Tamale sandstone petrology and engineering properties as suitable coarse aggregate in concrete production

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However, locally, this type of aggregate is unavailable because of the local geology; the sandstones of Tamale are abundant. This study investigated the suitability of the sandstones as coarse aggregates by examining their engineering properties and petrographic characteristics. Photomicrographs of three samples indicate the sandstones have a paragenesis of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, opaque, lithic fragments, and cement and are classified as subfeldsarenites. X-ray florescence geochemical data indicate the composition of sandstones has SiO 2 content of 72.6 2% to 74.62 %, Al 2 O 3 : 10.11 % to 12.23 %, and Fe 2 O 3 : 3.46 % to 4.22 %. The engineering characteristics show that, except for water absorption, flakiness, elongation, aggregate crushing value, and compressive, all met standard requirements of concrete products for building purposes. Results provided good mineralogical, elemental, and textural properties of the sandstones and were found to have the possibility of having strong physicomechanical characteristics that may support other engineering properties, including low abrasion since SiO 2 is known to be high in rock. The study concludes that the Tamale-Obosum sandstones can perform reasonably well in concrete for domestic concrete construction. Further testing to improve the scientific understanding of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and water absorption of the sandstones is recommended. Sandstone Tamale-Obosum Aggregate Subfeldsarenites concrete engineering properties Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1 Introduction Global expansion of infrastructure for various purposes is growing, necessitating an increase in demand for concrete as the cheapest most used man-made building material than steel, wood, aluminium, etc. [ 1 ]. Concrete is made up of three major ingredients: cement, aggregate, and water. All of these elements are derived directly or indirectly from natural resources and of these materials, aggregates are a major component, typically accounting for between 70 % nd 80 % f the volume of concrete [ 2 – 4 ]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that, it has a significant impact on the concrete characteristics. Thus, the selection of the aggregate source materials and its associated engineering properties which influence concrete performance is of utmost importance for the quality of concrete for building purposes. Moreover, depending on the sort of rocks used as aggregates, a concrete can be weak, strong or suitable, and one of the key consequences of employing weak materials or aggregates in engineering is structural failure [ 5 ]. The engineering behavior of aggregates is a critical aspect in determining their appropriateness for construction application. The components of high-quality aggregates should be sufficiently strong, have desirable engineering characteristics (Aggregate Crushing Value, Compressive strength, Water absorption, etc.), and be able to withstand environmental conditions [ 6 ]. Additionally, high-quality aggregates would not include substances that might compromise the short and long-term performance of the concrete product. In Ghana alone some tens of million tons of aggregate are consumed each year, representing the extraction of about 0.1 km 3 of rock [ 7 ]. Aggregates are mainly obtained from outcrops of granite and its derivatives; the road construction sector takes a chunk of this amount translating into 70–80 % f the total production [ 8 ]. While acknowledging the use of recycled and synthetic materials to address aggregate demand and cost of production, the traditional aggregate sources in Ghana and other developing countries, have remained largely on these three categories of rocks, namely igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks in concrete production [ 9 , 10 ]. This preference is attributed to their abundance and accessibility and resultant petrographic characteristics and physicomechanical properties which demonstrate suitability for enhancing concrete strength [ 8 , 9 ]. However, in Ghana sedimentary rocks such as sandstones have very little use as source materials for coarse aggregate production. Though studies [ 1 , 4 , 11 – 14 ] have established their appropriateness in concrete production for building purposes in many other countries. Tamale, a rapidly urbanizing metropolitan area, is undergoing significant industrialization, driving a concrete construction boom. This growth has created an urgent demand for local sources of coarse aggregates to support concrete production. Situated within Ghana’s Neoproterozoic Voltaian sedimentary basin, Tamale has abundant sandstone resources [ 15 , 16 ]. However, granites and their derivatives, preferred over sandstone for coarse aggregates, are not locally available. Consequently, these materials must be imported from neighboring regions at above-average costs per ton due to extended transportation distances [ 13 ]. To optimize construction economics, aggregates should ideally be sourced near project sites, minimizing transport expenses and ensuring cost-effective local material procurement [ 14 ]. Building on the geological context of Tamale’s Voltaian sedimentary basin, the sandstones of the Tamale-Obosum group [ 17 ] (part of the Voltaian Supergroup) are the most abundant local rock resource. Despite their availability, commercial construction companies rarely utilize them, likely due to perceptions that these sandstones lack the necessary engineering properties for coarse aggregate production. While the technical suitability of Tamale’s sandstones, such as strength, durability, and gradation, has not yet been scientifically validated or documented, local communities have long employed them informally in concrete for lightweight infrastructure, such as low-rise buildings and rural pathways. This contrast highlights a critical gap: rigorous evaluation of the sandstones’ engineering characteristics could unlock their potential as a cost-effective alternative to imported granitic aggregates, addressing the logistical and economic challenges outlined earlier [ 14 ]. While the previous discussion highlights the underutilization of Tamale’s sandstones despite their local abundance, sandstones globally have long served as viable alternatives to crystalline rocks like granite, basalt, and gabbro in concrete aggregates for projects ranging from residential buildings to churches [ 4 , 18 – 20 ]. However, as sedimentary rocks, sandstones exhibit significant variability in texture, mineralogy, and chemistry, which directly influence their physical and mechanical properties, key determinants of their suitability as construction materials [ 20 – 22 ]. For instance, even with consistent cement quality, variations in aggregate lithology, such as micro-roughness, mineral composition, and compressive strength can lead to vastly different concrete performance outcomes [ 9 , 21 ]. Furthermore, the mineralogical composition of aggregates, particularly the presence of secondary minerals like chlorite, micas, or clay, plays a critical role. These minerals, with their platy or fibrous crystal structures and smooth cleavage planes, often degrade mechanical performance by reducing bond strength and durability, ultimately limiting sandstone’s reliability in high-stress applications [ 10 , 23 ]. This variability underscores the importance of scientifically evaluating Tamale’s sandstones, as noted earlier. While local communities empirically use them for lightweight projects, the lack of data on their mineralogical and mechanical characteristics perpetuates the commercial sector’s reliance on distant granitic aggregates, a costly preference rooted in unverified assumptions. The Tamale sandstones are described as immature, poorly sorted polycyclic and multi-age detritus pale buff to yellow, fine-grained, micaceous and quartzose sandstone with planar lamination and with a parting lineation on some surfaces [ 24 ]. Other features noted include massive, medium-grained with common well rounded ‘millet seed’ grains here and ripple-drift cross-lamination. These characteristics have influence on the grain size, packing density, packing proximity, the degree of grain interlocking, void space and pore geometry which are important factors known to affect mechanical properties and behavior of sandstones as aggregates used in concrete production [ 25 ]. Ramsay et al.[ 26 ] and Vázquez et al.[ 27 ] acknowledged that sedimentary rocks in aggregate have a more varied range of constituent mineralogy with the possible dominant presence of weak carbonates, clays and complex oxides, which can ultimately inflict consequences on their concrete or engineering performance. As these facies characteristics of the Tamale sandstones are suggestive that, a range of hardened concrete properties can result [ 28 ]. It is therefore essential that detailed petrographic evaluation is carried out, with particular reference to the intended use. Despite rising demand for crushed stone aggregates, there is less supply of high-quality aggregates near the metropolitan areas [ 29 ]. Furthermore, the usage of less desirable aggregates is increasing since the expense of fuel makes it uneconomical to transport materials from far-off sources. It has therefore become imperative to fine robust alternative, for the Tamale sandstones come handy. However, little or a few has investigated petrological and geotechnical properties of the sandstones for concrete production found in Northern Ghana since its quality has considerably influence on the quality of the resulting concrete structures. Hence, there are no available data on the geotechnical and engineering properties of Tamale sandstone within the study area. Enlarging local raw material utilization and reducing project costs is a new trend in the construction industry. Therefore, it has become imperative to conduct investigation into engineering behavior of Tamale sandstones using their mineralogical, petrographic and geomechanical performance to establish their suitability for use as local coarse aggregate in concrete material. 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Sample location and collection Samples were collected from the sandstone quarries and outcrops shown in Fig. 1 . A number of quarries are located around Tamale where sandstones of different colors (reddish brown and white brown are extracted daily by artisanal miners. Tamale is in the Northern Region of Ghana and located in the central part of the Region. Geographically, the metropolis lies between latitude 9°16′ N and 9°34′ N and longitudes 0°36′ W and 0°57′ W with an estimated land area of 930 square kilometers. The region’s population is estimated to be 7.5 million with 374,744 as the population the Tamale Metropolis [ 30 ]. The Obosum or Tamale Group (~ 1000 m) is a member of the Voltaian Supergroup that fills the Volta Basin of Ghana [ 15 ] (Fig. 1 ). The Neoproterozoic Volta basin of Ghana (∼115,000 km 2 ; depth up to 5–7 km) consists of flat-lying sedimentary rocks, mainly sandstones that unconformably overlie the crystalline basement of the West-African craton. The stratigraphical column has been subdivided into three main units, in upward succession the Bombouaka, Oti and Tamale/Obosum Groups, According to Villeneuve [ 15 ], Obosum (or Tamale) Group (~ 1000 m) which is largely composed of detritus derived from the Pan-African orogenic belt to the east comprises quartzitic and feldspathic sandstones of variable grain sizes. Based on a Rb–Sr isochrons on clay-minerals the Obosum (Tamale) Group is dated ~ 620 Ma [ 17 , 32 , 33 ]. At the study area, in situ outcrops of the Tamale sandstone of large slabs (Fig. 2 ) consist of red, medium-grained, moderately well-sorted quartz-rich sandstone with rounded to subangular grains with planar lamination and with a parting lineation on some surfaces. Other features noted include outcrops that bear grey to pink-weathering feldspathic quartz arenites, some exposes pale grey, massive, medium-grained quartzitic sandstone with common well rounded ‘millet seed’ grains with lithified arkosic sandstone [ 34 ]. The provenance of the sandstone units of the Tamale Basin is described by Villeneuve [ 15 ] to be mainly of continental in nature and may represent the more actively fluvial domains and/or sheet floods, whilst the presence of millet-seed sand grains indicates an aeolian source for some of the sand [ 35 ]. 2.2 Petrographic Analysis Fresh samples of the sandstones were collected from different outcrops and exposures, artisanal mining of these rocks for coarse aggregates been done by the local people. These rocks were physically examined, to select more competent rocks devoid of traces of weathering and fractures. Thin sections of these samples were prepared at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Geological Engineering laboratory using the Hill Quist Cutting and Polishing machine. Observation of the thin sections was done under an optical microscope, Leica DM 4 P petrographic microscope to identify all the mineral constituents of the rocks and other microstructural elements present. This analysis serves as the basis for naming the different rock types encountered in the field and determine the texture; porosity and the detrital minerals present in the rock. 2.3 Geochemical Analysis 2.3.1 X-Ray Florescence (XRF) All the samples were analyzed for major elements and minor elements by the XRF spectrometer at the Geological Survey Authority (GSA) in Accra Ghana. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer-XRF (Model: VMR) from Olympus (Model: Adventurer-Pro AV 264), Mill/Mixture (Model: MM301), Hydraulic press (Model: Specac), Sieve, was used to carried on the final selected samples that showed variation in their texture and mineralogical composition. Samples were sieved with a sieve size of 75 µm. For each analysis, 5.0g of sieved sample was well-mixed, homogenized with 0.9 g of a binder (Hoechst Wax) in a mill and pressed with 15 tons to a 32 mm pellet [ 36 ]. Multi-element determinations from the prepared pellets were carried out using an energy-dispersive polarizing X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer (model: VMR Vanta M Series) with tube rating 50 kV, 0.2 mA. The analytical quality was assessed by inserting quality control and assurance samples SRM 2711a from NIST and OxG180 from Rocklabs. Laboratory temperature was kept at 20 ℃ during the analysis. 2.4 Physico-Mechanical Properties The physical properties of the three types of sandstone samples based on their mineralogical compositional difference were subjected to physicomechanical analysis which are indicators of aggregate quality and which reveal more about the behavior of the aggregate during testing to study their engineering response in their use as coarse aggregate for concrete production. 2.4.1 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Test This test was carried out at the Council for Scientific and industrial Research-Building and Road Research Institute (CSIR-BRRI) laboratory, Kumasi Ghana in accordance to BS 812. Part 110 [ 37 ]. The samples were placed in a cylindrical mould to a depth of 100 mm in 3 layers, with each layer been tamped 25 times with tamping rod. The top was levelled with the plunger by slight rotation of the plunger while placed on aggregate in the mould. The sample, in the mould with the plunger was placed in the compression testing machine and compressed at a uniform rate till a force of 400 kN was applied such that this force was achieved in 10 minutes. Within the allotted 10 minutes, a penetration of around 20 mm was the goal. The resulting material was passed through a 2.36 mm British Standard (BS) sieve. The weight of material passing through the sieve and that which is retained were determined and recorded. This weight was expressed as a percentage of the original mass to give aggregate crushing value. This test was performed three times for each aggregate specimen and average calculated and recorded. The aggregate crushing value (ACV) [ 38 ] calculated using the Eq. 1: \(\:ACV=\:\frac{weight\:passing\:through\:2.36mm\:filter}{weight\:of\:original\:mass}\times\:100\) 1 2.4.2 Gradation Test Sieving determines the distribution of particle size of an aggregate and filler samples. Dry Sieving method was used for coarse and fine aggregates, this was accomplished using electrical Sieves (Fig. 3 a) mounted on OCT200/11060 Octagon D200 Digital Sieve Shaker (Fig. 3 b). This was accomplished using BS 812: Part 103.1 (1985) [ 39 ]. The mass of the sample that passes each sieve was determined as a cumulative percentage using Eq. 2: "% by passing this sieve=(% by-passing previous sieve)-(% kept on the sieve" ) 2 2.4.3 Flakiness Index One of the criteria parameters used to categorize stones and aggregates is the flakiness index. This was done using a flakiness sieve (Fig. 4 a and b). By segregating the particles flaky and quantifying its mass as a proportion of the mass sample, flakiness index of an aggregate sample may be determined. Materials maintained on a 6.3 mm sieve after passing through a 63 mm sieve are eligible for the test (BS 812: Section 105.1: 1989) [ 40 ]. This was achieved using Eq. 3: \(\:percent\:of\:material\:kept\:in\:10mm\:sieve=\frac{Mass\:Retained\:on\:10mm\:Sieve}{Total\:Initial\:Mass\:of\:Sample}\:\times\:100\) 3 2.4.4 Elongation Index The Elongation Index of the aggregate sample was determined by isolating the elongated particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the sample mass. To pass the test, the substance needs to go through a 50 mm filter and be retained on a 6.3 mm sieve (BS 812: Section 105.2: 1990) [ 41 ]. 2.4.5 Bulk Density The bulk density of the samples was determine using the ratio of its total mass to its total volume in accordance to standard procedure outlined by BS 812: Part 2 (1995) [ 42 ]. Eq. 4 was used to determine the bulk density: \(\:Bulk\:density=\frac{mass\:of\:rockspecimen}{volume\:of\:rockspecimen}\) 4 2.4.6 Relative Density and Water Absorption The design mix for concrete is determined using relative density on a saturated surface-dry basis. Calculations for concrete mix design employ the water absorption constant. For aggregates with a size between 5 mm and 40 mm, the most desired technique is described as a glass vessel technique (BS 812: Part 2: 1999) [ 43 ]. Method for aggregates between 5 mm and 40 mm is the preferred method. The calculation was done using Eq. 5: \(\:\text{W}\text{a}\text{t}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{A}\text{b}\text{s}\text{o}\text{r}\text{p}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:\left(\text{%}\right)=\:\frac{{\text{M}}_{\text{S}\text{S}\text{D}}-{\text{M}}_{\text{d}\text{r}\text{y}}}{{\text{M}}_{\text{d}\text{r}\text{y}}}\:\times\:100\) 5 M SSD = Mass of the saturated surface-dry (SSD) aggregate (in grams). M dry = Oven-dried mass of the aggregate (in grams). 2.4.7 Compressive Strength of Concrete cubes Concrete cubes for the three sandstone samples were molded to the required sizes for the test cubes; using Portland Ghacem Cement with chemical characteristics shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Chemical Composition of Portland Ghacem Cement Properties Composition (wt. %) SiO 2 21.90 Al 2 O 3 6.90 Fe 2 O 3 3.00 CaO 63.00 MgO 2.50 SO 3 1.70 A three-gang 2 inches cubic metallic moulds were used to cast the mortar cubes (Fig. 5 a). The ratio of 1:1:5:3 was used; 1 part cement, 1.5 parts of fine aggregate or coarse sand and 3 parts of coarse aggregates according to British Standard [ 44 ]. The Hobart mixer was used to mix the mortar constituents. A total of six cubes were molded and cured for testing (Fig. 5 a & b). For cubes of 100 mm and 150 mm, the optimum size aggregate is 20 mm and 40 mm. The cubes were properly marked and mortar specimens cast in the moulds were left in a moist cabinet for 24 hours and then removed and demoulded safely from the mold after samples were cured in a water in a bath at temperature of 20 ± 1 ºC for 7 days (Fig. 5 c) and then crushed for compressive strength using MATEST servo cyber plus Universal Testing Machine of 1500 kN capacity (Fig. 6 a). The samples were subjected to stress using the MATEST servo cyber plus Universal Testing Machine, model H011N with capacity 1500kN and compression tests on concrete cube specimens max. side 150 mm and cylinders max. diameter 160x320 mm (Fig. 6 a). The load increase was regulated by hand, care was taken when adjustments were made for the decrease of the loading rate near fracture load as this could affect the results (Fig. 6 b). The required sizes for the test cubes were either 100 mm or 150 mm. For cubes of 100 mm and 150 mm, the optimum size aggregate was 20 mm and 40 mm, respectively (Part 108: 1983 of BS 1881) [ 44 ]. 2.5 Aggregate Specification and Requirement for Selection for Construction Works Construction aggregates come in a variety of strengths and properties. In view of this, there must be an examination and careful considerations in the selection of aggregates for engineering and construction works. Construction aggregates must meet the required standards (Table 2 ) to ensure consistent quality that enables the end user to be confident that the product being chosen will do the job it is being chosen to do. To this end, a wide range of testing standards have been devised to ascertain the suitability or otherwise of aggregates produced from the Tamale sandstones to undertake the function of concrete. Table 2 Requirements of aggregates for concrete works and percentage strength of concrete at various ages Test Standard (Ghana) Age Strength % Source Average Crushing Value (ACV) < 45% 2 Days 40% [ 10 , 45 ] Bulk density < 1750 kg/m 3 7 Days 65% GHA standard (aligned with British Standards [ 10 , 45 ]) Water Absorption < 2% 14 Days 90% GHA standard (aligned with British Standard [ 10 , 46 ]) Elongation index < 25% 28 Days 99% GHA standard (aligned with British Standards [ 10 , 41 , 45 , 46 ] Flakiness index < 25% GHA standard (aligned with British Standard) [ 10 , 40 , 46 ] Gradation Crushed gravel coarse aggregate Max. 2% GHA standard aligned with British Standard) [ 10 , 45 ] crushed rock aggregate Max. 4% 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Petrographic analysis The stones show a granular aspect, with a grey to brownish color, is compact and coherent with a grain-matrix supported texture (Fig. 7). The mineralogical assemblage of the rock samples was identified from the photomicrographs. Sample 1 (Fig. 8 a-d) consists of quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspars (orthoclase), micas and opaque minerals. Quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, micas and the opaque grains make up the framework grains of this rock. The matrix content is made up of ferroan cement this makes up the majority of the binding material. The quartz grains are fine grained, and subrounded to subangular (Fig. 8 b). They occur in both types that is monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains. Some of the quartz grains are in most cases conchoidally fractured and they display a general undulatory and non-undulatory extinctions. The plagioclase grains are also fine grained and subrounded to angular, with poorly preserved twin lamellae (Fig. 8 d). The K-feldspar grains are fine grained and subangular to subrounded, and they occur as orthoclase grains. Some of the orthoclase has undergone sericitization and this is evident from clouded centers of orthoclase grains. The micas are mainly present as biotite grains, which occurs as random tiny shreds and/or fragments and/or elongated flakes. They are in some cases bent with some, interstitials between quartz and feldspar grains. The opaque crystals (Fig. 8 a) are acicular with elongated and bent types. Generally, the framework grains moderately well packed and sorted. In sample 2, the mineral assemblage of this rock sample is made of quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspars which are mainly orthoclase, micas, lithic fragments and opaque minerals (Fig. 9 ). Quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, micas, lithic fragment and the opaque grains make up the framework grains of this rock. The matrix content is made up of ferroan cement, which makes up the majority of the binding material. The quartz grains are fine grained, and subrounded to subangular (Fig. 9 b). They occur in both types that is monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains. Some of the quartz grains are in most cases conchoidally fractured and they display a general undulatory and non-undulatory extinctions. The plagioclase grains are also fine grained and subrounded to angular, with poorly preserved twin lamellae. The K-feldspar grains are fine grained and subangular to subrounded, and they occur as orthoclase grains. Some of the orthoclase have undergone sericitization and this is evident from clouded centers of orthoclase grains. The micas are mainly present as biotite grains occurs as random tiny shreds and/or fragments and/or elongated flakes (Fig. 9 a). Most of them have however been altered to chlorite. They are in some cases bent with some, interstitial between quartz grains. The opaque crystals are acicular with elongated and bent types. The lithic fragments occur as ironic cherts (Fig. 9 b, c) which suggest a sedimentary source for the rock. Generally, the framework grains are poorly sorted and moderately well packed. In sample 3, the mineral assemblage of this rock sample is made of quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspar, micas, and opaque minerals (Fig. 10 ). Quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, micas and the opaque grains make up the framework grains of this rock. The matrix content is made up of silica cement (Fig. 9 a) with minor ferroan cement (Fig. 10 b, c, d) and this makes up the majority of the binding material. There are sporadic occurrences of quartz overgrowths, which are also cementing materials. The quartz grains are fine grained, and subrounded to angular (Fig. 10 b). They occur in both types that is monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains. Some of the quartz grains are in most cases conchoidally fractured and they display a general undulatory and non-undulatory extinction. The plagioclase grains are also fine grained and subrounded to angular, with poorly preserved twin lamellae (Fig. 10 c). The K-feldspar grains are fine grained and subangular to subrounded, and they occur as orthoclase and microcline grains. Some orthoclase grains exhibit sericitization, evident from their cloudy centers. Biotite and muscovite occur as random tiny shreds, fragments, or elongated flakes (Fig. 10 b). In some cases, these grains are bent and associated with interstitial material between quartz grains. Opaque crystals are predominantly elongated, with rare occurrences of subhedral types. No lithic fragments are observed in this rock type. Generally, the framework grains are moderately to poorly sorted and packed. The rock may not be considered highly texturally mature due to the presence of matrix, dominance of subrounded to angular grains [ 47 ]. However, the observed micrographic intergrowth texture with interlocking grain boundaries can result in the superior mechanical properties (resistance to abrasion and fragmentation) of aggregates [ 48 ]. 3.1.1 Classification of samples A Summary of the mineral composition and their modal percentage is shown in Table 2 . Using Folk’s [ 49 ] classification of sandstones (Fig. 11 a), all the three samples plotted within the Subfeldsarenite region of the ternary diagram (Fig. 11 b). It can therefore be inferred that the Tamale sandstone samples analyzed are Subfeldsarenites. Relationships between the petrographic characteristics and possible engineering properties The physicomechanical characteristics of rocks determine their tensile strength, durability, and suitability for various engineering applications [ 46 ]. These parameters, which include modal composition and texture (Table 3 ), are governed by the rocks’ petrographic characteristics. Microscopic analysis revealed that the samples are fine-grained. In accordance with Ajagbe et al. [ 46 ], fine-grained rocks typically exhibit superior engineering properties compared to coarse-grained rocks of similar mineralogy. These findings align with earlier research [ 50 ]. Furthermore, the grain sizes may lead to low water absorption (W abs ) capacity values, which is an indication of higher strength. Sajid et al. [ 27 ] concluded that, rocks with greater strength possess lower water absorption values and similar relationship was also observed from the work of Wang et al. [ 51 ]. Also, a higher percentage of a physically strong mineral, like quartz, which is very resistant to weathering adds strength to rocks, as Ajagbe et al. [ 52 ] revealed, the higher the percentage of quartz, the higher the strength. Quartz in all rock samples had a modal composition of ~ 64 to 77 %, the rock. The cement composition which makes up of between 8–12 % modal comosition (Table 3 ) mainly of the fine- to medium-grained crystalline minerals form the cement or bond groundmass, provides an interlocking grain boundaries resulting in cohesion of the rocks superior mechanical properties (resistance to abrasion and fragmentation) of aggregates [ 48 , 53 ]. Table 3 Summary of the mineral composition of the three types of sandstones Mineral & Modal % Quartz Cement Plagioclase K-feldspar Biotite Opaque Lithic Fragments Sample 1 77 8 3 7 4 1 Sample 2 64 12 5 6 4 1 8 Sample 3 76 10 2 6 5 1 3.2 Major Element Geochemistry Table 4 presents the concentration in wt % the chemical elements analyzed in the rock samples. SiO 2 , TiO 2 show elevated content relative to upper continental crust (UCC) [ 54 ]. Moreover, Al 2 O 3, CaO, K 2 O, P 2 O 5 and Fe 2 O 3 content are generally depleted comparative to upper continental crust (UCC) using [ 54 ] while MgO was below detection limit for all samples and SO 3 for sample 1 and 3. MnO is slightly enriched relative to UCC values. This trend appears to conform to the composition of the rocks, considering that they are sandstones. The SiO 2 contents is 72.62 %, 74.4 % and 7.62 % for smples 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Al 2 O 3 ranged from 10.11 % to 1223 %, Fe 2 O ranged from 3.46 % to 4.2 %, K 2 O anged from 1.37 % to 1.1 %, CaO anged 0.86 % to 1.5 % and TO 2 , P 2 O 5 and MnO content ranged from 0.50 % to 1.2 %, 0.11% to 0.5 % and 008 to 0.14 % respetively. Table 4 Chemical analysis of major elements concentration of samples in wt % from study area Sample ID MgO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 P 2 O 5 SO 3 K 2 O CaO TiO 2 MnO Fe 2 O 3 DL < 0.11 < 0.02 < 0.5 < 0.001 < 0.0013 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.1 < 0.001 < 0.002 Sample 1 < 0.11 12.23 72.62 0.14 < 0.0013 1.40 1.15 0.77 0.08 3.46 Sample 2 < 0.11 12.07 74.49 0.15 0.17 1.41 0.93 1.12 0.10 4.21 Sample 3 < 0.11 10.11 74.62 0.11 < 0.0013 1.37 0.86 0.50 0.15 4.22 Minimum - 10.11 72.62 0.11 - 1.37 0.86 0.50 0.08 3.46 Maximum - 12.23 74.62 0.15 - 1.41 1.15 1.12 0.15 4.22 Mean - 11.47 73.91 0.13 - 1.39 0.98 0.80 0.11 3.96 UCC 0.10 15.30 66.00 0.20 - 3.50 3.70 0.60 0.10 4.80 UCC: Upper Continental Crust [ 54 ], DL: Detection Limit, N/a: Not Applicable The results from Table 3 revealed a significant presence of Silica in all the sandstones types, implying that, the Tamale sandstones are silica rich. The XRF results correlated to a very large extent with the Petrographic findings. This is in particular with regards to the dominance of silica, followed by Aluminum oxide and iron (III) oxide and the higher values for quartz and ferrous cements. The alkali content is significantly low to initiate alkali-silica-reaction (ASR) [ 47 ]. 3.3 Alkali–Silica Reaction Sandstone Alkali–silica reaction (ASR), a deleterious reaction between the alkaline solution within the pores of concrete and various metastable forms of silica contained in many natural and synthetic aggregates [ 53 ]. Since sandstones are known to be rich in silica content, it was crucial to carry out both petrographic and chemical analysis to highlight the risks associated with ASR in concrete made from this material, as the silica content in the samples was approximately 70 % (able 3 and 4) [ 53 ]. It is a major concrete problem that significantly affects durability of concrete infrastructures of all rock types aggregates the world over [ 55 ]. Various studies [ 47 ], [ 56 ], [ 57 ], [ 58 ] have identified the roles of various aggregate properties; composition, mineralogy, size, and surface characteristics, pore solution composition (e.g., pH, alkalis, calcium, aluminum), exposure conditions and supplementary cementing materials (SCM) on the rate and magnitude of ASR. In this study, the chemical compositions (Table 4 ) show that there is limited availability of Ca as CaO, K as K 2 O for the sandstones that is, these elements are generally depleted comparative to upper continental crust (UCC) using Taylor et al. [ 54 ]. This suffices to preliminary conclude that the sandstones will likely not accommodate expansive ASR gel, because as Yang et al. [ 56 ] indicated, the presence of Ca causes the silica minerals to dissolved which causes a reaction rim about the aggregates, resulting in the expansion of concrete. Conclusion by Yang et al. [ 21 ] is that high-alkali and low-calcium silica hydrate among other factors can reduce the exudation of gels from the particles. The potential effect is that, even though it has been identified that the sandstones have potential to absorb water, the unavailability of Ca will not possibly pose the threat of ASR. 3.4 Engineering Aggregate properties 3.4.1 Aggregates Crushing Value Test The values 45%, 32% and 42% was obtained for sample 1, sample 2 and sample 3 respectively (Fig. 12 ). The aggregates can be considered as good and strong because they have an ACV less than the 45% the upper limit for concrete works and 30% for wearing surfaces as per the BS 812 − 110:1990 [ 59 ], the aggregates therefore passed the requirement for both concrete works. 3.4.2 Gradation In the crushing test, the percentage of broken aggregates increase with the increase in load. With the increase of broken percentage, the voids of the coarse aggregates are filled into by more fine aggregates. This increases the aggregate compactness, leading to the increase in bearing capacity of aggregates. The grain size is coarse silty to fine sandy and the sorting well developed (Fig. 13 ). The materials finer than 75 micrometers sieve range from 0.03%, 0.06% and 0.02% for sample 1, sample 2 and sample 3 respectively. Gravel size fraction was 68.01%, 83.39%, 54.63% and sand size fraction 13.06%, 3.28%, 4.64% range from this shows that all the samples tested are below the maximum value specified in the codes. BS 882, 1992 specified maximum value of 2% for crushed gravel coarse aggregate and 4% for crushed rock aggregate [ 46 ]. 3.4.3 Flakiness Index As an important parameter for concrete and bituminous mixtures design [ 60 ], flakiness index greater than the GHA standard [ 46 ] indicates that the aggregates are flaky and so can affect concrete mixes and works in which they are used by lowering their workability. It is not a good idea to have flaky particles in base course and wearing coarse aggregates since they might lead to inherent weakness and even collapse under large loads. When an aggregate's thickness is less than 60 % of it mean sieve size, it is referred to as flaky. However, as shown in Fig. 14 , the flakiness index of the tested aggregates for sample 1, 2 and 3 were 18 %, 19 %and 1 % respetively which falls within the recommended < 25 % GHA sandard after BS (British Standard) [ 40 ], suggesting that they are not flaky and will not cause problem relating to workability of concrete and suitable for concrete works. 3.4.4 Elongation Index The elongation index of the aggregates from selected sample as shown in Fig. 14 indicate the elongation index values less than the standards concrete structures recommended value of 25% (Table 2 ). From the results obtained, the elongation index of the tested aggregates for sandstone 1, sandstone 2 and 3 were 7%, 13% and 11% respectively which is below maximum recommended limit and thus implies that the aggregates are unlikely to break across the length under loading. Very low values of elongation index were recorded for the aggregates from all sampling locations and hence have no potential to breakage across the lengths under loaded conditions and therefore suitable for concrete material. 3.4.5 Bulk Density and Relative Density The samples mean bulk density 1250 kg/m 3 , 1200 kg/m 3 and 1150 kg/m 3 for sandstone 1, sandstone 2 and sandstone 3 respectively (Table 5 ) is an indication that the coarse aggregates produced from them can be utilized as aggregates for normal weight concrete since they successfully meet the criteria of normal weight as recommended range is < 1750 kg/m 3 (Table 2 ). Table 5 Results of bulk density and relative density for sandstone 1, 2 and 3 Sample ID Sandstone 1 Sandstone 2 Sandstone 3 Average Bulk Density (kg/m 3 ) 1250 1200 1150 Average Relative Density 2215 2248 2244 Of the three sandstones, Sample 2 has the highest density, followed by Sample 3. This may be attributed to Sample 2’s high cement content (12%), which reduces porosity, compared to Sample 1’s lower cement content (10%). Notably, despite its high iron mineral content (see Table 3 ), the density of Sample 2 remains closer to that of Sample 3. The latter’s density aligns with its quartz content, suggesting that mineral composition also plays a role in these variations. 3.4.6 Water Absorption The results of the water absorption analysis presented in the Table 6 indicate that, sandstone 1, 2 and 3 aggregates average values were 5.08%, 5.29% and 5.63% respectively which may suggest the effect of weathering on the samples. Table 6 Results of water absorption and compressive strength for Sandstone 1, 2 and 3 Sample Sandstone 1 Sandstone 2 Sandstone 3 Average Water Absorption (%) 5.1 5.3 5.6 Average Comp. Strength (MPa) 11.6 17.8 13.4 The amount of water an aggregate can absorb is a good indicator of the strength of the aggregate, in other words, its weakness [ 61 ]. It is observed that a strong aggregate will have low water absorption value usually below 1.0 %. From the petrographic studies (Figs. 8 , 9 and 10 ), the matrix content is made up of ferroan cement which makes up the majority of the binding, this may undergo oxidation dissolution due to the water absorption capacity influenced by the feldspathic content. The nature of the matrix has been identified as one of the major factors that influences water absorption content in rocks hence the interlocking minerals in sandstone waken particularly result of weathering, which will cause the decreasing of tensile strength [ 61 , 62 ]. According the requirements of aggregates for concrete works (BS 882) and percentage strength of concrete at various ages, it specifies that water absorption should not exceed < 2% (Table 2 ). Previous studies have shown that aggregates with high water absorption may be vulnerable to rapid disintegration [ 63 ] and has a potential to affect the tensile strength of the rock [ 61 ]. The values imply that water absorption does not meet the standard which makes the sandstone suitable. This makes it necessary that the sandstone be subjected to further test to identify and establish the contributing factor(s) to the water absorption. 3.4.7 Compressive Strength of Concrete Block The results shown in Table 6 is a compressive strength of the concrete block which was cured for 7 days under the universal testing machine. The individual dimensions of the samples were taken and stressed to failure. The mean of the six samples shows an early strength of 11.6 MPa, 17.8 MPa and 13.4 MPa respectively. Sample 2 had the highest early strength compressive strength which met the Ministry of Transportation [ 46 ] early strength of ≥ 16.0. The results base on the 7 days strength in Table 6 with age the block strength increases and indicates that sandstone 2 can be used for Reinforced concrete structures (RCC) structures and sandstone 1 and 3 used for plain concrete construction or temporary reinforced concrete structures because of their low compressive strength [ 64 ]. The relationship between petrographical properties and the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of sandstones has been extensively investigated in geomechanical research, as evidenced by studies [1, [ 9 , 13 , 18 , 65 – 67 ]. These works collectively emphasize how intrinsic characteristics such as mineral composition, grain size distribution, cementation type and degree, porosity, and textural heterogeneity govern the mechanical behavior of sandstones. For instance, quartz-rich sandstones with well-sorted, tightly interlocking grains and silica-dominated cementation typically exhibit higher UCS values due to enhanced load-bearing capacity and reduced pore spaces. Conversely, sandstones with clay-rich matrices, poorly sorted grains, or calcite cementation often demonstrate lower strength owing to their susceptibility to stress concentration and chemical weathering [ 18 ]. The matrix material plays an important factor in determining the compactness rocks, the main parameter used in almost all engineering projects evaluation of rocks for coarse aggregate production [ 14 ]. Rocks containing quartz as ground matrix material are identified as the strongest followed by calcite, and ferrous minerals [ 14 ]. In this current study, the petrographic results (Figs. 8 , 9 and 10 ) show that that all the samples of the Tamale sandstone are rich in both quartz and ferroan matrix which provide the binding medium for the minerals grains within the rock mass and between the coarse aggregates and the cement. Yang et al. 2 [ 18 ] observed that the compressive strength of sandstone increased with age, 18MPa for 7days curing to about 45MPa for 90 days curing. it is therefore, postulated that similar case can be argued for the sandstones. From Table 7 , a comparative analysis showcases the importance of aligning material selection with regional needs and project-specific demands based on their regional characteristics. For instance. while high-strength materials from India and China (Asia) cater to intensive infrastructure, regions like Ghana and Botswana (Africa) offer cost-effective solutions for low-to-medium load applications. Table 7 Comparative Analysis of sandstone as construction material properties Across different regions Region Country Comp. Strength (MPa) Water Absorption (%) Bulk density (kg/m 3 ) Aggregate Crushing Value (%) Key Notes and Source Tamale Ghana 11.6–17.8 (7 days curing) 5.1–5.6 1150–1250 32–45 This study Kgalagadi Botswana 8.70–9.56 0.65–3.07 N/A 17.34–19.59 Qualify as aggregate material for road and building Construction [ 68 ] Jodhpur India 40 < 1.5 2600–2800 12–15 High-strength concrete [ 69 ], Recommends the use of sandstone as partial replacement of coarse aggregates [ 20 ]. Wulumuqi China 38.9–83.0 N/A 2350–2540 N/A Identified as good for building materials [ 21 ] northern Shaanxi 50.2–87.5 4.31 2661 25 Application as sandstone concrete [ 18 ] Abdera, Xanthi Northern Greece 12.54–73.48 3.01–7.37 2005–2350 2.47–8.93 The rock can withstand acid attack, [ 70 ]. These sources[ 66 , 68 – 70 ] further provide evidence on the reliability of these findings, emphasizing the role of localized studies in advancing global construction practices. Ultimately, the data advocates for context-driven material innovation, balancing technical performance with environmental and economic sustainability. 4 Conclusion Mineral composition influences the texture and strength of rocks, and is correlated with mechanical properties. The study of the Petro-chemical and engineering properties of the Tamale sandstones have provided some significant preliminary insights into their engineering properties influenced by the geological characteristics (Mineralogy and geochemistry). The following conclusions can be drawn: The petrochemical results provide for the conclusion that, the sandstones are of subfeldsarenites class of sandstones. The sandstones are fine grain and rich in quartz minerals, their grain structure revealed graphitic texture, which shows grains interlocking and thus providing the possibility of having strong physicomechanical characteristics including low abrasion. Since sandstones are known to be rich in silica content, it was crucial to carry out both petrographic and chemical analysis to highlight the risks associated with ASR in concrete made from this material, as the silica content in the samples was approximately 70%. The engineering properties tests showed that the sandstones met standard test requirement for specific gravities and elongation. This provides preliminary indication that, rocks when used in concrete products are unlikely to break along their length when loaded. The sandstones flakiness index values of 18%, and 19% show they are not flaky and will not cause problem relating to workability of concrete. The aggregate crushing values of the sandstones highlight the aggregate has an early strength of 17.8 MPa for sandstone 2 at 7 days curing meeting the standard. The water absorption values ranged from 5.08–5.63%, indicates that they are relatively porous and will absorb water when used for concrete construction. A material must possess the following characteristics in order to be employed in geotechnical engineering construction: resistance to weathering, enough hardness, and toughness attributes. Due to their adequate hardness, lack of swelling capabilities, and excellent weathering resilience, the majority of the sandstone lithofacies in the research region have qualities of acceptable aggregates. As a building stone, Tamale sandstone will perform only moderately to reasonably well. They would probably perform excellently as concrete aggregates because the majority of the evaluated aggregate sample's geotechnical parameter values are within the recommended range. It is however, recommended that further test to improve the scientific understanding of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and the way ASR is mitigated using standardized tests such as the accelerated mortar bar test, (AMBT) or the concrete prism test, (CPT), to rely on such results of to classify the aggregates as: non-reactive, moderately reactive, highly reactive or very highly reactive. Declarations The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations Not applicable Consent to publish Not applicable Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose Author Contributions All authors contributed to this study. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Bayari Enzula Eric, Nyamful Andrew, Prosper Aduah Akaba, Adamu Casmed Charles and Bayor Jude Simons. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Bayari Enzula Eric and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author (BEE) on reasonable request. References P. Sharma, A. Kumar Parashar, and N. Sharma, “The influence of fines in sandstones on the performance of concrete,” Mater Today Proc , vol. 62, pp. 4126–4129, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.661. P. Petrounias et al. , “The effect of petrographic characteristics and physico-mechanical properties of aggregates on the quality of concrete,” Minerals , vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 1–21, 2018, doi: 10.3390/min8120577. P. 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Samaras, “Durability of a sandstone used as a principal building and decorative material in ancient abdera, Xanthi, N. Greece,” Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment , vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 137–147, 1996. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editor assigned by journal 06 May, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 17 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 12 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5238596","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":441969643,"identity":"1cb42cc3-0c41-443f-8953-e53c86e7ea33","order_by":0,"name":"Eric Enzula Bayari","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQgpx8ADF0pgYGBsIKzFmIGHmYHhAAlaGBIbiNbCL938TOLnHov0/p7zx6Q/1NQx8LPnGDB+3YFbi+ScY2aSPc8kcmecbWaTOHDsMINkzxsDZtkzuLUY3Egwk+A5IJG7gZ8ZqIXtAFAkx4BZsg23Fvsb6d8k/xyQSDcAa/lXBxQhoMVAIsdMGmhLggEv0GEH25hBIgaMH/Fokbhzptha5oCE4Ywzh40tzvYd5pE486zgMCMeLfyz2zfefHOgTp6/J/HhjYpvdXL87ckbH/7EowUIWCSQeeBEcJgHu1IYYP6AIcT4A7+WUTAKRsEoGFkAAPt6UIUWzF3OAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eric","middleName":"Enzula","lastName":"Bayari","suffix":""},{"id":441969644,"identity":"cbb9b120-c2c2-4c79-91ed-f8986fe0a825","order_by":1,"name":"Andrew Nyamful","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ghana","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Andrew","middleName":"","lastName":"Nyamful","suffix":""},{"id":441969648,"identity":"2a9e8172-af71-4866-bbc6-b6838d0f1f42","order_by":2,"name":"Prosper Aduah Akaba","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prosper","middleName":"Aduah","lastName":"Akaba","suffix":""},{"id":441969651,"identity":"15589e3f-668b-4acf-a9f3-a99f3cc43f3d","order_by":3,"name":"Casmed Charles Amadu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Casmed","middleName":"Charles","lastName":"Amadu","suffix":""},{"id":441969652,"identity":"98c44a6f-c628-4c35-86a3-1c48a8770652","order_by":4,"name":"Jude Simons Bayor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jude","middleName":"Simons","lastName":"Bayor","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-10 10:08:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5238596/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5238596/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80605698,"identity":"ec328d60-9a66-40be-b01d-647f1acfbed7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:38:32","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":958968,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological map of the study area (Modified from Geological Survey [31])\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/f91023f2d57e118aa801cd3e.jpeg"},{"id":80605147,"identity":"e7ac853b-30de-46c3-a6f5-1f01347b7426","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:30:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":911855,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eoutcrops of Tamale sandstones at the study area (Composed of quartzitic and feldspathic sandstones of variable grain sizes)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/842a75058b9e4578da2307ba.jpeg"},{"id":80606061,"identity":"f2f6b313-ebdd-4ff2-97e1-9629f8c8fd3e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:46:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":958866,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrading process (a) Determination of gradation (a) Sieves (b) Octagon D200 Digital Sieve Shaker\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/b375f11d1cc91813b3b7dc39.jpeg"},{"id":80607410,"identity":"f7486511-5c79-4744-9c42-d3096124860c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 07:02:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":573636,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Flakiness sieve (b) determination of the sandstone flakiness index of aggregates\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/de3eb05e3d4b7b8025cd12e9.jpeg"},{"id":80605159,"identity":"752366f5-01d4-4734-89c3-27f01f8b9b5d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:30:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":711458,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConcrete cubes of sandstones samples (a) moulded cubes (b) cubes with sample Id (c) samples curing in a water bathfrom\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/e3631c65587aae59e37d558b.jpeg"},{"id":80606066,"identity":"e5afefc9-c305-4b3d-aac6-78863f03f4f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:46:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":602267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) MATEST servo cyber plus Universal Testing Machine, model H011N and (b) compressive strength test on the cube\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/b6215a504633581ee86f7545.jpeg"},{"id":80605150,"identity":"544c7713-f3aa-4659-8848-19b760ea0c27","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:30:33","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":573704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSamples of the Tamale sandstones (a) reddish brown (b) grey to brownish\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/89012f8b2fd595941a5cdcc8.png"},{"id":80606062,"identity":"d447ba8e-ae3c-44cf-94f8-2b21d05616bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:46:33","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":569168,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrograph of Sample 1 showing: (a) Opaque crystals (ppl, x5), (b) Subrounded to angular orthoclase and quartz grains (xpl of “a”, x5), (c) ferroan cement and biotite grain (ppl, x5), (d) xpl of “c” with plagioclase grain (x5) (Opq-opaque, Qz-quartz, Or-orthoclase, Fe-iron, Bt-biotite, Plag-plagioclase)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/902e9874184bbf123deb2ed0.png"},{"id":80605156,"identity":"8590e5ee-fce0-4112-96bf-5bbd01ffbd1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:30:33","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":677307,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrograph of Sample 2 showing: (a) Opaque crystals and biotite grain (ppl, x5), (b) sub-rounded to sub-angular orthoclase and quartz grains (xpl of “a”, x5), (c) Chert lithic fragment and biotite grain (ppl, x5), (d) xpl of “c” (x5) (Opq-opaque, Qz-quartz, Or-orthoclase, Fe-iron, Bt-biotite, Plag-plagioclase)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/b90cc944235fee123752183c.png"},{"id":80605160,"identity":"f46cae61-a06d-4554-a22a-28a153dec76c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-15 06:30:33","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":695704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrograph of Sample 3 showing: (a) Silica cement (ppl, x5), (b) Iron stains, quartz and muscovite grain (xpl of “a”, x5), (c) Plagioclase grain (ppl, x5), (d) xpl of “c” (x5) (Qz-quartz, Or-orthoclase, Fe-iron, Plag-plagioclase)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5238596/v1/48400e3f13af20ff3b2c39cc.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Tamale sandstone petrology and engineering properties as suitable coarse aggregate in concrete production","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGlobal expansion of infrastructure for various purposes is growing, necessitating an increase in demand for concrete as the cheapest most used man-made building material than steel, wood, aluminium, etc. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Concrete is made up of three major ingredients: cement, aggregate, and water. All of these elements are derived directly or indirectly from natural resources and of these materials, aggregates are a major component, typically accounting for between 70 % nd 80 % f the volume of concrete [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that, it has a significant impact on the concrete characteristics. Thus, the selection of the aggregate source materials and its associated engineering properties which influence concrete performance is of utmost importance for the quality of concrete for building purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, depending on the sort of rocks used as aggregates, a concrete can be weak, strong or suitable, and one of the key consequences of employing weak materials or aggregates in engineering is structural failure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The engineering behavior of aggregates is a critical aspect in determining their appropriateness for construction application. The components of high-quality aggregates should be sufficiently strong, have desirable engineering characteristics (Aggregate Crushing Value, Compressive strength, Water absorption, etc.), and be able to withstand environmental conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, high-quality aggregates would not include substances that might compromise the short and long-term performance of the concrete product.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Ghana alone some tens of million tons of aggregate are consumed each year, representing the extraction of about 0.1 km\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e of rock [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Aggregates are mainly obtained from outcrops of granite and its derivatives; the road construction sector takes a chunk of this amount translating into 70\u0026ndash;80 % f the total production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. While acknowledging the use of recycled and synthetic materials to address aggregate demand and cost of production, the traditional aggregate sources in Ghana and other developing countries, have remained largely on these three categories of rocks, namely igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks in concrete production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. This preference is attributed to their abundance and accessibility and resultant petrographic characteristics and physicomechanical properties which demonstrate suitability for enhancing concrete strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, in Ghana sedimentary rocks such as sandstones have very little use as source materials for coarse aggregate production. Though studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12 CR13\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] have established their appropriateness in concrete production for building purposes in many other countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTamale, a rapidly urbanizing metropolitan area, is undergoing significant industrialization, driving a concrete construction boom. This growth has created an urgent demand for local sources of coarse aggregates to support concrete production. Situated within Ghana\u0026rsquo;s Neoproterozoic Voltaian sedimentary basin, Tamale has abundant sandstone resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. However, granites and their derivatives, preferred over sandstone for coarse aggregates, are not locally available. Consequently, these materials must be imported from neighboring regions at above-average costs per ton due to extended transportation distances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. To optimize construction economics, aggregates should ideally be sourced near project sites, minimizing transport expenses and ensuring cost-effective local material procurement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on the geological context of Tamale\u0026rsquo;s Voltaian sedimentary basin, the sandstones of the Tamale-Obosum group [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] (part of the Voltaian Supergroup) are the most abundant local rock resource. Despite their availability, commercial construction companies rarely utilize them, likely due to perceptions that these sandstones lack the necessary engineering properties for coarse aggregate production. While the technical suitability of Tamale\u0026rsquo;s sandstones, such as strength, durability, and gradation, has not yet been scientifically validated or documented, local communities have long employed them informally in concrete for lightweight infrastructure, such as low-rise buildings and rural pathways. This contrast highlights a critical gap: rigorous evaluation of the sandstones\u0026rsquo; engineering characteristics could unlock their potential as a cost-effective alternative to imported granitic aggregates, addressing the logistical and economic challenges outlined earlier [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the previous discussion highlights the underutilization of Tamale\u0026rsquo;s sandstones despite their local abundance, sandstones globally have long served as viable alternatives to crystalline rocks like granite, basalt, and gabbro in concrete aggregates for projects ranging from residential buildings to churches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. However, as sedimentary rocks, sandstones exhibit significant variability in texture, mineralogy, and chemistry, which directly influence their physical and mechanical properties, key determinants of their suitability as construction materials [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, even with consistent cement quality, variations in aggregate lithology, such as micro-roughness, mineral composition, and compressive strength can lead to vastly different concrete performance outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the mineralogical composition of aggregates, particularly the presence of secondary minerals like chlorite, micas, or clay, plays a critical role. These minerals, with their platy or fibrous crystal structures and smooth cleavage planes, often degrade mechanical performance by reducing bond strength and durability, ultimately limiting sandstone\u0026rsquo;s reliability in high-stress applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. This variability underscores the importance of scientifically evaluating Tamale\u0026rsquo;s sandstones, as noted earlier. While local communities empirically use them for lightweight projects, the lack of data on their mineralogical and mechanical characteristics perpetuates the commercial sector\u0026rsquo;s reliance on distant granitic aggregates, a costly preference rooted in unverified assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Tamale sandstones are described as immature, poorly sorted polycyclic and multi-age detritus pale buff to yellow, fine-grained, micaceous and quartzose sandstone with planar lamination and with a parting lineation on some surfaces [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Other features noted include massive, medium-grained with common well rounded \u0026lsquo;millet seed\u0026rsquo; grains here and ripple-drift cross-lamination. These characteristics have influence on the grain size, packing density, packing proximity, the degree of grain interlocking, void space and pore geometry which are important factors known to affect mechanical properties and behavior of sandstones as aggregates used in concrete production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Ramsay et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] and V\u0026aacute;zquez et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] acknowledged that sedimentary rocks in aggregate have a more varied range of constituent mineralogy with the possible dominant presence of weak carbonates, clays and complex oxides, which can ultimately inflict consequences on their concrete or engineering performance. As these facies characteristics of the Tamale sandstones are suggestive that, a range of hardened concrete properties can result [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. It is therefore essential that detailed petrographic evaluation is carried out, with particular reference to the intended use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite rising demand for crushed stone aggregates, there is less supply of high-quality aggregates near the metropolitan areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the usage of less desirable aggregates is increasing since the expense of fuel makes it uneconomical to transport materials from far-off sources. It has therefore become imperative to fine robust alternative, for the Tamale sandstones come handy. However, little or a few has investigated petrological and geotechnical properties of the sandstones for concrete production found in Northern Ghana since its quality has considerably influence on the quality of the resulting concrete structures. Hence, there are no available data on the geotechnical and engineering properties of Tamale sandstone within the study area. Enlarging local raw material utilization and reducing project costs is a new trend in the construction industry. Therefore, it has become imperative to conduct investigation into engineering behavior of Tamale sandstones using their mineralogical, petrographic and geomechanical performance to establish their suitability for use as local coarse aggregate in concrete material.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Sample location and collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples were collected from the sandstone quarries and outcrops shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. A number of quarries are located around Tamale where sandstones of different colors (reddish brown and white brown are extracted daily by artisanal miners. Tamale is in the Northern Region of Ghana and located in the central part of the Region. Geographically, the metropolis lies between latitude 9\u0026deg;16\u0026prime; N and 9\u0026deg;34\u0026prime; N and longitudes 0\u0026deg;36\u0026prime; W and 0\u0026deg;57\u0026prime; W with an estimated land area of 930 square kilometers. The region\u0026rsquo;s population is estimated to be 7.5\u0026nbsp;million with 374,744 as the population the Tamale Metropolis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Obosum or Tamale Group (~\u0026thinsp;1000 m) is a member of the Voltaian Supergroup that fills the Volta Basin of Ghana [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The Neoproterozoic Volta basin of Ghana (\u0026sim;115,000 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e; depth up to 5\u0026ndash;7 km) consists of flat-lying sedimentary rocks, mainly sandstones that unconformably overlie the crystalline basement of the West-African craton. The stratigraphical column has been subdivided into three main units, in upward succession the Bombouaka, Oti and Tamale/Obosum Groups,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Villeneuve [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], Obosum (or Tamale) Group (~\u0026thinsp;1000 m) which is largely composed of detritus derived from the Pan-African orogenic belt to the east comprises quartzitic and feldspathic sandstones of variable grain sizes. Based on a Rb\u0026ndash;Sr isochrons on clay-minerals the Obosum (Tamale) Group is dated\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;620 Ma [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the study area, in situ outcrops of the Tamale sandstone of large slabs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) consist of red, medium-grained, moderately well-sorted quartz-rich sandstone with rounded to subangular grains with planar lamination and with a parting lineation on some surfaces. Other features noted include outcrops that bear grey to pink-weathering feldspathic quartz arenites, some exposes pale grey, massive, medium-grained quartzitic sandstone with common well rounded \u0026lsquo;millet seed\u0026rsquo; grains with lithified arkosic sandstone [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe provenance of the sandstone units of the Tamale Basin is described by Villeneuve [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] to be mainly of continental in nature and may represent the more actively fluvial domains and/or sheet floods, whilst the presence of millet-seed sand grains indicates an aeolian source for some of the sand [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Petrographic Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFresh samples of the sandstones were collected from different outcrops and exposures, artisanal mining of these rocks for coarse aggregates been done by the local people. These rocks were physically examined, to select more competent rocks devoid of traces of weathering and fractures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThin sections of these samples were prepared at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Geological Engineering laboratory using the Hill Quist Cutting and Polishing machine. Observation of the thin sections was done under an optical microscope, Leica DM 4 P petrographic microscope to identify all the mineral constituents of the rocks and other microstructural elements present. This analysis serves as the basis for naming the different rock types encountered in the field and determine the texture; porosity and the detrital minerals present in the rock.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Geochemical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 X-Ray Florescence (XRF)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the samples were analyzed for major elements and minor elements by the XRF spectrometer at the Geological Survey Authority (GSA) in Accra Ghana. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer-XRF (Model: VMR) from Olympus (Model: Adventurer-Pro AV 264), Mill/Mixture (Model: MM301), Hydraulic press (Model: Specac), Sieve, was used to carried on the final selected samples that showed variation in their texture and mineralogical composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples were sieved with a sieve size of 75 \u0026micro;m. For each analysis, 5.0g of sieved sample was well-mixed, homogenized with 0.9 g of a binder (Hoechst Wax) in a mill and pressed with 15 tons to a 32 mm pellet [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Multi-element determinations from the prepared pellets were carried out using an energy-dispersive polarizing X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer (model: VMR Vanta M Series) with tube rating 50 kV, 0.2 mA. The analytical quality was assessed by inserting quality control and assurance samples SRM 2711a from NIST and OxG180 from Rocklabs. Laboratory temperature was kept at 20 ℃ during the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Physico-Mechanical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physical properties of the three types of sandstone samples based on their mineralogical compositional difference were subjected to physicomechanical analysis which are indicators of aggregate quality and which reveal more about the behavior of the aggregate during testing to study their engineering response in their use as coarse aggregate for concrete production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.1 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis test was carried out at the Council for Scientific and industrial Research-Building and Road Research Institute (CSIR-BRRI) laboratory, Kumasi Ghana in accordance to BS 812. Part 110 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The samples were placed in a cylindrical mould to a depth of 100 mm in 3 layers, with each layer been tamped 25 times with tamping rod. The top was levelled with the plunger by slight rotation of the plunger while placed on aggregate in the mould. The sample, in the mould with the plunger was placed in the compression testing machine and compressed at a uniform rate till a force of 400 kN was applied such that this force was achieved in 10 minutes. Within the allotted 10 minutes, a penetration of around 20 mm was the goal. The resulting material was passed through a 2.36 mm British Standard (BS) sieve. The weight of material passing through the sieve and that which is retained were determined and recorded. This weight was expressed as a percentage of the original mass to give aggregate crushing value. This test was performed three times for each aggregate specimen and average calculated and recorded. The aggregate crushing value (ACV) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] calculated using the Eq.\u0026nbsp;1:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:ACV=\\:\\frac{weight\\:passing\\:through\\:2.36mm\\:filter}{weight\\:of\\:original\\:mass}\\times\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.2 Gradation Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSieving determines the distribution of particle size of an aggregate and filler samples. Dry Sieving method was used for coarse and fine aggregates, this was accomplished using electrical Sieves (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea) mounted on OCT200/11060 Octagon D200 Digital Sieve Shaker (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb). This was accomplished using BS 812: Part 103.1 (1985) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The mass of the sample that passes each sieve was determined as a cumulative percentage using Eq.\u0026nbsp;2:\u003c/p\u003e \"% by passing this sieve=(% by-passing previous sieve)-(% kept on the sieve\" ) 2\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.3 Flakiness Index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the criteria parameters used to categorize stones and aggregates is the flakiness index. This was done using a flakiness sieve (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea and b). By segregating the particles flaky and quantifying its mass as a proportion of the mass sample, flakiness index of an aggregate sample may be determined. Materials maintained on a 6.3 mm sieve after passing through a 63 mm sieve are eligible for the test (BS 812: Section 105.1: 1989) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. This was achieved using Eq.\u0026nbsp;3:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:percent\\:of\\:material\\:kept\\:in\\:10mm\\:sieve=\\frac{Mass\\:Retained\\:on\\:10mm\\:Sieve}{Total\\:Initial\\:Mass\\:of\\:Sample}\\:\\times\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.4 Elongation Index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Elongation Index of the aggregate sample was determined by isolating the elongated particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the sample mass. To pass the test, the substance needs to go through a 50 mm filter and be retained on a 6.3 mm sieve (BS 812: Section 105.2: 1990) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.5 Bulk Density\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bulk density of the samples was determine using the ratio of its total mass to its total volume in accordance to standard procedure outlined by BS 812: Part 2 (1995) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Eq.\u0026nbsp;4 was used to determine the bulk density:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:Bulk\\:density=\\frac{mass\\:of\\:rockspecimen}{volume\\:of\\:rockspecimen}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.6 Relative Density and Water Absorption\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe design mix for concrete is determined using relative density on a saturated surface-dry basis. Calculations for concrete mix design employ the water absorption constant. For aggregates with a size between 5 mm and 40 mm, the most desired technique is described as a glass vessel technique (BS 812: Part 2: 1999) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Method for aggregates between 5 mm and 40 mm is the preferred method. The calculation was done using Eq.\u0026nbsp;5:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\text{W}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{A}\\text{b}\\text{s}\\text{o}\\text{r}\\text{p}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\left(\\text{%}\\right)=\\:\\frac{{\\text{M}}_{\\text{S}\\text{S}\\text{D}}-{\\text{M}}_{\\text{d}\\text{r}\\text{y}}}{{\\text{M}}_{\\text{d}\\text{r}\\text{y}}}\\:\\times\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003csub\u003eSSD\u003c/sub\u003e = Mass of the saturated surface-dry (SSD) aggregate (in grams).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003csub\u003edry\u003c/sub\u003e = Oven-dried mass of the aggregate (in grams).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.7 Compressive Strength of Concrete cubes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete cubes for the three sandstone samples were molded to the required sizes for the test cubes; using Portland Ghacem Cement with chemical characteristics shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical Composition of Portland Ghacem Cement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposition (wt. %)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA three-gang 2 inches cubic metallic moulds were used to cast the mortar cubes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea). The ratio of 1:1:5:3 was used; 1 part cement, 1.5 parts of fine aggregate or coarse sand and 3 parts of coarse aggregates according to British Standard [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The Hobart mixer was used to mix the mortar constituents. A total of six cubes were molded and cured for testing (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea \u0026amp; b). For cubes of 100 mm and 150 mm, the optimum size aggregate is 20 mm and 40 mm. The cubes were properly marked and mortar specimens cast in the moulds were left in a moist cabinet for 24 hours and then removed and demoulded safely from the mold after samples were cured in a water in a bath at temperature of 20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 \u0026ordm;C for 7 days (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec) and then crushed for compressive strength using MATEST servo cyber plus Universal Testing Machine of 1500 kN capacity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples were subjected to stress using the MATEST servo cyber plus Universal Testing Machine, model H011N with capacity 1500kN and compression tests on concrete cube specimens max. side 150 mm and cylinders max. diameter 160x320 mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea). The load increase was regulated by hand, care was taken when adjustments were made for the decrease of the loading rate near fracture load as this could affect the results (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb). The required sizes for the test cubes were either 100 mm or 150 mm. For cubes of 100 mm and 150 mm, the optimum size aggregate was 20 mm and 40 mm, respectively (Part 108: 1983 of BS 1881) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Aggregate Specification and Requirement for Selection for Construction Works\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruction aggregates come in a variety of strengths and properties. In view of this, there must be an examination and careful considerations in the selection of aggregates for engineering and construction works. Construction aggregates must meet the required standards (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) to ensure consistent quality that enables the end user to be confident that the product being chosen will do the job it is being chosen to do. To this end, a wide range of testing standards have been devised to ascertain the suitability or otherwise of aggregates produced from the Tamale sandstones to undertake the function of concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRequirements of aggregates for concrete works and percentage strength of concrete at various ages\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard (Ghana)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrength %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage Crushing Value (ACV)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 Days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk density\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1750 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 Days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGHA standard (aligned with British Standards\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater Absorption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 Days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGHA standard (aligned with British Standard\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElongation index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 Days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGHA standard (aligned with British Standards\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlakiness index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGHA standard (aligned with British Standard)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGradation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed gravel coarse aggregate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax. 2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGHA standard aligned with British Standard)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecrushed rock aggregate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax. 4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Petrographic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe stones show a granular aspect, with a grey to brownish color, is compact and coherent with a grain-matrix supported texture (Fig. 7).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe mineralogical assemblage of the rock samples was identified from the photomicrographs. Sample 1 (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea-d) consists of quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspars (orthoclase), micas and opaque minerals. Quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, micas and the opaque grains make up the framework grains of this rock. The matrix content is made up of ferroan cement this makes up the majority of the binding material. The quartz grains are fine grained, and subrounded to subangular (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eb). They occur in both types that is monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains. Some of the quartz grains are in most cases conchoidally fractured and they display a general undulatory and non-undulatory extinctions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe plagioclase grains are also fine grained and subrounded to angular, with poorly preserved twin lamellae (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ed). The K-feldspar grains are fine grained and subangular to subrounded, and they occur as orthoclase grains. Some of the orthoclase has undergone sericitization and this is evident from clouded centers of orthoclase grains.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe micas are mainly present as biotite grains, which occurs as random tiny shreds and/or fragments and/or elongated flakes. They are in some cases bent with some, interstitials between quartz and feldspar grains. The opaque crystals (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea) are acicular with elongated and bent types. Generally, the framework grains moderately well packed and sorted.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn sample 2, the mineral assemblage of this rock sample is made of quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspars which are mainly orthoclase, micas, lithic fragments and opaque minerals (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, micas, lithic fragment and the opaque grains make up the framework grains of this rock. The matrix content is made up of ferroan cement, which makes up the majority of the binding material. The quartz grains are fine grained, and subrounded to subangular (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eb). They occur in both types that is monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains. Some of the quartz grains are in most cases conchoidally fractured and they display a general undulatory and non-undulatory extinctions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe plagioclase grains are also fine grained and subrounded to angular, with poorly preserved twin lamellae. The K-feldspar grains are fine grained and subangular to subrounded, and they occur as orthoclase grains. Some of the orthoclase have undergone sericitization and this is evident from clouded centers of orthoclase grains.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe micas are mainly present as biotite grains occurs as random tiny shreds and/or fragments and/or elongated flakes (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea). Most of them have however been altered to chlorite. They are in some cases bent with some, interstitial between quartz grains. The opaque crystals are acicular with elongated and bent types. The lithic fragments occur as ironic cherts (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eb, c) which suggest a sedimentary source for the rock. Generally, the framework grains are poorly sorted and moderately well packed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn sample 3, the mineral assemblage of this rock sample is made of quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspar, micas, and opaque minerals (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, micas and the opaque grains make up the framework grains of this rock. The matrix content is made up of silica cement (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea) with minor ferroan cement (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eb, c, d) and this makes up the majority of the binding material. There are sporadic occurrences of quartz overgrowths, which are also cementing materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe quartz grains are fine grained, and subrounded to angular (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eb). They occur in both types that is monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains. Some of the quartz grains are in most cases conchoidally fractured and they display a general undulatory and non-undulatory extinction.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe plagioclase grains are also fine grained and subrounded to angular, with poorly preserved twin lamellae (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ec). The K-feldspar grains are fine grained and subangular to subrounded, and they occur as orthoclase and microcline grains. Some orthoclase grains exhibit sericitization, evident from their cloudy centers. Biotite and muscovite occur as random tiny shreds, fragments, or elongated flakes (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eb). In some cases, these grains are bent and associated with interstitial material between quartz grains. Opaque crystals are predominantly elongated, with rare occurrences of subhedral types. No lithic fragments are observed in this rock type.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenerally, the framework grains are moderately to poorly sorted and packed. The rock may not be considered highly texturally mature due to the presence of matrix, dominance of subrounded to angular grains [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHowever, the observed micrographic intergrowth texture with interlocking grain boundaries can result in the superior mechanical properties (resistance to abrasion and fragmentation) of aggregates [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Classification of samples\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA Summary of the mineral composition and their modal percentage is shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Using Folk\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] classification of sandstones (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ea), all the three samples plotted within the Subfeldsarenite region of the ternary diagram (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003eb). It can therefore be inferred that the Tamale sandstone samples analyzed are Subfeldsarenites.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelationships between the petrographic characteristics and possible engineering properties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe physicomechanical characteristics of rocks determine their tensile strength, durability, and suitability for various engineering applications [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. These parameters, which include modal composition and texture (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), are governed by the rocks\u0026rsquo; petrographic characteristics. Microscopic analysis revealed that the samples are fine-grained. In accordance with Ajagbe et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], fine-grained rocks typically exhibit superior engineering properties compared to coarse-grained rocks of similar mineralogy. These findings align with earlier research [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the grain sizes may lead to low water absorption (W\u003csub\u003eabs\u003c/sub\u003e) capacity values, which is an indication of higher strength. Sajid et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] concluded that, rocks with greater strength possess lower water absorption values and similar relationship was also observed from the work of Wang et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, a higher percentage of a physically strong mineral, like quartz, which is very resistant to weathering adds strength to rocks, as Ajagbe et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] revealed, the higher the percentage of quartz, the higher the strength. Quartz in all rock samples had a modal composition of ~\u0026thinsp;64 to 77 %, the rock. The cement composition which makes up of between 8\u0026ndash;12 % modal comosition (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) mainly of the fine- to medium-grained crystalline minerals form the cement or bond groundmass, provides an interlocking grain boundaries resulting in cohesion of the rocks superior mechanical properties (resistance to abrasion and fragmentation) of aggregates [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummary of the mineral composition of the three types of sandstones\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral \u0026amp; Modal %\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuartz\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlagioclase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK-feldspar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiotite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithic Fragments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Major Element Geochemistry\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the concentration in wt % the chemical elements analyzed in the rock samples. SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e show elevated content relative to upper continental crust (UCC) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3,\u003c/sub\u003e CaO, K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e content are generally depleted comparative to upper continental crust (UCC) using [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] while MgO was below detection limit for all samples and SO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e for sample 1 and 3. MnO is slightly enriched relative to UCC values. This trend appears to conform to the composition of the rocks, considering that they are sandstones. The SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents is 72.62 %, 74.4 % and 7.62 % for smples 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 10.11 % to 1223 %, Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO ranged from 3.46 % to 4.2 %, K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO anged from 1.37 % to 1.1 %, CaO anged 0.86 % to 1.5 % and TO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e and MnO content ranged from 0.50 % to 1.2 %, 0.11% to 0.5 % and 008 to 0.14 % respetively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical analysis of major elements concentration of samples in wt % from study area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMnO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUCC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003eUCC: Upper Continental Crust [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e], DL: Detection Limit, N/a: Not Applicable\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results from Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e revealed a significant presence of Silica in all the sandstones types, implying that, the Tamale sandstones are silica rich. The XRF results correlated to a very large extent with the Petrographic findings. This is in particular with regards to the dominance of silica, followed by Aluminum oxide and iron (III) oxide and the higher values for quartz and ferrous cements. The alkali content is significantly low to initiate alkali-silica-reaction (ASR) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Alkali\u0026ndash;Silica Reaction Sandstone\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkali\u0026ndash;silica reaction (ASR), a deleterious reaction between the alkaline solution within the pores of concrete and various metastable forms of silica contained in many natural and synthetic aggregates [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Since sandstones are known to be rich in silica content, it was crucial to carry out both petrographic and chemical analysis to highlight the risks associated with ASR in concrete made from this material, as the silica content in the samples was approximately 70 % (able 3 and 4) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. It is a major concrete problem that significantly affects durability of concrete infrastructures of all rock types aggregates the world over [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. Various studies [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] have identified the roles of various aggregate properties; composition, mineralogy, size, and surface characteristics, pore solution composition (e.g., pH, alkalis, calcium, aluminum), exposure conditions and supplementary cementing materials (SCM) on the rate and magnitude of ASR.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the chemical compositions (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) show that there is limited availability of Ca as CaO, K as K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO for the sandstones that is, these elements are generally depleted comparative to upper continental crust (UCC) using Taylor et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. This suffices to preliminary conclude that the sandstones will likely not accommodate expansive ASR gel, because as Yang et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] indicated, the presence of Ca causes the silica minerals to dissolved which causes a reaction rim about the aggregates, resulting in the expansion of concrete. Conclusion by Yang et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] is that high-alkali and low-calcium silica hydrate among other factors can reduce the exudation of gels from the particles. The potential effect is that, even though it has been identified that the sandstones have potential to absorb water, the unavailability of Ca will not possibly pose the threat of ASR.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Engineering Aggregate properties\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Aggregates Crushing Value Test\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe values 45%, 32% and 42% was obtained for sample 1, sample 2 and sample 3 respectively (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). The aggregates can be considered as good and strong because they have an ACV less than the 45% the upper limit for concrete works and 30% for wearing surfaces as per the BS 812\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;110:1990 [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e], the aggregates therefore passed the requirement for both concrete works.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Gradation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the crushing test, the percentage of broken aggregates increase with the increase in load. With the increase of broken percentage, the voids of the coarse aggregates are filled into by more fine aggregates. This increases the aggregate compactness, leading to the increase in bearing capacity of aggregates. The grain size is coarse silty to fine sandy and the sorting well developed (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe materials finer than 75 micrometers sieve range from 0.03%, 0.06% and 0.02% for sample 1, sample 2 and sample 3 respectively. Gravel size fraction was 68.01%, 83.39%, 54.63% and sand size fraction 13.06%, 3.28%, 4.64% range from this shows that all the samples tested are below the maximum value specified in the codes. BS 882, 1992 specified maximum value of 2% for crushed gravel coarse aggregate and 4% for crushed rock aggregate [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Flakiness Index\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs an important parameter for concrete and bituminous mixtures design [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e], flakiness index greater than the GHA standard [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] indicates that the aggregates are flaky and so can affect concrete mixes and works in which they are used by lowering their workability. It is not a good idea to have flaky particles in base course and wearing coarse aggregates since they might lead to inherent weakness and even collapse under large loads. When an aggregate\u0026apos;s thickness is less than 60 % of it mean sieve size, it is referred to as flaky. However, as shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, the flakiness index of the tested aggregates for sample 1, 2 and 3 were 18 %, 19 %and 1 % respetively which falls within the recommended\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25 % GHA sandard after BS (British Standard) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], suggesting that they are not flaky and will not cause problem relating to workability of concrete and suitable for concrete works.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Elongation Index\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe elongation index of the aggregates from selected sample as shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e indicate the elongation index values less than the standards concrete structures recommended value of 25% (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). From the results obtained, the elongation index of the tested aggregates for sandstone 1, sandstone 2 and 3 were 7%, 13% and 11% respectively which is below maximum recommended limit and thus implies that the aggregates are unlikely to break across the length under loading. Very low values of elongation index were recorded for the aggregates from all sampling locations and hence have no potential to breakage across the lengths under loaded conditions and therefore suitable for concrete material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.5 Bulk Density and Relative Density\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe samples mean bulk density 1250 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, 1200 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 1150 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for sandstone 1, sandstone 2 and sandstone 3 respectively (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) is an indication that the coarse aggregates produced from them can be utilized as aggregates for normal weight concrete since they successfully meet the criteria of normal weight as recommended range is \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1750 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResults of bulk density and relative density for sandstone 1, 2 and 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSandstone 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSandstone 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSandstone 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage Bulk Density (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage Relative Density\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2215\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2248\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOf the three sandstones, Sample 2 has the highest density, followed by Sample 3. This may be attributed to Sample 2\u0026rsquo;s high cement content (12%), which reduces porosity, compared to Sample 1\u0026rsquo;s lower cement content (10%). Notably, despite its high iron mineral content (see Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), the density of Sample 2 remains closer to that of Sample 3. The latter\u0026rsquo;s density aligns with its quartz content, suggesting that mineral composition also plays a role in these variations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.6 Water Absorption\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results of the water absorption analysis presented in the Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e indicate that, sandstone 1, 2 and 3 aggregates average values were 5.08%, 5.29% and 5.63% respectively which may suggest the effect of weathering on the samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResults of water absorption and compressive strength for Sandstone 1, 2 and 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSandstone 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSandstone 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSandstone 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage Water Absorption (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage Comp. Strength (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe amount of water an aggregate can absorb is a good indicator of the strength of the aggregate, in other words, its weakness [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. It is observed that a strong aggregate will have low water absorption value usually below 1.0 %.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom the petrographic studies (Figs. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e), the matrix content is made up of ferroan cement which makes up the majority of the binding, this may undergo oxidation dissolution due to the water absorption capacity influenced by the feldspathic content. The nature of the matrix has been identified as one of the major factors that influences water absorption content in rocks hence the interlocking minerals in sandstone waken particularly result of weathering, which will cause the decreasing of tensile strength [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording the requirements of aggregates for concrete works (BS 882) and percentage strength of concrete at various ages, it specifies that water absorption should not exceed\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2% (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have shown that aggregates with high water absorption may be vulnerable to rapid disintegration [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] and has a potential to affect the tensile strength of the rock [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. The values imply that water absorption does not meet the standard which makes the sandstone suitable. This makes it necessary that the sandstone be subjected to further test to identify and establish the contributing factor(s) to the water absorption.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4.7 Compressive Strength of Concrete Block\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e is a compressive strength of the concrete block which was cured for 7 days under the universal testing machine. The individual dimensions of the samples were taken and stressed to failure. The mean of the six samples shows an early strength of 11.6 MPa, 17.8 MPa and 13.4 MPa respectively. Sample 2 had the highest early strength compressive strength which met the Ministry of Transportation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] early strength of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;16.0.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results base on the 7 days strength in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e with age the block strength increases and indicates that sandstone 2 can be used for Reinforced concrete structures (RCC) structures and sandstone 1 and 3 used for plain concrete construction or temporary reinforced concrete structures because of their low compressive strength [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. The relationship between petrographical properties and the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of sandstones has been extensively investigated in geomechanical research, as evidenced by studies [1, [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. These works collectively emphasize how intrinsic characteristics such as mineral composition, grain size distribution, cementation type and degree, porosity, and textural heterogeneity govern the mechanical behavior of sandstones. For instance, quartz-rich sandstones with well-sorted, tightly interlocking grains and silica-dominated cementation typically exhibit higher UCS values due to enhanced load-bearing capacity and reduced pore spaces. Conversely, sandstones with clay-rich matrices, poorly sorted grains, or calcite cementation often demonstrate lower strength owing to their susceptibility to stress concentration and chemical weathering [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The matrix material plays an important factor in determining the compactness rocks, the main parameter used in almost all engineering projects evaluation of rocks for coarse aggregate production [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Rocks containing quartz as ground matrix material are identified as the strongest followed by calcite, and ferrous minerals [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. In this current study, the petrographic results (Figs. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) show that that all the samples of the Tamale sandstone are rich in both quartz and ferroan matrix which provide the binding medium for the minerals grains within the rock mass and between the coarse aggregates and the cement. Yang et al. 2 [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] observed that the compressive strength of sandstone increased with age, 18MPa for 7days curing to about 45MPa for 90 days curing. it is therefore, postulated that similar case can be argued for the sandstones.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, a comparative analysis showcases the importance of aligning material selection with regional needs and project-specific demands based on their regional characteristics. For instance. while high-strength materials from India and China (Asia) cater to intensive infrastructure, regions like Ghana and Botswana (Africa) offer cost-effective solutions for low-to-medium load applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComparative Analysis of sandstone as construction material properties Across different regions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComp. Strength (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater Absorption (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk density (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAggregate Crushing Value (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKey Notes and Source\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTamale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.6\u0026ndash;17.8 (7 days curing)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.1\u0026ndash;5.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1150\u0026ndash;1250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKgalagadi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBotswana\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.70\u0026ndash;9.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026ndash;3.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.34\u0026ndash;19.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQualify as aggregate material for road and building Construction [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJodhpur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2600\u0026ndash;2800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh-strength concrete [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e], Recommends the use of sandstone as partial replacement of coarse aggregates [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWulumuqi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.9\u0026ndash;83.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2350\u0026ndash;2540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentified as good for building materials [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enorthern\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShaanxi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.2\u0026ndash;87.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2661\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApplication as sandstone concrete [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbdera, Xanthi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNorthern Greece\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.54\u0026ndash;73.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.01\u0026ndash;7.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u0026ndash;2350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.47\u0026ndash;8.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe rock can withstand acid attack, [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThese sources[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e] further provide evidence on the reliability of these findings, emphasizing the role of localized studies in advancing global construction practices. Ultimately, the data advocates for context-driven material innovation, balancing technical performance with environmental and economic sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMineral composition influences the texture and strength of rocks, and is correlated with mechanical properties. The study of the Petro-chemical and engineering properties of the Tamale sandstones have provided some significant preliminary insights into their engineering properties influenced by the geological characteristics (Mineralogy and geochemistry). The following conclusions can be drawn:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe petrochemical results provide for the conclusion that, the sandstones are of subfeldsarenites class of sandstones. The sandstones are fine grain and rich in quartz minerals, their grain structure revealed graphitic texture, which shows grains interlocking and thus providing the possibility of having strong physicomechanical characteristics including low abrasion. Since sandstones are known to be rich in silica content, it was crucial to carry out both petrographic and chemical analysis to highlight the risks associated with ASR in concrete made from this material, as the silica content in the samples was approximately 70%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe engineering properties tests showed that the sandstones met standard test requirement for specific gravities and elongation. This provides preliminary indication that, rocks when used in concrete products are unlikely to break along their length when loaded. The sandstones flakiness index values of 18%, and 19% show they are not flaky and will not cause problem relating to workability of concrete. The aggregate crushing values of the sandstones highlight the aggregate has an early strength of 17.8 MPa for sandstone 2 at 7 days curing meeting the standard. The water absorption values ranged from 5.08\u0026ndash;5.63%, indicates that they are relatively porous and will absorb water when used for concrete construction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA material must possess the following characteristics in order to be employed in geotechnical engineering construction: resistance to weathering, enough hardness, and toughness attributes. Due to their adequate hardness, lack of swelling capabilities, and excellent weathering resilience, the majority of the sandstone lithofacies in the research region have qualities of acceptable aggregates. As a building stone, Tamale sandstone will perform only moderately to reasonably well. They would probably perform excellently as concrete aggregates because the majority of the evaluated aggregate sample's geotechnical parameter values are within the recommended range.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is however, recommended that further test to improve the scientific understanding of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and the way ASR is mitigated using standardized tests such as the accelerated mortar bar test, (AMBT) or the concrete prism test, (CPT), to rely on such results of to classify the aggregates as: non-reactive, moderately reactive, highly reactive or very highly reactive.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Participate declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to this study. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Bayari Enzula Eric, Nyamful Andrew, Prosper Aduah Akaba, Adamu Casmed Charles and Bayor Jude Simons. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Bayari Enzula Eric and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Data Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author (BEE) on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eP. Sharma, A. Kumar Parashar, and N. Sharma, \u0026ldquo;The influence of fines in sandstones on the performance of concrete,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eMater Today Proc\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 62, pp. 4126\u0026ndash;4129, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.661.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eP. 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Samaras, \u0026ldquo;Durability of a sandstone used as a principal building and decorative material in ancient abdera, Xanthi, N. Greece,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eBulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 137\u0026ndash;147, 1996.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":false,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-geoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Geoscience](https://www.springer.com/journal/44288)","snPcode":"44288","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44288","title":"Discover Geoscience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sandstone, Tamale-Obosum, Aggregate, Subfeldsarenites, concrete, engineering properties","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5238596/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5238596/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eRapid urbanization and industrialization have fueled an increase in concrete infrastructure within Tamale Metropolis and its environs, resulting in the demand for granitic aggregates for concrete production. However, locally, this type of aggregate is unavailable because of the local geology; the sandstones of Tamale are abundant. This study investigated the suitability of the sandstones as coarse aggregates by examining their engineering properties and petrographic characteristics. Photomicrographs of three samples indicate the sandstones have a paragenesis of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, opaque, lithic fragments, and cement and are classified as subfeldsarenites. X-ray florescence geochemical data indicate the composition of sandstones has SiO\u003csub\u003e2 \u003c/sub\u003econtent of 72.6 2% to 74.62 %, Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e: 10.11 % to 12.23 %, and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e: 3.46 % to 4.22 %. The engineering characteristics show that, except for water absorption, flakiness, elongation, aggregate crushing value, and compressive, all met standard requirements of concrete products for building purposes. Results provided good mineralogical, elemental, and textural properties of the sandstones and were found to have the possibility of having strong physicomechanical characteristics that may support other engineering properties, including low abrasion since SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e is known to be high in rock. The study concludes that the Tamale-Obosum sandstones can perform reasonably well in concrete for domestic concrete construction. Further testing to improve the scientific understanding of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and water absorption of the sandstones is recommended.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Tamale sandstone petrology and engineering properties as suitable coarse aggregate in concrete production","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-15 06:30:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5238596/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T08:16:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-17T06:54:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Geoscience","date":"2025-04-12T07:46:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-geoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Geoscience](https://www.springer.com/journal/44288)","snPcode":"44288","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44288","title":"Discover Geoscience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0c5d5eff-eb47-4b2f-9ab5-d1d75220c692","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 15th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-15T06:08:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-15 06:30:28","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5238596","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5238596","identity":"rs-5238596","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}