe employees are honest… they have different skills… if employer tell them to do something they do it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe continued:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey are cheap labor… they don’t rest… they work overtime… even agriculture they know how to do it 100 percent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 11]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent discussed opportunistic behaviors among some immigrants, including cases where individuals pretend to have disabilities in order to obtain money. However, he clarified that there is no systematic harassment of low-paid immigrant workers:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes, you may see men who are imitating that they are handicapper… Later around you may see the man who were handicapper walking normal… make fake appearance to get money from the people.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 8]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in ethnicity and religion were also viewed as major sources of misunderstanding and tension. One respondent noted:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs they live together and have different ethnicity, and religion they may have mistaken. As I believe many clashes and obstacles are among them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, another respondent expressed concern that certain cultural practices he associates with immigrants contradict Somali norms and contribute to social discomfort. He linked these practices to the rise of street children:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe don’t have same culture… the woman and men don’t follow together here or sleep together same place as they are not married… but they do.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe added:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThat caused many children who born the streets… at 11 at night you’ll see them, and children are walking the streets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe also argued that some behaviors, such as begging from foreign visitors, harm Somaliland’s reputation:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e……White guys who are visitors… they were shouting give us money… that is not culture of Somalis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 12]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe respondent acknowledged both cultural exchange and cultural concern, especially regarding children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“Culturally they added value to us and taught us skills we did not know before.” [Interviewee 17]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, he also expressed worry about negative influence:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen citizen children see what those children are doing, they may be influenced.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these concerns, the respondent downplayed the overall cultural impact:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“They don’t have a big effect on our culture.” [Interviewee 10]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e5. Institutional Failure and Regulatory Void\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme highlights the absence of clear laws, weak border management, low registration of immigrants, poor institutional coordination, and the resulting risks of exploitation and insecurity. Respondents emphasized that both immigrants and citizens experience harm due to the lack of a coherent legal and administrative framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne respondent explained that while immigrants are often blamed for crimes, local citizens also commit significant harm against them, showing a situation of mutual vulnerability and mistrust:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBut we must also say that citizens commit many harms against immigrants too. If we compare, citizens commit more harassment toward them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent highlighted the risk of exploitation that arises when immigrants lack basic shelter or support, making them vulnerable to abusive working conditions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes, it can happen. Immigrants have nowhere to sleep or live. If someone gives them food, they will work for anything. That can lead to slavery-like conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 13]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA similar concern was raised about extremely low-paid or unpaid jobs. One respondent warned that such exploitation could escalate into modern slavery or forms of domination:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…...The low-paid jobs or no paid at all will lead exploitation in the future that can cause colonizing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 8]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents consistently stressed the need for a clear and fair policy that protects both immigrants and citizens while preventing tensions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere must be a clear policy that is fair to both immigrants and citizens. It should not give immigrants more rights than citizens or the other way around. There must be a legal framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 15]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent suggested establishing organized camps as a way to manage immigrants, reduce street homelessness, and provide awareness sessions to prevent misunderstandings or conflicts with citizens:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMake them camp, keep them there… give them awareness… tell them to stay away from involving any crimes and inform them as they are refugee the citizen could harm them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional failure was also noted in agencies responsible for handling immigrants. According to one respondent, these institutions often mistreat asylum seekers, fail to welcome them, and even return individuals despite legitimate claims:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey manage badly because they don’t welcome them… a person who wanted to renew the letter may yell on them… some of them have the letter of asylum seeking, they bring back to their country.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 14]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lack of a stable or properly implemented policy was repeatedly emphasized. One respondent described the government’s approach as inconsistent and ineffective, noting that rounding up immigrants and removing them does not solve the problem:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI don’t know how they manage it, but what we see is they don’t have a proper policy. Sometimes they take immigrants into cars and remove them, but after some days, many come back. That is not a policy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 9]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe unclear and inconsistently applied nature of Somaliland’s laws was highlighted:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSomaliland has rules, yes. But how we use them is different.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 2]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent argued that immigrants seeking peace have the right to live and work in Somaliland, but this should not negatively affect citizens’ security or economic wellbeing. Policies should balance protection for both sides:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e…. when the person is seeking peace… they have right to find peace and have work… They shouldn’t influence the citizen whether comes their security and economic.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 10]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional fragmentation and lack of coordination were repeatedly identified as major problems. One respondent explained how different institutions push responsibilities onto one another, leaving asylum seekers without proper services. He also noted the extremely low registration rate and the estimated number of undocumented immigrants:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstitutions are pushing each other… asylum seekers push back to displacement institution… local government and civil society are pushing each other. The institution that has to do the work are not ready for it. Those registered in the asylum seekers department are not 30%… 70% are missing… they have no data. I think about one hundred fifty thousand Ethiopian immigrants live in the country. We don’t have that capacity… it is agreed they go inside the population and work inside.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 16]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother respondent emphasized that effective immigration management requires strong laws, tight border control, regulated camps, and coordination between institutions. He noted that despite having laws on paper, they are not implemented:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI think the solution is that borders must be tight… citizen and immigrants must not [stay] in same place and make camps. The authority who are ruling the country has the validation to rule their policy and make their law… the government has law, but it does not work. If you see the world, the UNCHR has the authority to do that… the government should produce a rule on that… the government should make that rule.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 4]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, another respondent stated that immigration authorities lack the capacity to track the flow of immigrants. The vast majority remain unregistered, leaving the country without reliable data:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImmigration has the duty, but I don’t think they do it well. They don’t know who is who, who enters, or who leaves the country. They have not registered 90% of the immigrants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Interviewee 17]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis theme reflects gaps between policy and practice in immigration management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe government should develop and modernize immigration laws and make proper follow-up.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile acknowledging institutional readiness at the policy level, the respondent questioned implementation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“As a policy, the government is ready… but there is a gap when it comes to follow-up and checking security impacts.” [Interviewee 11]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe also highlighted labor exploitation concerns:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e“Immigrants are abused by their sponsors… they work long hours and receive low salaries.” [Interviewee… 13]\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStructural Vulnerability and the Crisis of Street-Connected Children\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings reveal strong concern regarding unaccompanied minors and street-connected children, framed as a trajectory from homelessness to substance use and eventual criminality. These perceptions align with international evidence showing that street exposure, peer influence, and informal survival strategies significantly increase vulnerability to substance abuse and criminal risk (Banda, Banda, Banda, Mwaene, \u0026amp; Msiska, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Dhawan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Waheed, Sarfraz, Mahfooz, Reza, \u0026amp; Emmanuel, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Similar patterns have been documented across African urban contexts where structural poverty, displacement, and limited social protection drive child street involvement (Manomano, Nyanhoto, \u0026amp; Gutura, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants’ emphasis on the absence of parental and clan structures reflects established findings that family breakdown and lack of psychosocial support are primary determinants of street homelessness (Embleton, Lee, Gunn, Ayuku, \u0026amp; Braitstein, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, comparative research complicates deterministic narratives. Evidence from Durban shows that street children often demonstrate resilience through religious belief and peer solidarity (Hills, Meyer-Weitz, \u0026amp; Asante, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and some actively resist criminal identities (Bah, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, while respondents’ concerns reflect real structural risks, outcomes are shaped more by social protection systems and institutional responses than by displacement alone (Hailu, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEconomic Anxiety, Perceived Competition, and Labor Market Segmentation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic competition emerged as a dominant theme, particularly in low-skilled sectors. Participants’ fears of job displacement and wage depression closely mirror findings that natives often perceive immigrants as labor competitors (Hayo \u0026amp; Roth, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and that immigration can exert wage pressure in specific contexts (Altonji \u0026amp; Card, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Delgado-Prieto, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, empirical studies suggest more complex dynamics. Immigration may shift low-educated natives upward within wage distributions (Adjei, Andersson, Eriksson, \u0026amp; Scocco, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and short-term negative effects often dissipate over time, with higher-educated workers benefiting (Ozguzel \u0026amp; Edo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants’ observations of immigrant concentration in construction, domestic work, and service sectors reflect labor market segmentation patterns documented elsewhere (Friberg \u0026amp; Midtbøen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Hayo \u0026amp; Roth, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the recognition that immigrants contribute to agriculture and other labor-intensive sectors aligns with evidence that undocumented and low-skilled migrants can generate complementary employment and broader economic gains (Albert, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ozguzel \u0026amp; Edo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the Somaliland case reflects a tension between perceived zero-sum competition and empirically documented complementarity. Economic anxiety appears rooted less in aggregate labor effects and more in visible occupational shifts, wage flexibility, and informal sector expansion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSecurity Concerns, Border Governance, and Perception Gaps\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants frequently linked undocumented entry and weak border regulation to crime and insecurity. Such concerns resonate with research from West Africa demonstrating that ungoverned borders facilitate irregular flows and cross-border insecurity (Aniche, Moyo, \u0026amp; Nshimbi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Evidence from South Africa further shows that community-based interventions can mitigate these risks through localized governance mechanisms (Tshifhumulo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, comparative crime research complicates the perception–reality relationship. Multiple U.S.-based studies consistently show that undocumented immigrants are less likely than natives to commit violent or property crimes (Adelman, Yang, Reid, Bachmeier, \u0026amp; Maciag, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Gunadi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Light \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Nuño \u0026amp; Herrera, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Historical evidence from early modern Dutch cities also demonstrates how immigrants have been disproportionately accused of serious offenses (Van Der Heijden, Luk, \u0026amp; Nicolaas, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), while contemporary attitudes toward immigrant crime are strongly shaped by prejudice and resistance to social change rather than actual crime trends (McCann \u0026amp; Boateng, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Nuño \u0026amp; Herrera, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings therefore reveal a perception gap: while weak documentation and traceability raise legitimate governance concerns, empirical evidence suggests that immigrants are not inherently more crime-prone. Effective border governance and institutional coordination appear central to reducing both actual insecurity and perceived threat (Aniche et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tshifhumulo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocio-Cultural Boundaries and Integration Challenges\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural and religious differences were consistently framed as barriers to social cohesion. These findings align with scholarship showing that religion and perceived value conflict significantly shape immigrant integration and host acceptance (Kogan, Fong, \u0026amp; Reitz, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rowatt \u0026amp; Al-Kire, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Vishkin \u0026amp; Bloom, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Prejudice toward immigrants is influenced by both individual and contextual factors, though structured interventions can mitigate hostility (Albarello et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Esses, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily interpersonal tensions and workplace conflicts reflect broader evidence that ethnic diversity can generate both in-group hostility and out-group civility simultaneously (Baldassarri \u0026amp; Abascal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Griffiths, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Strong religious boundaries, particularly in culturally homogeneous societies, may intensify perceived differences (Simsek, Van Tubergen, \u0026amp; Fleischmann, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, shared social norms and inclusive urban policies can reduce bias, even if they do not eliminate it (Choi, Poertner, \u0026amp; Sambanis, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Contini \u0026amp; Carrera, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, participants also acknowledged immigrants’ cultural and economic contributions, echoing research showing that prosocial engagement and intergroup contact can foster cohesion (Alekseev, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Baldassarri \u0026amp; Abascal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Vishkin \u0026amp; Bloom, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Visible behaviors such as begging, documented elsewhere as adaptive survival strategies (Friberg, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), may amplify stigma but do not fully define integration trajectories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions and Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study finds that rising immigration in Somaliland has intensified economic competition, social tensions, security concerns, and institutional strain, largely due to weak regulation and limited job opportunities. The absence of a coherent immigration framework has increased vulnerability for both local communities and immigrant populations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study recommends establishing a clear immigration policy, strengthening border and registration systems, improving institutional coordination, protecting vulnerable migrants especially unaccompanied minors and promoting social integration to reduce tensions and enhance social stability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest related to this research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e The study was conducted in accordance with ethical research standards. Oral informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to interviews and data collection. Ethical approval for this research was granted by the Beder International University Ethical Committee, Hargeisa, Somaliland.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e All participants provided oral informed consent to take part in the study. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality was maintained at all times.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during this study are securely stored by the corresponding author and may be shared with researchers who provide a reasonable request and purpose.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbolarin, J., Myers, Q. W., Carmichael, H., Moore, A., \u0026amp; Velopulos, C. G. (2023). 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The influence of religion on the acceptance and integration of immigrants: A multi-dimensional perspective. \u003cem\u003eCurrent opinion in psychology, 47\u003c/em\u003e, 101421. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101421\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaheed, A., Sarfraz, M., Mahfooz, A., Reza, T., \u0026amp; Emmanuel, F. (2025). Risk Factors for Narcotic Use in Street Children: A Cross-Sectional Analysis From a Low-Middle-Income Country. \u003cem\u003eInquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 62\u003c/em\u003e. doi:10.1177/00469580251324047\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZitha, M., \u0026amp; Jansen van Rensburg, S. K. (2024). Beyond xenophobia: Unravelling violent crimes committed by foreign offenders in South Africa. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Asian and African Studies\u003c/em\u003e, 00219096241249986. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ehttps://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@dcomm/@publ/documents/publication/wcms_734455.pdf.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Sahan Research \u0026 Studies Center","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Immigrants, immigrations, violence, job-scarcity, security, homicide","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9185825/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9185825/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSomaliland has experienced rising levels of both legal and illegal immigration amid declining employment opportunities and growing socio-economic pressures. This study examines the impacts of immigration on labor markets, social cohesion, security, and institutional capacity. A qualitative research design was employed using semi-structured interviews with 19 key informants drawn from government institutions, NGOs, civil society, academia, the private sector, and security agencies. Thematic analysis identified five major findings. First, economic anxiety and labor competition were reported, with immigrants concentrated in low-skilled sectors, contributing to wage suppression and perceived displacement of local workers. Second, security concerns were associated with porous borders and undocumented migration. Third, the growing crisis of unaccompanied minors and street-connected children emerged as a serious humanitarian concern, marked by exposure to exploitation, forced begging, substance abuse, and long-term social risks. Fourth, socio-cultural tensions and integration barriers were linked to differences in social norms and rising xenophobic attitudes. Finally, weak regulatory frameworks, low registration rates, and fragmented institutional responsibilities limited effective migration governance. The study concludes that immigration in Somaliland presents interconnected economic, social, humanitarian, and security challenges, underscoring the need for comprehensive immigration policies, strengthened institutional coordination, improved child protection mechanisms, and structured social integration strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Understanding the Impact of Increasing Legal and Illegal Immigration and Declining Job Opportunities in Somaliland","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-24 06:47:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9185825/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"686a19a0-8d06-47a8-b700-73d7abe7dca7","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 24th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":64901578,"name":"Climatology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-24T06:47:56+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-24 06:47:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9185825","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9185825","identity":"rs-9185825","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}