BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment of the Embodied Carbon of High-Rise Building Construction Project

BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment of the Embodied Carbon of High-Rise Building Construction Project | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment of the Embodied Carbon of High-Rise Building Construction Project Somjintana Kanangkaew, Natee Suriyanon, Damrongsak Rinchumphu, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8200219/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The construction industry is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with Embodied Carbon (EC) in building materials being a significant factor. Reducing EC during the early design stages is critical for mitigating climate change, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13. While Building Information Modeling (BIM) presents a powerful platform for sustainable design, designers often lack accessible tools for real-time EC assessment using localized databases. This study addresses this gap by developing a system that integrates Autodesk Revit with Kit Carbon software to quantify and visualize the EC of structural components. The system was applied to a 13-story parking building construction project at Chiang Mai University. The assessment focused on the product stage (A1-A3) using a localized Thai LCA database (TGO). The results revealed a total Embodied Carbon of 3,659.88 tonCO₂e, equivalent to approximately 0.099 tonCO₂e/m², with superstructure floors and substructure foundations identified as the most carbon-intensive components. This proposed workflow provides designers with an effective, accessible tool for informed decision-making and structural optimization during the pre-construction phase. Embodied Carbon Building Information Modeling (BIM) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) High-rise Building Construction Project Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1 Introduction Global warming has become a significant challenge, primarily driven by embodied carbon (EC) and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) [ 1 ], in which Carbon dioxide (CO2) contributes to a large portion of the cause of climate change [ 2 ]. In 2009, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [ 3 ] declared that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were projected to more than double over the next 20 years. This increase would be driven by rapid urbanization and the inefficiencies of the current building stock unless adequate measures to mitigate GHG emissions were implemented. The construction industry contributes to global warming, accounting for 42% of primary energy consumption and 39% of global greenhouse gas emissions [ 4 ]. Similarly, construction and building operations are responsible for almost 40% of global carbon emissions [ 5 ]. Significantly, 10% of GHG emissions are generated by manufacturing critical building materials such as steel, cement, and glass [ 6 ], making this sector a major contributor to overall GHG emissions. Much previous research has focused on operational carbon, which constitutes about 85% of the total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over the lifespan, compared to 13% from construction and 2% from demolition [ 7 ]. However, as advancements in renewable energy [ 8 – 9 ] and the promotion of zero-carbon building design [ 10 – 11 ] successfully reduce operational emissions, the relative importance of Embodied Carbon (EC) has grown substantially. The World Green Building Council [ 12 ] defined Embodied Carbon (EC) as the emissions associated with the entire building lifecycle, including upfront carbon (A1-A5) arising during material production and construction, use stage embodied carbon (B1-B5) from maintenance activities, and end-of-life carbon (C1-C4) from deconstruction, waste processing, and disposal, as shown in Fig. 1 . In recent years, net zero-carbon buildings have emerged as a critical strategy in mitigating climate change. However, new simplified methods for assessing and reducing embodied carbon are still needed to achieve net zero carbon buildings [ 13 ]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an established methodology to quantify the environmental impact of products throughout their entire life cycle, including production, construction, use, and end-of-life stages, encompassing all emissions [ 14 ]. The increasing adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM) offers a valuable opportunity to seamlessly integrate Embodied Carbon assessment during the crucial pre-construction phases. This integration aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically Goal 13, Target 13.2, which aims to integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning [ 15 ]. Although Building Information Modeling (BIM) offers a robust platform for sustainable design, in practice, designers often lack accessible tools for real-time Embodied Carbon (EC) feedback to guide their decision-making process. During the pre-construction phases, traditional workflows such as paper-based communication often pose a significant challenge, as it necessitates a substantial amount of time and money to generate essential assessment information for the proposal design [ 16 ]. This delay hinders the ability to make timely, informed design choices. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by developing a system that integrates BIM with a life cycle assessment (LCA) tool to quantify and visualize the Embodied Carbon (EC) of building components during the pre-construction phase, specifically focusing on structural works. This proposed system serves as an effective tool to support designers, enabling them to make more informed decisions during the pre-construction phases. 2 Literature Review 2.1 Building Information Modeling (BIM) According to international standards, Building Information Modeling (BIM) functions as a shared digital representation of a built asset's physical and functional characteristics, providing a robust basis for decision-making. It is regarded as a pivotal instrument for advancing sustainable practices during the green building design and construction phases [ 17 ]. BIM offers distinct advantages by promoting the exchange of sustainability-related knowledge among stakeholders, policymakers, and project managers, ultimately ensuring the successful delivery of high-performance green buildings [ 18 ]. Moreover, in the pre-construction phase, BIM enables designers to leverage existing construction data to refine initial concepts, leading to improved building performance [ 19 ] and enhanced stakeholder collaboration. Consequently, BIM is instrumental in supporting green building initiatives, ranging from acoustic analysis and carbon emissions tracking to construction waste management and the optimization of energy and water resource efficiency [ 20 – 21 ]. 2.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is recognized as a robust, internationally standardized framework governed by ISO 14040 and 14044, utilized for the comprehensive assessment of environmental burdens associated with a product or service from cradle to grave [ 22 – 23 ]. Given the construction industry's substantial contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, LCA has become a pivotal instrument for quantifying the environmental profiles of buildings and material stocks [ 24 – 25 ]. Although the adoption of LCA in architectural research and practice has gained momentum [ 26 ], its implementation is frequently restricted to the post-design phase, where definitive data is readily available. This retrospective approach, however, constrains the methodology's capacity to inform critical, early-stage design optimization [ 27 ]. 2.3 BIM-integrated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Over the past decade, researchers have classified BIM-integrated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) into three types based on the flow of data exchange [ 1 ]. The Type I approach involves exporting Building Information Modeling (BIM) data for combination with carbon emissions factors sourced from different databases, typically in a spreadsheet format. In contrast, the Type II approach involves the direct integration of carbon emissions factors within BIM tools by utilizing the full potential of BIM technology as both a data source and a visualization platform. Finally, the Type III approach involves importing BIM data into dedicated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) software, with the analysis conducted entirely within that specialized environment. Given the objectives of this research to visualize embodied carbon in real-time, this study adopts the Type II approach. 2.4 Research gap Despite the advancements in BIM-integrated LCA, several limitations persist in current practices. Firstly, while Type I and Type III approaches are widely used, they often suffer from fragmented workflows and data interoperability issues, hindering real-time decision-making [ 1 , 27 ]. Designers typically receive environmental feedback only after key design decisions have been finalized. Secondly, many existing tools rely on generic international databases, which may not accurately reflect the specific embodied carbon factors of local construction materials, leading to discrepancies in carbon quantification for specific regions like Thailand. Consequently, there is a lack of accessible tools that seamlessly integrate localized LCA databases directly within the BIM environment (Type II) to provide immediate visualization of embodied carbon of structural components. This study aims to bridge these gaps by developing a BIM-based system that utilizes a localized database to facilitate real-time embodied carbon assessment during the pre-construction phase. 3 Materials and Methods In this study, the embodied carbon of the high-rise building case study is assessed, with a focus on the building structure, while a building's full life cycle consists of multiple stages, as shown in Fig. 1 , the scope of this assessment is specifically focused on the product stage (A1-A3), which includes raw material sourcing, transport, and manufacturer. The functional unit for this assessment is defined as one ton of carbon dioxide equivalent per square meter of the building’s total gross floor area (tonCO 2 e/m 2 ). 3.1 Quantitative Method A quantitative method was utilized to assess the embodied carbon (EC) of structural work, ranging from the substructure to the roofing level. The assessment is based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) principles and relies on precise material quantities derived from a highly detailed three-dimensional (3D) structural model. This model was developed in Autodesk Revit 2025, adhering to a Level of Detail (LOD) 300 based on as-built drawings. To facilitate embodied carbon calculation, Kit Carbon, a commercially available LCA tool developed by The Siam Cement Pcl. (SCG), was employed. This tool integrates seamlessly with Autodesk Revit, allowing for direct calculation from the building information model. The Kit Carbon framework utilizes a localized LCA database consistent with sources such as Environmental Product Declarations (EPD), the Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (TGO), and SCG, ensuring the accuracy and relevance of the assessment. The project framework in this study consists of three main stages, as follows: Data collection, which involved extracting precise material quantities and properties from the three-dimensional (3D) model using material takeoff schedules. Data mapping consisted of linking each structure material in the three-dimensional (3D) model to its corresponding embodied carbon factor within the Kit Carbon database. Data analysis includes the aggregation of embodied carbon values for all components, followed by the breakdown of the results by structural elements and material type. 3.2 Case study The case study selected for this research is a 13-story reinforced concrete parking building located at Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The building stands at a total height of 44.90 meters with a total area of 36,974 square meters. Focusing specifically on structural work, a three-dimensional (3D) model was developed using Autodesk Revit 2025. The model comprehensively represents the building, including precise details for structural elements such as columns, beams, and floors, as shown in Fig. 3 . In addition, each object within the model is defined by its exact size, shape, location, and relevant geometric properties [ 28 ]. As the scope of this assessment is strictly focused on structural elements, non-structural components such as architectural finishes, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems are excluded from this analysis. A summary of the case study information and key Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) assumptions is provided in Table 1 . Table 1 The summary of case study and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) assumptions. Parameter Description General Project Information Project Type 13-story reinforced concrete parking building Location Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand Gross Floor Area (GFA) 36,974 m 2 Total Height 44.90 m. LCA Methodology and Assumptions Assessment Standard Based on EN 15978 principles System Boundary Product Stage (A1-A3) Functional Unit 1 ton of CO 2 equivalent per square meter of GFA (tonCO2 e /m 2 ) LCA Tool Kit Carbon integrated with Autodesk Revit 2025 Data Sources Localized database from EPD, TGO, and SCG Scope of Elements Includes: Structural elements consisting of foundation, columns, floors, beams, stairs, structural walls Excludes: Non-structural elements such as architectural finishes, and MEP systems 3.3 Structural Components and Materials For this analysis, the structural elements of the case study were categorized into six main components: foundations, columns, floors, beams, stairs, and structural walls. The two primary construction materials specified for the project were ready-mix concrete with a compressive strength of 210 ksc (approximately 20.6 MPa) and structural steel for the general structure. The embodied carbon factors for these materials were sourced from the Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (TGO) database, which is integrated within the Kit Carbon software, as shown in Fig. 4 . 3.4 Integration of 3D Modeling and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Software The framework proposed in this study demonstrates an integrated approach to combining Building Information Modeling (BIM) with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools for assessing the Embodied Carbon (EC) of structural works. Specifically, the system utilizes Autodesk Revit 2025 for 3D modeling, while Kit Carbon software is employed for direct analysis and calculation. This integrated workflow was applied during the pre-construction phase of the case study. 4 Results 4.1 The results of Embodied Carbon (EC) from Kit Carbon software The results of Embodied Carbon (EC) from Kit Carbon software are presented in Table 2 and Fig. 6 . Table 2 The breakdown of Embodied Carbon (EC) results by structural component. No. Category Embodied Carbon (tonCO2 e ) 1 Substructure Structural Foundations 1,186.19 2 Substructure Structural Columns 175.94 3 Superstructure Columns 0.00 4 Superstructure Structural Framing 193.84 5 Superstructure Floors 1,885.24 6 Superstructure Slab Edges 0.00 7 Superstructure Stairs 23.87 8 Superstructure Landings 0.00 9 Superstructure Runs 0.00 10 Exterior Walls 194.80 Total 3,659.88 Table 2 and Fig. 6 present the summary of Embodied Carbon (EC) value of structural work related to the structural element of BIM-based Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) software. The result shows that the Embodied Carbon (EC) was 3,659.88 tonCO₂e. Furthermore, Fig. 7 presents the Embodied Carbon breakdown by material category. The analysis clearly indicates that concrete is the dominant contributor, accounting for most emissions was 3,659.88 tonCO₂e, while steel represents a significantly smaller proportion. This disparity aligns with the nature of the project as a reinforced concrete structure, where concrete volume constitutes the primary material mass. 5 Discussion The analysis of embodied carbon distribution reveals that the substructure foundations and superstructure floors are the primary contributors to the building's total carbon footprint. The high embodied carbon in the foundations at 1,186.19 tonCO₂e can be attributed to the massive concrete volume required to support the significant dead and live loads of a 13-story parking structure, ensuring stability and effective load transfer. Similarly, the superstructure floors contribute the highest proportion at 1,885.24 tonCO₂e, driven by the extensive gross floor area of 36,974 m², which necessitates large quantities of reinforced concrete. These findings align with previous studies on high-rise reinforced concrete buildings, which consistently identify structural frames and foundations as the most carbon-intensive components due to the high embodied energy of cement and steel [ 1 , 27 ]. This underscores the importance of structural optimization and material selection in the early design stages to effectively reduce the overall environmental impact. 6 Conclusion This study developed a BIM-based system integrating Autodesk Revit and Kit Carbon software to assess the Embodied Carbon (EC) of structural works for a 13-story parking building. The system successfully facilitated the quantification and visualization of Embodied Carbon (EC) during the pre-construction phase. The results revealed a total Embodied Carbon of 3,659.88 tonCO₂e, with the superstructure floors and substructure foundations being the most significant contributors. By utilizing a localized Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) database (TGO), this workflow provides designers with a reliable and accessible tool to support decision-making and optimize building sustainability from the early design stages, addressing the limitations of traditional fragmented workflows. Declarations Competing interests Not applicable. Ethics approval Not applicable. Consent to participate Not applicable. Consent to publish Not applicable. Clinical Trial Number Not applicable. Funding This research was supported by CMU Junior Research Fellowship Program. Author Contribution Conceptualization, S.K., D.R. and N.J.; methodology, S.K., P.C. and M.K.; software, S.K., N.S., N.J. and D.P.; validation, S.K. and P.C.; formal analysis, S.K., N.S., D.R. and P.C.; investigation, S.K., M.K., and D.P.; resources, S.K., N.S. and D.R.; data curation, P.C.; writing—original draft preparation, S.K., N.J. and P.C.; writing—review and editing, S.K., N.J. and P.C.; visualization, S.K.; supervision, N.S., D.R., N.J., M.K., and P.C.; project administration, S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Hunt J, Osorio-Sandoval CA. Assessing embodied carbon in structural models: a building information modelling-based approach. Buildings. 2023;13(7):1679. Solomon S, Plattner GK, Knutti R, Friedlingstein P. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 30 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 16 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 22 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 10 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 27 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8200219","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":559197703,"identity":"71f8bf5b-a04c-43e3-8ee0-079ff22e7687","order_by":0,"name":"Somjintana Kanangkaew","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chiang Mai University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Somjintana","middleName":"","lastName":"Kanangkaew","suffix":""},{"id":559197704,"identity":"7c19f99a-2ae6-41bd-9c3d-8a84f939fef6","order_by":1,"name":"Natee Suriyanon","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chiang Mai 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16:58:19","extension":"xml","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":69044,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"c99f31a6566845fda61ea6225b9a8fac1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/dcd23380aac6cf42f94da068.xml"},{"id":98349013,"identity":"97693161-b261-4bcb-9ab9-04fa6b4bc7b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:56:39","extension":"html","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":75699,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/5567b8d2e66d7c4738eee9eb.html"},{"id":98348991,"identity":"cd13abfb-fb07-4aa6-99a7-495b5bd1a59b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:56:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":184293,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLife cycle modules according to the EN 15978.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/41c6d0f4d31396c8081c7dc2.png"},{"id":98348989,"identity":"b164aa35-4650-4679-b390-429fe427b96f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:56:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100168,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProject framework of this study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/0300d2c1c2560e537a0d5c77.png"},{"id":98438423,"identity":"d8d352ba-8cab-4845-99bf-6b1e283632c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:59:13","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":199621,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe three-dimensional (3-D) structural model of the case study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/70963c955cea44b4dc72a459.png"},{"id":98438108,"identity":"0f1b5316-3a24-49b3-bc67-a25b42284b3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:58:40","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":259909,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDashboard of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) results from Kit Carbon software.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/81b6eba21f05a734c320d348.png"},{"id":98437591,"identity":"d004a99b-f760-4c04-97c8-4a63fd4715af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:57:30","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":200370,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDashboard of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) results from Kit Carbon software.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/ddbc8576bd3b126437664b45.png"},{"id":98348999,"identity":"4b78c6fe-d530-4867-a95b-6abd1cbe7d23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:56:39","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101055,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emission flow of A1-A3 material usage.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/7e62621b2b7175de7b66122c.png"},{"id":98439798,"identity":"e349c81f-3ad8-4aee-abbe-5bd74a775824","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 17:02:57","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emission by material categories.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/3c7ab29986d63c2d20a58d9c.png"},{"id":99306860,"identity":"6b065331-8e8b-4092-a1a7-9b72e1bf11b5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:02:15","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1563142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8200219/v1/27b73f25-002d-487a-ab46-4acd31c2085c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment of the Embodied Carbon of High-Rise Building Construction Project","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGlobal warming has become a significant challenge, primarily driven by embodied carbon (EC) and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], in which Carbon dioxide (CO2) contributes to a large portion of the cause of climate change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In 2009, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] declared that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were projected to more than double over the next 20 years. This increase would be driven by rapid urbanization and the inefficiencies of the current building stock unless adequate measures to mitigate GHG emissions were implemented. The construction industry contributes to global warming, accounting for 42% of primary energy consumption and 39% of global greenhouse gas emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, construction and building operations are responsible for almost 40% of global carbon emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Significantly, 10% of GHG emissions are generated by manufacturing critical building materials such as steel, cement, and glass [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], making this sector a major contributor to overall GHG emissions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMuch previous research has focused on operational carbon, which constitutes about 85% of the total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over the lifespan, compared to 13% from construction and 2% from demolition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. However, as advancements in renewable energy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] and the promotion of zero-carbon building design [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] successfully reduce operational emissions, the relative importance of Embodied Carbon (EC) has grown substantially. The World Green Building Council [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] defined Embodied Carbon (EC) as the emissions associated with the entire building lifecycle, including upfront carbon (A1-A5) arising during material production and construction, use stage embodied carbon (B1-B5) from maintenance activities, and end-of-life carbon (C1-C4) from deconstruction, waste processing, and disposal, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, net zero-carbon buildings have emerged as a critical strategy in mitigating climate change. However, new simplified methods for assessing and reducing embodied carbon are still needed to achieve net zero carbon buildings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an established methodology to quantify the environmental impact of products throughout their entire life cycle, including production, construction, use, and end-of-life stages, encompassing all emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The increasing adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM) offers a valuable opportunity to seamlessly integrate Embodied Carbon assessment during the crucial pre-construction phases. This integration aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically Goal 13, Target 13.2, which aims to integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough Building Information Modeling (BIM) offers a robust platform for sustainable design, in practice, designers often lack accessible tools for real-time Embodied Carbon (EC) feedback to guide their decision-making process. During the pre-construction phases, traditional workflows such as paper-based communication often pose a significant challenge, as it necessitates a substantial amount of time and money to generate essential assessment information for the proposal design [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. This delay hinders the ability to make timely, informed design choices. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by developing a system that integrates BIM with a life cycle assessment (LCA) tool to quantify and visualize the Embodied Carbon (EC) of building components during the pre-construction phase, specifically focusing on structural works. This proposed system serves as an effective tool to support designers, enabling them to make more informed decisions during the pre-construction phases.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Building Information Modeling (BIM)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to international standards, Building Information Modeling (BIM) functions as a shared digital representation of a built asset's physical and functional characteristics, providing a robust basis for decision-making. It is regarded as a pivotal instrument for advancing sustainable practices during the green building design and construction phases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. BIM offers distinct advantages by promoting the exchange of sustainability-related knowledge among stakeholders, policymakers, and project managers, ultimately ensuring the successful delivery of high-performance green buildings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, in the pre-construction phase, BIM enables designers to leverage existing construction data to refine initial concepts, leading to improved building performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] and enhanced stakeholder collaboration. Consequently, BIM is instrumental in supporting green building initiatives, ranging from acoustic analysis and carbon emissions tracking to construction waste management and the optimization of energy and water resource efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eLife Cycle Assessment (LCA) is recognized as a robust, internationally standardized framework governed by ISO 14040 and 14044, utilized for the comprehensive assessment of environmental burdens associated with a product or service from cradle to grave [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the construction industry's substantial contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, LCA has become a pivotal instrument for quantifying the environmental profiles of buildings and material stocks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the adoption of LCA in architectural research and practice has gained momentum [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], its implementation is frequently restricted to the post-design phase, where definitive data is readily available. This retrospective approach, however, constrains the methodology's capacity to inform critical, early-stage design optimization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 BIM-integrated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver the past decade, researchers have classified BIM-integrated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) into three types based on the flow of data exchange [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The Type I approach involves exporting Building Information Modeling (BIM) data for combination with carbon emissions factors sourced from different databases, typically in a spreadsheet format. In contrast, the Type II approach involves the direct integration of carbon emissions factors within BIM tools by utilizing the full potential of BIM technology as both a data source and a visualization platform. Finally, the Type III approach involves importing BIM data into dedicated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) software, with the analysis conducted entirely within that specialized environment. Given the objectives of this research to visualize embodied carbon in real-time, this study adopts the Type II approach.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Research gap\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the advancements in BIM-integrated LCA, several limitations persist in current practices. Firstly, while Type I and Type III approaches are widely used, they often suffer from fragmented workflows and data interoperability issues, hindering real-time decision-making [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Designers typically receive environmental feedback only after key design decisions have been finalized. Secondly, many existing tools rely on generic international databases, which may not accurately reflect the specific embodied carbon factors of local construction materials, leading to discrepancies in carbon quantification for specific regions like Thailand. Consequently, there is a lack of accessible tools that seamlessly integrate localized LCA databases directly within the BIM environment (Type II) to provide immediate visualization of embodied carbon of structural components. This study aims to bridge these gaps by developing a BIM-based system that utilizes a localized database to facilitate real-time embodied carbon assessment during the pre-construction phase.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the embodied carbon of the high-rise building case study is assessed, with a focus on the building structure, while a building's full life cycle consists of multiple stages, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the scope of this assessment is specifically focused on the product stage (A1-A3), which includes raw material sourcing, transport, and manufacturer. The functional unit for this assessment is defined as one ton of carbon dioxide equivalent per square meter of the building\u0026rsquo;s total gross floor area (tonCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003ee/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Quantitative Method\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA quantitative method was utilized to assess the embodied carbon (EC) of structural work, ranging from the substructure to the roofing level. The assessment is based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) principles and relies on precise material quantities derived from a highly detailed three-dimensional (3D) structural model. This model was developed in Autodesk Revit 2025, adhering to a Level of Detail (LOD) 300 based on as-built drawings. To facilitate embodied carbon calculation, Kit Carbon, a commercially available LCA tool developed by The Siam Cement Pcl. (SCG), was employed. This tool integrates seamlessly with Autodesk Revit, allowing for direct calculation from the building information model. The Kit Carbon framework utilizes a localized LCA database consistent with sources such as Environmental Product Declarations (EPD), the Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (TGO), and SCG, ensuring the accuracy and relevance of the assessment. The project framework in this study consists of three main stages, as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eData collection, which involved extracting precise material quantities and properties from the three-dimensional (3D) model using material takeoff schedules.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eData mapping consisted of linking each structure material in the three-dimensional (3D) model to its corresponding embodied carbon factor within the Kit Carbon database.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eData analysis includes the aggregation of embodied carbon values for all components, followed by the breakdown of the results by structural elements and material type.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Case study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe case study selected for this research is a 13-story reinforced concrete parking building located at Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The building stands at a total height of 44.90 meters with a total area of 36,974 square meters. Focusing specifically on structural work, a three-dimensional (3D) model was developed using Autodesk Revit 2025. The model comprehensively represents the building, including precise details for structural elements such as columns, beams, and floors, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, each object within the model is defined by its exact size, shape, location, and relevant geometric properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. As the scope of this assessment is strictly focused on structural elements, non-structural components such as architectural finishes, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems are excluded from this analysis. A summary of the case study information and key Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) assumptions is provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe summary of case study and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral Project Information\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProject Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13-story reinforced concrete parking building\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGross Floor Area (GFA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36,974 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Height\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.90 m.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLCA Methodology and Assumptions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssessment Standard\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on EN 15978 principles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSystem Boundary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct Stage (A1-A3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunctional Unit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 ton of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e equivalent per square meter of GFA (tonCO2\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLCA Tool\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKit Carbon integrated with Autodesk Revit 2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eData Sources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocalized database from EPD, TGO, and SCG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScope of Elements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncludes: Structural elements consisting of foundation, columns, floors, beams, stairs, structural walls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExcludes: Non-structural elements such as architectural finishes, and MEP systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Structural Components and Materials\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor this analysis, the structural elements of the case study were categorized into six main components: foundations, columns, floors, beams, stairs, and structural walls. The two primary construction materials specified for the project were ready-mix concrete with a compressive strength of 210 ksc (approximately 20.6 MPa) and structural steel for the general structure. The embodied carbon factors for these materials were sourced from the Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (TGO) database, which is integrated within the Kit Carbon software, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Integration of 3D Modeling and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Software\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe framework proposed in this study demonstrates an integrated approach to combining Building Information Modeling (BIM) with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools for assessing the Embodied Carbon (EC) of structural works. Specifically, the system utilizes Autodesk Revit 2025 for 3D modeling, while Kit Carbon software is employed for direct analysis and calculation. This integrated workflow was applied during the pre-construction phase of the case study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 The results of Embodied Carbon (EC) from Kit Carbon software\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of Embodied Carbon (EC) from Kit Carbon software are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe breakdown of Embodied Carbon (EC) results by structural component.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmbodied Carbon (tonCO2\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstructure Structural Foundations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,186.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstructure Structural Columns\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e175.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Columns\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Structural Framing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e193.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Floors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,885.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Slab Edges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Stairs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Landings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperstructure Runs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExterior Walls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e194.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3,659.88\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e present the summary of Embodied Carbon (EC) value of structural work related to the structural element of BIM-based Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) software. The result shows that the Embodied Carbon (EC) was 3,659.88 tonCO₂e. Furthermore, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e presents the Embodied Carbon breakdown by material category. The analysis clearly indicates that concrete is the dominant contributor, accounting for most emissions was 3,659.88 tonCO₂e, while steel represents a significantly smaller proportion. This disparity aligns with the nature of the project as a reinforced concrete structure, where concrete volume constitutes the primary material mass.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of embodied carbon distribution reveals that the substructure foundations and superstructure floors are the primary contributors to the building's total carbon footprint. The high embodied carbon in the foundations at 1,186.19 tonCO₂e can be attributed to the massive concrete volume required to support the significant dead and live loads of a 13-story parking structure, ensuring stability and effective load transfer. Similarly, the superstructure floors contribute the highest proportion at 1,885.24 tonCO₂e, driven by the extensive gross floor area of 36,974 m\u0026sup2;, which necessitates large quantities of reinforced concrete. These findings align with previous studies on high-rise reinforced concrete buildings, which consistently identify structural frames and foundations as the most carbon-intensive components due to the high embodied energy of cement and steel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. This underscores the importance of structural optimization and material selection in the early design stages to effectively reduce the overall environmental impact.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study developed a BIM-based system integrating Autodesk Revit and Kit Carbon software to assess the Embodied Carbon (EC) of structural works for a 13-story parking building. The system successfully facilitated the quantification and visualization of Embodied Carbon (EC) during the pre-construction phase. The results revealed a total Embodied Carbon of 3,659.88 tonCO₂e, with the superstructure floors and substructure foundations being the most significant contributors. By utilizing a localized Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) database (TGO), this workflow provides designers with a reliable and accessible tool to support decision-making and optimize building sustainability from the early design stages, addressing the limitations of traditional fragmented workflows.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by CMU Junior Research Fellowship Program.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, S.K., D.R. and N.J.; methodology, S.K., P.C. and M.K.; software, S.K., N.S., N.J. and D.P.; validation, S.K. and P.C.; formal analysis, S.K., N.S., D.R. and P.C.; investigation, S.K., M.K., and D.P.; resources, S.K., N.S. and D.R.; data curation, P.C.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, S.K., N.J. and P.C.; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, S.K., N.J. and P.C.; visualization, S.K.; supervision, N.S., D.R., N.J., M.K., and P.C.; project administration, S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHunt J, Osorio-Sandoval CA. Assessing embodied carbon in structural models: a building information modelling-based approach. Buildings. 2023;13(7):1679.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSolomon S, Plattner GK, Knutti R, Friedlingstein P. Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009;106(6):1704\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlcamo J, Puig D, Olhoff A, Demkine V, Metz B. The emissions gap report 2013: a UNEP synthesis report. United Nations Environment Programme; 2013.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmed Ali K, Ahmad MI, Yusup Y. Issues, impacts, and mitigations of carbon dioxide emissions in the building sector. Sustainability. 2020;12(18):7427.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZainordin N, Zahra DBF. Factors contributing to carbon emission in construction activity. In: Third International Conference on Separation Technology 2020 (ICoST 2020). Atlantis Press; 2020. pp. 176\u0026ndash;182.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhong X, Hu M, Deetman S, Steubing B, Lin HX, Hernandez GA, Harpprecht C, Zhang C, Tukker A, Behrens P. Global greenhouse gas emissions from residential and commercial building materials and mitigation strategies to 2060. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):6126.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTirumala RD, Upadhyay K. 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Int J Life Cycle Assess. 2016;21(7):943\u0026ndash;60.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahimian FP, Seyedzadeh S, Oliver S, Rodriguez S, Dawood N. On-demand monitoring of construction projects through a game-like hybrid application of BIM and machine learning. Autom Constr. 2020;110:103012.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Embodied Carbon, Building Information Modeling (BIM), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), High-rise Building Construction Project","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8200219/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8200219/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe construction industry is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with Embodied Carbon (EC) in building materials being a significant factor. Reducing EC during the early design stages is critical for mitigating climate change, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13. While Building Information Modeling (BIM) presents a powerful platform for sustainable design, designers often lack accessible tools for real-time EC assessment using localized databases. This study addresses this gap by developing a system that integrates Autodesk Revit with Kit Carbon software to quantify and visualize the EC of structural components. The system was applied to a 13-story parking building construction project at Chiang Mai University. The assessment focused on the product stage (A1-A3) using a localized Thai LCA database (TGO). The results revealed a total Embodied Carbon of 3,659.88 tonCO₂e, equivalent to approximately 0.099 tonCO₂e/m\u0026sup2;, with superstructure floors and substructure foundations identified as the most carbon-intensive components. This proposed workflow provides designers with an effective, accessible tool for informed decision-making and structural optimization during the pre-construction phase.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment of the Embodied Carbon of High-Rise Building Construction Project","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-16 19:56:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8200219/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-30T17:17:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-16T23:41:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"113103354003215740547940806847973498247","date":"2026-01-16T23:31:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39205995835168839851003309963173283088","date":"2026-01-14T22:40:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-22T19:49:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"269415325110793754717964183661532758522","date":"2025-12-12T06:17:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-10T06:06:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-27T11:51:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-27T11:50:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Sustainability","date":"2025-11-25T07:29:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fcd26c87-93e9-403f-b0cc-055e6cb774e2","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-16T10:08:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-16 19:56:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8200219","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8200219","identity":"rs-8200219","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}