Textile Waste Pyrolysis: An Innovative Method for Petrochemicals generation for Sustainable Economic, Technological and Environmental Advancement

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Textile waste is an environmental hazard as it biodegrades quickly and is improperly disposed of. The goal of this research is to convert textile waste (TEXW) into petrochemicals using pyrolysis. The obtained petrochemicals were fractionated after purification and characterization using GC-MS while the physicochemical parameters of the fractionated liquid petrochemicals were analysed using standard methods. The results of the analysis showed that the liquid oil contains: carbamate (7.69%), silicic acid (4.73%), cyclotrisiloxane (4.09%), cyclohexane (7.47%), pro-2-ynyl-E-2-methylbut-2-enote (6.24%), cyclododecanol (3.95%), undec-10-ynoic acid (3.95%), 8,8-dimethylspirol-4,6-undecane-6,10-dione (3.47%), phenol (5.95%) and 1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-amine (3.85%). The results of the physico-chemical parameters of the liquid petrochemicals ranged: relative density (0.4250–0.8528 g/cm 3 ), absolute viscosity (0.3436–0.8788 mPas), kinematic viscosity (0.4097–3.880 mm 2 /s), specific gravity at 15/15 o C (0.8528–0.9556) and flash point (15–20 o C). After blending, it was observed that 20% v/v blend of the petrochemicals enhance the physicochemical properties of major petroleum products (PMS, kerosene, diesel). It could be concluded that the use of liquid petrochemicals for the enhancement of petroleum parameters would go a long way in alleviating basic cost associated with petroleum products production (see figure. 1 for graphical abstract). Textile waste petrochemicals blend pyrolysis GC-MS petroleum products Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Highlights Pyrolysis processes and reactor for generation of petrochemicals derived from textile wastes. Purification and separation of liquid petrochemicals are examined Characterisation and blending of liquid petrochemicals made from textile waste is evaluated. The potential for producing petrochemicals from textile waste through pyrolysis is underlined. 1.0 Introduction The environment has been reported to be seriously threatened by textile waste and textile industry is the second-largest source of pollution in the world, after oil industry. It has 60 million workers globally (Malik et al ., 2014, Snoek, 2017 ). Textile wastes are left over materials after textile products production which are no longer valuable or usable and could pose threat to the environment. These wastes could originate from the textile manufacturing processes as well as the spinning, weaving, plying, apparel making, and plying (Islam and Mustafa, 2018 ). In the textile industry, there are two main types of fiber: natural derived from renewable resources like cotton (cellulosic fiber), wool, linen, and silk (protein based) and regenerated (derived from renewable resources like natural polymers) (Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020 ). The production of textile products is increasing thereby decreasing their lifespan. According to the study by Yasin et al. ( 2017 ), the average number of usages for a garment before disposal has dropped by 36% and 67% of the textile wastes generated by textile companies are dumped in landfills. In the UK, there were about 1.7 million tons of textiles consumed in 2014 for both clothing and non-clothing purposes (Malik et al ., 2014, Snoek, 2017 ). Landfilling of textile waste has financial repercussions. For instance, landfilling home textiles and clothing costs the UK economy roughly $ 108 million a year (Okafor et al., 2020 ). Roozbet et al. ( 2017 ) reported that textile wastes left in landfills could result in the release harmful greenhouse gases (methane) and other environmental pollutants, from leaching, which could contaminate the soil and groundwater. Recycling of textile wastes as a raw material for production of useful products is not currently a widely used alternative (Zsel, 2021) and about 69% of these wastes are disposed (Rago and Suroop-Mohee, 2018). One of the main environmental problems in Nigeria is poor waste management and according to Okafor et al. ( 2021 ), Lagos State produces about 16.500 tons of waste per day, which is equivalent to 825 trucks of 20 tons each and majority of the wastes are primarily dumped at dumpsites which are not engineered. In addition, waste generated is 70% organic and 30% non-organic and only 28% of the waste produced could be recycled. The Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (SCAP) was unveiled in 2009 with the goal of increasing the industry's sustainability. The SCAP 2020 invites relevant stakeholders, retailers, government organizations, and the British retail consortium to voluntarily commit to reduce the waste, water and carbon footprints of apparel by 2020 (Roozbet et al., 2017 ). Due to the presence of petrochemicals in textile waste and the fact that 63% of all textile fiber production is carried out using petrochemicals, different researchers have focused on pyrolysing textile wastes (Sandin and Peters, 2018 ). Petrochemical-based synthetic fibers (nylon and polyester), which are strong and stain-resistant reasonably priced are widely used in the textile industry (Rittfors, 2020 ). Different methods have been developed over time for converting textile wastes made of cotton into goods with extra value (see Fig. 2 ) (Cho et al., 2023 ). Athanasopoulos and Zabaniotou (2022) conducted research on post-consumer textile thermochemical recycling to fuels and biocarbon and the study reported lowering of energy requirements of these processes by 50–85%. Catalytic pyrolysis of used cotton textiles produces biocarbon (10–18 wt%), a liquid fuel with high yields (35–65 wt%) and a high conversion (90 wt%), closing the carbon and energy loops. However, the conversion of PET, nylon, and polyacrylonitrile during pyrolysis results in the production of toxic compounds and is energy-intensive (T > 500°C). In a study conducted by Balcik et al . (2017) using a batch reactor under a nitrogen, mixed waste textile fibers were pyrolyzed at three different temperatures (500, 600, and 700°C) with heating rates (25 and 50°C /min) and retention times of 15 and 30 minutes to determine the formation of char and gas-liquid products. The greatest conversion rate of 82.9wt% liquid-to-gas product and 17.1 wt% char product was achieved at 700 o C. The goal of this study was to investigate the energy potential of liquid petrochemicals produced from textile wastes through pyrolysis (conventional and flash) at 500°C and 700°C. The study also evaluated the potential of the textile remains as petrochemical source. 2.0 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE COLLECTION The study area is Ijagba landfill site, located at Sagamu local Government area of Ogun and with GPS of 6 o 50N and 3 o 39E. Textile wastes were collected at the Ijagba dumpsite in Sagamu, Ogun state and the samples were pooled together and hand sorting was done in order to obtain 500 grams of the waste samples. 2.1 Pyrolysis The waste was degreased with liquid soap, shredded to about 2 m 3 and dried before being fed into the reactor. The reactor, made of steel was designed and fabricated at the mechanical department, federal college of education, Akoka, Lagos state. The feedstock (500g) was introduced into the reactor and the reactor was made of steel. No catalyst was added and used during the study. Liebig condenser with 800 mm length was attached to the water inlet and outlet at the reactor's upper section while a burner (1 kg propane gas cylinder) was placed below the reactor. The organic vapour produced in the higher temperature reactor was condensed into liquid petrochemicals and collected in a 5-litre flask connected to the condenser while uncondensed product gases connected to the Bunsen burner or flared into the atmosphere. The liquid petrochemicals were analysed using 6890A gas chromatograph connected to 5973c inert gas spectrometer (with triple axis detector) and electron impact source (Agilent Technologies). The stationary phase of separation of the compound was carried on a HP-5 capillary column coated with 5% phenyl methyl siloxane (30m length x 0.32 diameter x 25µm film thickness). The carrier gas was helium used at a constant flow rate of 1.5733mL/min. One microliter of the sample was injected in split-less mode at an injection temperature of 260 o C. The oven was initially programmed at 60 o C (1min) then ramped at 4 o C /min to 110 o C /min followed by a temperature programme rate of 8 o C/min to 26 o C (5 min) and 10 o C to 300 o C (12 min) run time was 56.25 minutes with a 3 minutes solvent delay. 2.2 Pyrolytic Liquid Petrochemicals Blend Production Bio-oil (pyrolysis oil), a complex mixture of organic chemicals produced during pyrolysis. The liquid oil produced during pyrolysis was mixed by adding 80 mL of conventional petroleum products and 20 mL of fractionated liquid petrochemicals to make 20% v/v and 70 mL of conventional petroleum products and 30 mL of fractionated liquid petrochemicals to produce 30% v/v. Physicochemical parameters such as energy content, viscosity, density, pH, water content and chemical stability were analysed and compared with NIS standard. 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 Characterization of textile petrochemicals Petrochemicals Molar Mass (g/mol) Area (%) Silicic Acid(H 4 O 4 Si) Cyclotrisiloxane (H 6 O 3 Si 3 ) Carbamate (CH 2 NO 2 ) Cyclohexane (C 6 H 12 ) Prop-2-ynyl-E-2- methyl but-2-enoate (C 8 H 10 O) Cyclododecanol (C 12 H 24 O) Undec-10-ynoic acid (C 11 H 18 O 2 ) 8,8-Dimethylspirol-4,6-undecane-6,10-dione (C 13 H 20 O 2 ) Phenol (C 6 H 6 O) 1,2,5-Oxadiazol-3-amine (C 2 H 3 N 3 O) Tridecenal (C 13 H 24 O) Benzene (C 6 H 6 ) 96 138 60 84 138 184 182 208 94 85 196 78 4.73 4.09 7.69 7.47 6.24 3.95 3.95 3.47 5.95 3.85 3.56 6.30 The result of the GC-MS analysis of textile oil is shown in Table 1 . The area (%) was found to range from 3.47 to 7.69. The following petrochemicals were isolated and identified in the textile waste: 8,8-dimethyl-(4,6)-undecane-6,10-dione (3.47%), tridecenal (3.56%), 1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-amine (3.85%), cyclododecanol (3.95%), cyclotrisiloxane (4.09%), silicic acid (4.73%), phenol (5.95%), benzene (6.30%), prop-2-ynyl-E-2-methylbut-2-enoate (6.24%), cyclohexane (7.47%) and carbamate (7.69%) as shown in Table 1 . The results obtained were found to be in line with the study carried out by Rittfors ( 2020 ). Carbamate had the highest peak value (7.69%) while 8,8-dimethylspiro-(4.6)-undecane-6,10-dione had the lowest peak value of 3.47% as shown in Table 1 . Table 2 Characterization of textile light fraction Petrochemicals Molar Mass (g/mol) Area (%) 3-methyl-2-butenoic acid (C 22 H 42 O ) Butylbenzoate (C 11 H 14 O 2 ) Dibutylphthalate (C 16 H 22 O 4 ) 338 178 278 4.65 50.13 16.12 The results of the analysis of light fraction was found to consist 3-methyl-2-butenoic acid (4.65%), dibutylphthalate (16.12%) and butylbenzoate (50.13%) as shown in Table 2 . Butylbenzoate had the highest peak value of 50.13% while 3-methyl-2-butenoic acid had the lowest peak value of 4.65% as seen in Table 2 . The results of the GC-MS analysis of medium fraction of textile sample showed the presence of seven petrochemicals and these were benzene (3.08%), cyclododecane (3.19%), hexylcyclohexane (5.18%), cyclohexane (5.46%), tridecenyl angelate (6.36%), butyl benzoate (7.77%) and cyclohexane carboxylic acid (9.9%) as shown in Table 3 . The peak areas ranged from 3.08 to 9.90% with the highest peak was found in cyclohexane carboxylic acid (9.90%) while benzene had the lowest peak value of 3.08% as seen in Table 3 . The result of the heavy fraction of textile sample is shown in Table 4 and the peak areas were found to range from 3.46 to 9.63%. The following petrochemicals were identified: cyclotrisiloxane (3.46%), phenol (3.67%), cyclohexa-2,5-diene-4-dione (4.44%), 13,16-octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester (5.81%) and hexadecenoic acid (9.63%). Hexadecenoic acid had the highest peak value (9.63%) while cyclotrisiloxane had the lowest peak value (3.46%) as shown in Table 4 . The results showed that the fraction contained unsaturated and aromatic compounds. Table 3 Characterization of Textile medium fraction Petrochemicals Molar Mass (g/mol) Area (%) Cyclohexane Carboxylic acid (C 7 H 12 O 2 ) Benzene (C 6 H 6 ) Cyclohexane (C 6 H 12 ) Hexylcyclohexane (C 12 H 24 ) Cyclododecane (C 12 H 24 ) Tridecenyl angelate C 15 H 28 O 2 Butyl Benzoate (C 11 H 14 O 2 ) 128 78 84 168 168 240 178 9.90 3.08 5.46 5.18 3.19 6.36 7.77 Table 4 Characterization of Textile heavy fraction Petrochemicals Molar Mass (g/mol) Area (%) Cyclotrisiloxane (H 6 Si 3 O 3) Cyclohexa-2,5-diene,1,4-dione (C 8 H 8 O 3 ) Phenol (C 6 H 5 OH) Hexadecanoic acid (C 16 H 32 O 2 ) 13,16-Octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester (C 19 H 30 O 2 ) 138 152 94 256 290 3.46 4.44 3.67 9.63 5.81 Table 5 Physicochemical Parameters of Textile Petrochemical Fractions Test Unit Tex. Petrochemicals Light fraction Medium fraction Heavy fraction Absolute Viscosity @ 40 o C Kinematic Viscosity @ 40 o C Density @ 40 o C Specific Gravity @ 15/15 Appearance Flash Point Volume mPa.S mm 2 /s g/dm 3 kg/m 3 mL 1.2459 1.47790 0.8430 0.8602 Black 15 50 0.49036 0.60461 0.8110 0.8286 Yellowish 17 17 0.66222 0.80047 0.8273 0.8446 Yellowish 14 16 3.3240 3.8980 0.8528 0.8699 Black 20 24 The absolute viscosity at 40 o C ranged from 0.49036 to 3.3240 mPa.S, kinematic viscosity at 40 o C ranged from 0.60461 to 3.8980 mm 2 /s, density at 40 o C ranged from 0.8110 to 0.85273 g/cm 3 , specific gravity at 15/15°C ranged from 0.8286 to 0.8699 kg/m 3 while flash point ranged from 14 to 20 as seen in Table 5 . The heavy fraction had the highest absolute viscosity of 3.3240 mPa.S while the light fraction had the lowest absolute viscosity value of 0.49036 mPa.S. The absolute viscosity values obtained were found to be within the ASTM specifications (1.5 to 5.5 mPa.S). The kinematic viscosity ranged from 1.47790 to 3.8980 mm 2 /s and these values were found to be within the ASTM specifications. The textile petrochemicals (crude) and heavy fractions had dark colours and these necessitated pretreatments. The physicochemical parameters of PMS light fraction are shown in Table 6 . The appearance used for 20% and 305 blends were found to be clear. Specific gravity at 15/15 o C ranged from 0.7710 to 0.7850 except for 30% blend, which was slightly higher than the ASTM specifications (0.720 to 0.780). All the colours were found to meet ASTM standards and the distillation experiment revealed that total recovery percent, residual percent and loss percent were all within the range. The results as shown in Table 6 showed that 20% of the blend was close to the PMS blend and the 20% blend was found to be within ASTM specifications. Table 6 PMS light fraction blend Test Unit PMS Used for Blending 20% Blend 30% Blend SPEC Test Method Appearance Clear Clear Clear VISUAL Specific Gravity @ 15/15 o C kg/m 3 0.771 0.7782 0.7850 0.720–0.780 ASTM Colour Yellowish Yellow Yellow Yellow/Red VISUAL Distillation ASTM D86 IBP (Initial Boiling Point) 39 45 55 Report 10% Recovery % 62 72 82 70 max 20% Recovery % 77 94 99 30% Recovery % 94 110 113 40% Recovery % 110 121 126 50% Recovery % 123 135 134 125 max 60% Recovery % 133 144 144 70% Recovery % 143 155 154 80% Recovery % 158 170 170 90% Recovery % 176 188 189 180 max 95% Recovery % 193 197 198 FBP (Flash Boiling Point) 208 210 210 210 max Total Recovery % % 98 98 98 Residue % % 1.0 1.3 1.5 2 max Loss % % 1.0 0.7 0.5 2 max Table 7 HHK medium fraction blend Test Unit HHK used for Blending 20% Blend 30% Blend Specification Test Method Appearance Specific Gravity @ 15/15 o C Flash Point Distillation: IBP (Initial Boiling Point) 10% Recovery 20% Recovery 30% Recovery 40% Recovery 50% Recovery 60% Recovery 70% Recovery 80% Recovery 90% Recovery 95% Recovery FBP (Final Boiling Point) Total Recovery % Residue % Loss % Recovery @ 200℃ kg/m 3 o C o C % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % Clear 0.7882 49.5 148 160 165 169 174 179 187 195 209 229 246 260 98.5 1.0 0.5 77.0 Clear 0.7960 49 135 150 155 163 168 175 183 191 205 222 235 248 98.0 1.5 0.5 77.0 Clear 0.7981 60 125 140 150 156 164 172 178 193 208 220 233 251 98 1.6 0.4 75.0 0.775–0.825 45 min. 2 max. 2 max. 20 min. Visual D 1298 D 56 The appearance of the HHK used for 20% blend and 30% blend were clear and the specific gravity and flash point were both within the ranges, as shown in Table 7 . The ASTM standard for residue percent and recovery at 200 o C were met. The appearance of AGO used for 20% and 30% blends were found to meet the ASTM specifications while the specific gravity, flash point, viscosity and Cetane index were also found to meet the ASTM standards. However, the 30% blend values were greater than those used by AGO as shown in Table 8 and this could indicate that 20% v/v blend values conformed to the ASTM standards. Table 8 AGO- heavy fraction blend. Test Unit AGO used for Blending 20% Blend 30% Blend Specifications Test Method Appearance Specific Gravity @ 15/15 o C Flash Point Distillation: IBP (Initial Boiling Point) 10% Recovery 20% Recovery 30% Recovery 40% Recovery 50% Recovery 60% Recovery 70% Recovery 80% Recovery 90% Recovery 95% Recovery FBPv (Final Boiling Point) Total Recovery % Residue % Loss % Recovery @ 357 o C Viscosity @ 37.8 o C Colour (Lovibond) Crackle Cetane Index kg/m 3 cSt Clear 0.8563 78 197 237 257 270 280 294 310 320 335 350 363 374 98 1.0 1.0 92 3.98 1.5 Negative 50.29 Clear 0.8580 80 200 212 243 260 275 285 301 318 335 351 362 373 98.5 1.0 0.5 92 3.94 6.5 Negative 48.24 Clear 0.8590 90 210 225 241 256 270 285 301 318 336 353 364 376 98.5 1.2 0.3 92 3.99 7.0 Negative 47.93 0.8200–0.8700 66 min. 385 max. 90 min. 1.6–5.5 3.0 max. 45 min. Visual D 1298 D 93 D 86 ASTM D 445 ASTM D 1500 ASTM D 976 Al-Salem et al. ( 2009 ) reported that municipal solid wastes (LDPE, HDPE, and PS) can be converted into liquid fuels at high temperature (300 to 500 o C) in the absence of oxygen with or without a catalyst. William and William (2004) reported that liquid petrochemicals could be obtained through pyrolytic methods. The pyrolysis oil or petrochemicals contain oxygen resulting in thermal instability and corrosiveness, therefore, purification process is required for environmental friendly utilisation (Khan et al., 2016 ). 4.0 CONCLUSION Textile waste was rinsed after sorting, dried and then pyrolyzed to produce liquid petrochemicals. The petrochemicals were purified, divided into three (3) fractions and their physicochemical properties were determined. The results showed that the blended liquid petrochemicals conformed to Nigerian Industrial Standard and this indicates that liquid petrochemicals consist of aromatic compounds, olefins and aliphatic hydrocarbon compounds. It was further observed that 20% blend of the petrochemicals enhanced the properties of major petroleum products. It can be inferred that the use of liquid petrochemicals for the enhancement of petroleum parameters would go a long way in alleviating basic cost associated with petroleum products production. RECOMMENDATIONS Industrialist and relevant stakeholders should invest into petrochemical waste product conversion for the expansion of petrochemical products and revenue in Nigeria. Government should encourage the use of textile wastes as a source of petrochemicals. Government should provide appropriate policy support for the production of conventional petrochemicals for foreign exchange earnings and reducing reliance on imported petrochemicals. Abbreviations TEXW Textile waste FLP fractionated liquid petrochemicals PMs Petroleum products SCAP Sustainable Clothing Action Plan PET Polyethylene terephthalate ASTM American Standard of Testing Material FBP Final Boiling Point LDPE Low Density Polyethylene HDPE High Density Polyethylene AGO Automated Gas Oil Declarations Authors’ contributions Ogudaini R. Sina: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, funding acquisition. Osobamiro T.M.: Conceptualization, supervision, writing-reviewing and editing. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript. Funding This work is an extract from our thesis which was funded by Tertiary Education Trust Fund Nigeria Availability of data and materials No data will be shared. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial interests to disclose. 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J Clean Prod 172:1080–1088 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2024 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revision 02 Oct, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Sep, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 19 Jun, 2024 Editor invited by journal 14 Feb, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 26 Jan, 2024 First submitted to journal 18 Jan, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3650806","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":316392773,"identity":"ea73d9e9-e98c-4137-ad31-9f6b32158954","order_by":0,"name":"Ogundaini Sina Rotimi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLACHgYJBjYQI4FBQg5EH3hApBbGBqAWY7CWBMJawICxAUgkNkCsww34+deYPXhTY5HHJ334+IOHORbp88MOPwTaYien24Bdi+SMN+aGc45JFLPxpSU2JG6TyN14O80AqCXZ2OwAdi0GN86YSfOwSSS28fAYQrTMTgBpOZC4Da+Wfwgt6Yaz0z/g13K+x0yatw2hJUFeOge/LZIz2Mok5/aBtLAlzgBqMdwgnVNwIMEAt1/4+Q9vk3jzrS5xfg/zgY8/t9XJy89O3/zhQ4WdHC4tDBIJ6E4FqzTAoRxsDbpZ8g14VI+CUTAKRsGIBAC0p13wAK2/dAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1290-2012","institution":"Federal College of Education (Technical) Akoka","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ogundaini","middleName":"Sina","lastName":"Rotimi","suffix":""},{"id":316392774,"identity":"5fdbede5-cb8f-4657-a71c-112cf206ebb4","order_by":1,"name":"Osobamiro Monsurat Temitope","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Olabisi Onabanjo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Osobamiro","middleName":"Monsurat","lastName":"Temitope","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-11-22 21:50:45","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3650806/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3650806/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35617-4","type":"published","date":"2024-11-26T15:58:18+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":59748863,"identity":"bbbe0579-56ed-46d5-a86a-3fd1d90d2756","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-05 19:07:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":459034,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical Abstract Depicting Pyrolysis of Textile Waste\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3650806/v1/97852902934872742d394dca.jpeg"},{"id":59748864,"identity":"b982be4d-07f3-4b5d-8914-97be28a93fdf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-05 19:07:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":241259,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiagrammatic representation of pyrolysis of Textile waste\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3650806/v1/906e19d511f1982fcb0a76b8.jpeg"},{"id":70389004,"identity":"1f649b1f-efe1-470a-b7fc-fb9981e3fe47","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 17:27:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1426394,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3650806/v1/21b7ba6b-4ca5-412a-9bca-f17b85e9d9d3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Textile Waste Pyrolysis: An Innovative Method for Petrochemicals generation for Sustainable Economic, Technological and Environmental Advancement","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePyrolysis processes and reactor for generation of petrochemicals derived from textile wastes.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePurification and separation of liquid petrochemicals are examined\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCharacterisation and blending of liquid petrochemicals made from textile waste is evaluated.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe potential for producing petrochemicals from textile waste through pyrolysis is underlined.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"1.0 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe environment has been reported to be seriously threatened by textile waste and textile industry is the second-largest source of pollution in the world, after oil industry. It has 60\u0026nbsp;million workers globally (Malik \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2014, Snoek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Textile wastes are left over materials after textile products production which are no longer valuable or usable and could pose threat to the environment. These wastes could originate from the textile manufacturing processes as well as the spinning, weaving, plying, apparel making, and plying (Islam and Mustafa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In the textile industry, there are two main types of fiber: natural derived from renewable resources like cotton (cellulosic fiber), wool, linen, and silk (protein based) and regenerated (derived from renewable resources like natural polymers) (Shirvanimoghaddam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe production of textile products is increasing thereby decreasing their lifespan. According to the study by Yasin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), the average number of usages for a garment before disposal has dropped by 36% and 67% of the textile wastes generated by textile companies are dumped in landfills. In the UK, there were about 1.7\u0026nbsp;million tons of textiles consumed in 2014 for both clothing and non-clothing purposes (Malik \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2014, Snoek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Landfilling of textile waste has financial repercussions. For instance, landfilling home textiles and clothing costs the UK economy roughly \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e108\u0026nbsp;million a year (Okafor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Roozbet et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) reported that textile wastes left in landfills could result in the release harmful greenhouse gases (methane) and other environmental pollutants, from leaching, which could contaminate the soil and groundwater. Recycling of textile wastes as a raw material for production of useful products is not currently a widely used alternative (Zsel, 2021) and about 69% of these wastes are disposed (Rago and Suroop-Mohee, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the main environmental problems in Nigeria is poor waste management and according to Okafor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Lagos State produces about 16.500 tons of waste per day, which is equivalent to 825 trucks of 20 tons each and majority of the wastes are primarily dumped at dumpsites which are not engineered. In addition, waste generated is 70% organic and 30% non-organic and only 28% of the waste produced could be recycled.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (SCAP) was unveiled in 2009 with the goal of increasing the industry's sustainability. The SCAP 2020 invites relevant stakeholders, retailers, government organizations, and the British retail consortium to voluntarily commit to reduce the waste, water and carbon footprints of apparel by 2020 (Roozbet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the presence of petrochemicals in textile waste and the fact that 63% of all textile fiber production is carried out using petrochemicals, different researchers have focused on pyrolysing textile wastes (Sandin and Peters, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Petrochemical-based synthetic fibers (nylon and polyester), which are strong and stain-resistant reasonably priced are widely used in the textile industry (Rittfors, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Different methods have been developed over time for converting textile wastes made of cotton into goods with extra value (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Cho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAthanasopoulos and Zabaniotou (2022) conducted research on post-consumer textile thermochemical recycling to fuels and biocarbon and the study reported lowering of energy requirements of these processes by 50\u0026ndash;85%. Catalytic pyrolysis of used cotton textiles produces biocarbon (10\u0026ndash;18 wt%), a liquid fuel with high yields (35\u0026ndash;65 wt%) and a high conversion (90 wt%),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eclosing the carbon and energy loops. However, the conversion of PET, nylon, and polyacrylonitrile during pyrolysis results in the production of toxic compounds and is energy-intensive (T\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;500\u0026deg;C). In a study conducted by Balcik \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2017) using a batch reactor under a nitrogen, mixed waste textile fibers were pyrolyzed at three different temperatures (500, 600, and 700\u0026deg;C) with heating rates (25 and 50\u0026deg;C /min) and retention times of 15 and 30 minutes to determine the formation of char and gas-liquid products. The greatest conversion rate of 82.9wt% liquid-to-gas product and 17.1 wt% char product was achieved at 700\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC. The goal of this study was to investigate the energy potential of liquid petrochemicals produced from textile wastes through pyrolysis (conventional and flash) at 500\u0026deg;C and 700\u0026deg;C. The study also evaluated the potential of the textile remains as petrochemical source.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE COLLECTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study area is Ijagba landfill site, located at Sagamu local Government area of Ogun and with GPS of 6\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 50N and 3\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 39E. Textile wastes were collected at the Ijagba dumpsite in Sagamu, Ogun state and the samples were pooled together and hand sorting was done in order to obtain 500 grams of the waste samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Pyrolysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe waste was degreased with liquid soap, shredded to about 2 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and dried before being fed into the reactor. The reactor, made of steel was designed and fabricated at the mechanical department, federal college of education, Akoka, Lagos state. The feedstock (500g) was introduced into the reactor and the reactor was made of steel. No catalyst was added and used during the study. Liebig condenser with 800 mm length was attached to the water inlet and outlet at the reactor's upper section while a burner (1 kg propane gas cylinder) was placed below the reactor. The organic vapour produced in the higher temperature reactor was condensed into liquid petrochemicals and collected in a 5-litre flask connected to the condenser while uncondensed product gases connected to the Bunsen burner or flared into the atmosphere. The liquid petrochemicals were analysed using 6890A gas chromatograph connected to 5973c inert gas spectrometer (with triple axis detector) and electron impact source (Agilent Technologies). The stationary phase of separation of the compound was carried on a HP-5 capillary column coated with 5% phenyl methyl siloxane (30m length x 0.32 diameter x 25\u0026micro;m film thickness). The carrier gas was helium used at a constant flow rate of 1.5733mL/min. One microliter of the sample was injected in split-less mode at an injection temperature of 260\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC. The oven was initially programmed at 60\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC (1min) then ramped at 4\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC /min to 110\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC /min followed by a temperature programme rate of 8\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC/min to 26\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC (5 min) and 10\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC to 300\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC (12 min) run time was 56.25 minutes with a 3 minutes solvent delay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Pyrolytic Liquid Petrochemicals Blend Production\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBio-oil (pyrolysis oil), a complex mixture of organic chemicals produced during pyrolysis. The liquid oil produced during pyrolysis was mixed by adding 80 mL of conventional petroleum products and 20 mL of fractionated liquid petrochemicals to make 20% v/v and 70 mL of conventional petroleum products and 30 mL of fractionated liquid petrochemicals to produce 30% v/v. Physicochemical parameters such as energy content, viscosity, density, pH, water content and chemical stability were analysed and compared with NIS standard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacterization of textile petrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolar Mass (g/mol)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilicic Acid(H\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eSi)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclotrisiloxane (H\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eSi\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbamate (CH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclohexane (C\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProp-2-ynyl-E-2- methyl but-2-enoate (C\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclododecanol (C\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUndec-10-ynoic acid (C\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e18\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,8-Dimethylspirol-4,6-undecane-6,10-dione (C\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e )\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenol (C\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,2,5-Oxadiazol-3-amine (C\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTridecenal (C\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenzene (C\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e182\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe result of the GC-MS analysis of textile oil is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The area (%) was found to range from 3.47 to 7.69. The following petrochemicals were isolated and identified in the textile waste: 8,8-dimethyl-(4,6)-undecane-6,10-dione (3.47%), tridecenal (3.56%), 1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-amine (3.85%), cyclododecanol (3.95%), cyclotrisiloxane (4.09%), silicic acid (4.73%), phenol (5.95%), benzene (6.30%), prop-2-ynyl-E-2-methylbut-2-enoate (6.24%), cyclohexane (7.47%) and carbamate (7.69%) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The results obtained were found to be in line with the study carried out by Rittfors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Carbamate had the highest peak value (7.69%) while 8,8-dimethylspiro-(4.6)-undecane-6,10-dione had the lowest peak value of 3.47% as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacterization of textile light fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolar Mass (g/mol)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3-methyl-2-butenoic acid (C\u003csub\u003e22\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e42\u003c/sub\u003eO )\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eButylbenzoate (C\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDibutylphthalate (C\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e22\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the analysis of light fraction was found to consist 3-methyl-2-butenoic acid (4.65%), dibutylphthalate (16.12%) and butylbenzoate (50.13%) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Butylbenzoate had the highest peak value of 50.13% while 3-methyl-2-butenoic acid had the lowest peak value of 4.65% as seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the GC-MS analysis of medium fraction of textile sample showed the presence of seven petrochemicals and these were benzene (3.08%), cyclododecane (3.19%), hexylcyclohexane (5.18%), cyclohexane (5.46%), tridecenyl angelate (6.36%), butyl benzoate (7.77%) and cyclohexane carboxylic acid (9.9%) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The peak areas ranged from 3.08 to 9.90% with the highest peak was found in cyclohexane carboxylic acid (9.90%) while benzene had the lowest peak value of 3.08% as seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe result of the heavy fraction of textile sample is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and the peak areas were found to range from 3.46 to 9.63%. The following petrochemicals were identified: cyclotrisiloxane (3.46%), phenol (3.67%), cyclohexa-2,5-diene-4-dione (4.44%), 13,16-octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester (5.81%) and hexadecenoic acid (9.63%). Hexadecenoic acid had the highest peak value (9.63%) while cyclotrisiloxane had the lowest peak value (3.46%) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The results showed that the fraction contained unsaturated and aromatic compounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacterization of Textile medium fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolar Mass (g/mol)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclohexane Carboxylic acid (C\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenzene (C\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclohexane (C\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHexylcyclohexane (C\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclododecane (C\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTridecenyl angelate C\u003csub\u003e15\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e28\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eButyl Benzoate (C\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacterization of Textile heavy fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolar Mass (g/mol)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclotrisiloxane (H\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eSi\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3)\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclohexa-2,5-diene,1,4-dione (C\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenol (C\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003eOH)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHexadecanoic acid (C\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13,16-Octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester (C\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e30\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e )\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e256\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical Parameters of Textile Petrochemical Fractions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTex. Petrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsolute Viscosity @ 40\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKinematic Viscosity @ 40\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity @ 40\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity @ 15/15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppearance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlash Point\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emPa.S\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eg/dm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2459\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47790\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8430\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8602\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49036\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60461\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8110\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8286\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellowish\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66222\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80047\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8273\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8446\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellowish\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3240\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8980\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8528\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8699\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe absolute viscosity at 40\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC ranged from 0.49036 to 3.3240 mPa.S, kinematic viscosity at 40\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC ranged from 0.60461 to 3.8980 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s, density at 40\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC ranged from 0.8110 to 0.85273 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, specific gravity at 15/15\u0026deg;C ranged from 0.8286 to 0.8699 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e while flash point ranged from 14 to 20 as seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The heavy fraction had the highest absolute viscosity of 3.3240 mPa.S while the light fraction had the lowest absolute viscosity value of 0.49036 mPa.S. The absolute viscosity values obtained were found to be within the ASTM specifications (1.5 to 5.5 mPa.S). The kinematic viscosity ranged from 1.47790 to 3.8980 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s and these values were found to be within the ASTM specifications. The textile petrochemicals (crude) and heavy fractions had dark colours and these necessitated pretreatments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physicochemical parameters of PMS light fraction are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The appearance used for 20% and 305 blends were found to be clear. Specific gravity at 15/15\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC ranged from 0.7710 to 0.7850 except for 30% blend, which was slightly higher than the ASTM specifications (0.720 to 0.780). All the colours were found to meet ASTM standards and the distillation experiment revealed that total recovery percent, residual percent and loss percent were all within the range. The results as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e showed that 20% of the blend was close to the PMS blend and the 20% blend was found to be within ASTM specifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePMS light fraction blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePMS Used for Blending\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% Blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% Blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSPEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest Method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppearance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVISUAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity @ 15/15\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.771\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7850\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.720\u0026ndash;0.780\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColour\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellowish\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellow/Red\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVISUAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistillation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIBP (Initial Boiling Point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReport\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 max\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125 max\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180 max\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e193\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFBP (Flash Boiling Point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210 max\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Recovery %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidue %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 max\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 max\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHHK medium fraction blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHHK used for Blending\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% Blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% Blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest Method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppearance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity @ 15/15\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlash Point\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistillation: IBP (Initial Boiling Point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e70% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e80% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e90% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFBP (Final Boiling Point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Recovery %\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidue %\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss %\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecovery @ 200℃\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7882\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e165\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e179\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e209\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e229\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e246\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7960\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e191\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e205\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e235\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e248\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7981\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e193\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e233\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.775\u0026ndash;0.825\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 max.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 max.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD 1298\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD 56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe appearance of the HHK used for 20% blend and 30% blend were clear and the specific gravity and flash point were both within the ranges, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. The ASTM standard for residue percent and recovery at 200\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC were met. The appearance of AGO used for 20% and 30% blends were found to meet the ASTM specifications while the specific gravity, flash point, viscosity and Cetane index were also found to meet the ASTM standards. However, the 30% blend values were greater than those used by AGO as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e and this could indicate that 20% v/v blend values conformed to the ASTM standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAGO- heavy fraction blend.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAGO used for Blending\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% Blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% Blend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifications\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest Method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppearance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity @ 15/15\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlash Point\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistillation: IBP (Initial Boiling Point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e70% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e80% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e90% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFBPv (Final Boiling Point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Recovery %\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidue %\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss %\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecovery @ 357\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViscosity @ 37.8\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eColour (Lovibond)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrackle\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCetane Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecSt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8563\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e237\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e257\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e270\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e310\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e320\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e335\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e363\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e374\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8580\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e212\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e243\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e275\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e285\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e301\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e318\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e335\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e351\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e362\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8590\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e225\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e241\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e256\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e270\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e285\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e301\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e318\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e336\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e364\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e376\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8200\u0026ndash;0.8700\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e66 min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e385 max.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u0026ndash;5.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0 max.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD 1298\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD 93\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD 86\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D 445\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D 1500\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eASTM D 976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAl-Salem et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) reported that municipal solid wastes (LDPE, HDPE, and PS) can be converted into liquid fuels at high temperature (300 to 500\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC) in the absence of oxygen with or without a catalyst. William and William (2004) reported that liquid petrochemicals could be obtained through pyrolytic methods. The pyrolysis oil or petrochemicals contain oxygen resulting in thermal instability and corrosiveness, therefore, purification process is required for environmental friendly utilisation (Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eTextile waste was rinsed after sorting, dried and then pyrolyzed to produce liquid petrochemicals. The petrochemicals were purified, divided into three (3) fractions and their physicochemical properties were determined. The results showed that the blended liquid petrochemicals conformed to Nigerian Industrial Standard and this indicates that liquid petrochemicals consist of aromatic compounds, olefins and aliphatic hydrocarbon compounds. It was further observed that 20% blend of the petrochemicals enhanced the properties of major petroleum products. It can be inferred that the use of liquid petrochemicals for the enhancement of petroleum parameters would go a long way in alleviating basic cost associated with petroleum products production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRECOMMENDATIONS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIndustrialist and relevant stakeholders should invest into petrochemical waste product conversion for the expansion of petrochemical products and revenue in Nigeria.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGovernment should encourage the use of textile wastes as a source of petrochemicals.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGovernment should provide appropriate policy support for the production of conventional petrochemicals for foreign exchange earnings and reducing reliance on imported petrochemicals.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTEXW\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTextile waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFLP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efractionated liquid petrochemicals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePMs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetroleum products\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSCAP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainable Clothing Action Plan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePET\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyethylene terephthalate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eASTM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmerican Standard of Testing Material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFBP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinal Boiling Point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLDPE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow Density Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHDPE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh Density Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAGO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutomated Gas Oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOgudaini R. Sina: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, funding acquisition. Osobamiro T.M.: Conceptualization, supervision, writing-reviewing and editing. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work is an extract from our thesis which was funded by Tertiary Education Trust Fund Nigeria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo data will be shared.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl-Salem SM, Lettieri P, Baeyens J (2009) Recycling and recovery routes plastic solid waste (PSW): A review. Waste Manage J 29(10):2625\u0026ndash;2643\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBalcik-Canbolat C, Ozbey B, Dizge N, Keskinler B (2017) Pyrolysis of commingled waste textile fibers in a batch reactor: Analysis of the pyrolysis gases and solid product. Int J Green Energy 14(3):289\u0026ndash;294\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCho EJ, Lee YG, Song Y, Kim HY, Nguyen DT, Bae HJ (2023) Converting textile waste into value-added chemicals: An integrated bio-refinery process. Environ Sci Ecotechnology, 15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIslam MR, Mustafa MG (2018) Textile dyeing effluents and environment concerns-a review. J Environ Sci Nat Resour 11(1\u0026ndash;2):131\u0026ndash;144\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhan MZ, Sultana M, Al-Mamun MR, Hasan MR (2016) Pyrolytic wastes oil and its diesel Blend fuel characterization. Hindawi Publishing Cooporation. J Environ Public Health.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkafor C, Ajaero C, Madu C, Agomuo K, Abu E (2020) Implementation of circular economy principles in management of end-of-life tyres in a developing country (Nigeria). AIMS Environ Sci 7:406\u0026ndash;433\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkafor CC, Madu CN, Ajaero CC, Ibekwe JC, Nzekwe CA, Okafor CC, Nzekwe CA (2021) Sustainable management of textile and clothing. Clean Technol Recycle 1:70\u0026ndash;87\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRittfors J (2020) Thermochemical textile recycling, Chalmers university of Technology, Master\u0026rsquo;s degree dissertation. Available at: www.odr.chalmers.se. Last visited 26January, 2020\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoozbet K, Aimaro S, Danmei S, James MV (2017) School of Engineering and Physical Science. Heriot Watt University\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShirvanimoghaddam K, Motamed B, Ramakrishna S, Naebe M (2020) Death by waste: Fashion and textile circular economy case. Sci Total Environ 718:137317\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSnoek S (2017) Circular economy in the textile industry. \u003cem\u003eWageningen UR\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSandin G, Peters GM (2018) Environmental impact of textile reuse and recycling\u0026mdash;A review. J Clean Prod 184:353\u0026ndash;365\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYasin S, Behary N, Perwuelz A, Guan J (2017) Life cycle assessment of flame retardant cotton textiles with optimized end-of-life phase. J Clean Prod 172:1080\u0026ndash;1088\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Textile waste, petrochemicals blend, pyrolysis, GC-MS, petroleum products","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3650806/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3650806/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe disposal of wastes into landfills, which has worsened the ecosystem, has made textile waste in the third world a major environmental problem. Textile waste is an environmental hazard as it biodegrades quickly and is improperly disposed of. The goal of this research is to convert textile waste (TEXW) into petrochemicals using pyrolysis. The obtained petrochemicals were fractionated after purification and characterization using GC-MS while the physicochemical parameters of the fractionated liquid petrochemicals were analysed using standard methods. The results of the analysis showed that the liquid oil contains: carbamate (7.69%), silicic acid (4.73%), cyclotrisiloxane (4.09%), cyclohexane (7.47%), pro-2-ynyl-E-2-methylbut-2-enote (6.24%), cyclododecanol (3.95%), undec-10-ynoic acid (3.95%), 8,8-dimethylspirol-4,6-undecane-6,10-dione (3.47%), phenol (5.95%) and 1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-amine (3.85%). The results of the physico-chemical parameters of the liquid petrochemicals ranged: relative density (0.4250\u0026ndash;0.8528 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), absolute viscosity (0.3436\u0026ndash;0.8788 mPas), kinematic viscosity (0.4097\u0026ndash;3.880 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s), specific gravity at 15/15\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC (0.8528\u0026ndash;0.9556) and flash point (15\u0026ndash;20\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC). After blending, it was observed that 20% v/v blend of the petrochemicals enhance the physicochemical properties of major petroleum products (PMS, kerosene, diesel). It could be concluded that the use of liquid petrochemicals for the enhancement of petroleum parameters would go a long way in alleviating basic cost associated with petroleum products production (see figure. 1 for graphical abstract).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Textile Waste Pyrolysis: An Innovative Method for Petrochemicals generation for Sustainable Economic, Technological and Environmental Advancement","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-05 19:07:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3650806/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2024-10-02T23:33:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-09-14T01:14:37+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-06-19T12:09:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2024-02-14T10:50:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-01-26T05:54:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2024-01-18T13:28:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"490a7231-a1cf-4db7-bd91-fd47b00a8fdd","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-02T17:23:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3650806","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35617-4","journal":{"identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research"},"publishedOn":"2024-11-26 15:58:18","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 26th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-05 19:07:40","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11356-024-35617-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35617-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3650806","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3650806","identity":"rs-3650806","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}