Community perspectives on the use of hunting fauna as zootherapeutics in a traditional community in the Brazilian Amazon

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Most animals are hunted for consumption; however, some species are killed solely for therapeutic purposes, further compromising their biology and conservation of certain species. A study conducted in the Paranã da Floresta community in the far western Amazon revealed that 90% of the interviewees use animals for therapeutic purposes, with some hunting specifically for medicinal reasons. This practice not only puts pressure on local fauna but also contributes to the population decline of several species. The therapeutic use of animals highlights the complex relationship between human communities and wildlife, highlighting the importance of harmonizing biodiversity conservation with recognition of local cultural traditions. Given the negative impact of traditional medicinal practices on biodiversity, it is crucial to promote conservation strategies that protect the natural resources of the Amazon and the well-being of local communities. Sustainable approaches that integrate environmental education with scientific research on the therapeutic properties of animals could help reconcile traditional knowledge with wildlife preservation. Amazon Tea Mammals Traditional medicine Hunting animals Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION The use of nature as a resource for human survival is ancient. Traditional medicinal systems involve using plants, animals, and minerals to produce remedies for various diseases and ailments (Teixeira et al., 2020 ). These traditional forms of medicine have been extensively integrated into contemporary society, including practices such as phytotherapy (use of plants) and zootherapy (use of animals or their parts) (Quadros et al., 2023). Numerous studies have demonstrated the widespread use of zootherapy across various regions (Alonso-Castro et al., 2011 ; Alves and Alves, 2011; Fischer et al., 2018). In Latin America, many cultures incorporate animal-derived remedies as part of their traditional medicinal practices, with deep historical roots in the use of wildlife, including endangered species (Soewu, 2008; Martínez, 2013). In Brazil, approximately 290 animal species have been used for zootherapy (Alves et al, 2008 ). Traditional communities in the Amazon are shaped by multiple processes of colonization and miscegenation, characterized by historical exchanges between diverse peoples and ethnic groups (Lira and Chaves, 2016). Hunting plays a vital role in the development of traditional communities in the Brazilian Amazon (Chaves et al., 2018 ), where, in addition to subsistence consumption, the use of these animals in traditional medicine contributes to the decline of wildlife populations. This study aimed to identify the primary animal species used as zootherapeutics in a traditional community in the western region of the Brazilian Amazon. METHODS This study was conducted in the far western region of the Brazilian Amazon, in the municipality of Guajará (7° 32′ 45″ S, 72° 35′ 02″ W), state of Amazonas. The research focused on the traditional residents of Paranã da Floresta, encompassing the communities of Altinas, Barro Branco, Farofa, Formigueiro, Tuca, Assentamento, Terra Firme de Cima, and Terra Firme de Baixo (Fig. 1 ). Semi-structured questionnaires were used following the methodology outlined by Boni and Quaresma (2005). Participation was voluntary and occurred only after signing an informed consent form (two copies, one for the research team and the other for the participants). The form ensured the complete confidentiality of the participants’ identities. To identify and document the various ways in which the community members utilized animals, the questionnaire was structured with specific questions addressing the species used, parts of the animals employed, preparation methods, and respective purposes of use. The Informed Consent Form (ICF) was prepared in accordance with the General Data Protection Law (LGPD) – Law No. 13,709/2018, which ensures the protection of participants' personal data. The document clearly and objectively informed all participants about the potential risks and benefits of their participation in the study. It also made explicit that participants could withdraw from the research at any time, without any penalty or prejudice. Furthermore, it was emphasized that, under no circumstances, would the personal data, including participants' names, be disclosed, thus guaranteeing privacy, confidentiality, and the protection of the information collected (Brazil, 2018). RESULTS Among the interviewees, 90% reported using animals or animal-derived parts for the treatment of various ailments. Notably, some respondents indicated that hunting activities were conducted exclusively for medicinal purposes, independent of subsistence needs. This finding highlights the specific role of wildlife in traditional therapeutic practices within the studied communities. A total of approximately 20 wild animal species were recorded as being used for zootherapeutic purposes. Mammals constituted the most frequently cited group, encompassing 10 species, followed by reptiles with 6 species, birds with 2 species, and fish also with 2 species. The medicinal use of these species often reflects both empirical knowledge and symbolic associations linked to the animals' biological and behavioral characteristics. Table 1 presents the wild animal species used for therapeutic purposes, including their scientific names, the animal parts utilized, and the associated diseases or symptoms. Table 1 Classes of animals and their respective species used in traditional medicine: body parts utilized, methods of use, and therapeutic purposes Class/ Scientific Name Body Part Use Birds Crypturellus spp. Brabourne and Chubb, 1914 Pity Snake bite tea Ramphastos toco Müller, 1776 Beak Tea made from the burned beak for shortness of breath Reptiles Bothrops atox Linnaeus, 1758 Fat For high blood pressure; tea made from poison to treat snake bites Poison Drink for snake bites Boa constrictor Linnaeus, 1758 Fat Tea for COVID-19 Lachesis muta Linnaeus, 1766 Spine Bone Tea for back pain Chelonoides denticulatus Linnaeus, 1766 Hull Tea for back pain Fat Consume to treat a hernia Caiman crocodilus Linnaeus, 1758 Leather Tea for stroke Tupinambis teguixim Duméril and Bibron, 1839 Fat Apply to the body for allergies Mammals Dicotyles tajacu Linnaeus, 1758 Prey Tea for stroke, asthma, anemia, and pneumonia Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris Linnaeus, 1766 Bone Tea for back pain, stroke, and rheumatism Nail Tea for hernia Fat Eat fat for ulcers Pteronura brasiliensis Gmelin, 1788 Hair Tea for those who choked on a fish bone Tamandua tetradactyla Linnaeus, 1758 Throat Tea for stroke Bone Tea for stroke Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 Fat Eat the fat to avoid labor pain. Cunicullus paca Linnaeus, 1766 Hair Snake bite tea. Gallbladder Going through a knife; Drink for Malaria Coendou prehensilis Linnaeus, 1758 Thorns Tea for stroke Sciurus spp. Linnaeus, 1758 Tooth Tea for a child who is about to have a tooth Tail Tea for asthma Tayassu pecari Linnaeus, 1789 Prey Tea for pneumonia and stroke Fish Potamotrygon spp. Garman, 1877 Fat Pass over the burn Electrophorus electricus Linnaeus, 1766 Fat Eat fat for diabetes In total, approximately 20 species of wild animals were recorded as being used in zootherapeutic practices. Mammals represented the most frequently used group (10 species), followed by reptiles (6 species), birds (2 species), and fish (2 species). Notable uses include: One prominent example is Pteronura brasiliensis , whose fur is used to prepare infusions believed to relieve choking caused by fishbones. Another species commonly mentioned was Didelphis marsupialis , utilized by pregnant women to ease labor pains, presumably due to cultural interpretations of its reproductive behavior. Similarly, the teeth of Sciurus species are used in teas administered to infants in order to alleviate teething discomfort. Among the reptilian species identified, Bothrops atrox stands out due to the frequent use of its body fat for the treatment of hypertension. Additionally, there were reports of venom ingestion by individuals who had previously experienced snakebites, under the belief that such practice neutralizes the effects of envenomation. Lachesis muta was also cited, with its vertebrae being used to prepare teas intended to relieve back pain. Another frequently used species was Chelonoidis denticulatus , whose fat is applied as a wound-healing agent, while tea made from its head is used in the treatment of asthma, and its burned shell is employed in infusions to mitigate lower back pain. Several of these practices appear to be influenced by symbolic interpretations rather than solely by therapeutic effectiveness. The selection of specific animal species is often based on perceived analogies between the animals’ characteristics and the symptoms or conditions being treated, reflecting a culturally embedded logic in the construction of traditional medicinal knowledge. DISCUSSION The results indicate the strong cultural significance of zootherapeutic practices in western Amazonian communities. The high proportion of respondents who reported such practices (90%) reflects the persistence and embeddedness of animal-based therapies in local health systems. Although the use of wildlife in traditional medicine is not typically classified as an immediate environmental threat (Souto et al., 2011), the targeted hunting of species for medicinal purposes — independent of food consumption — suggests increasing pressure on biodiversity. This practice parallels wildlife trafficking and unsustainable consumption of wild species, both of which are leading drivers of biodiversity loss (Rocha, 2023). The predominant use of mammals, followed by reptiles, contrasts with findings from other Amazonian regions where fish species were more commonly used (Silva, 2008). These differences may reflect local ecological availability and specific sociocultural contexts that shape therapeutic choices. The selection of certain species appears to be guided by symbolic logic rooted in the animal's biological and behavioral traits. For instance, the use of P. brasiliensis for treating fishbone choking may be attributed to its piscivorous diet, as perceived by local knowledge systems. However, this species also suffers from overhunting due to its perceived competition with human fishers (Marques, 1995), compounding the conservation risks it faces. Similarly, D. marsupialis is employed by pregnant women owing to its reproductive traits, particularly its apparent resilience during childbirth. Such associations reflect traditional medical systems where ethological observations of animals inform their symbolic and therapeutic relevance (Moura and Marques, 2008). In the case of Sciurus spp. , the use of teeth for infant teething and of the penis in other contexts for treating sexual impotence (Bacelar & Canoê, 2011) illustrates how physical attributes of animals can carry complex cultural meanings. Practices involving venomous snakes, such as the ingestion of B. atrox venom or the use of L. muta vertebrae, reveal a localized understanding of envenomation and countermeasures. Similar uses have been documented in traditional communities of Pará (Lima et al., 2021), though the safety and efficacy of such practices remain poorly studied, raising concerns about public health risks. The widespread zootherapeutic use of C. denticulatus aligns with ethnobiological records from other Amazonian regions (Oliveira et al., 2020), reaffirming this species’ significance in regional medical traditions. However, the unregulated exploitation of this and other species may exacerbate threats to their populations. In many traditional Amazonian belief systems, diseases are interpreted as imbalances in cosmic energy, and animals are viewed as mediators of spiritual and physical healing (Posey and Elisabetsky, 1991). Through contact or ingestion, it is believed that the animal’s energy can restore human well-being. While culturally significant, such practices may endanger vulnerable species and present health hazards to human populations (Cipriano et al., 2020). Given the ecological and public health implications, it is essential to develop sustainable strategies that reconcile biodiversity conservation with the preservation of traditional knowledge. Public policies should focus on environmental education, regulation of wildlife use, and scientific validation of therapeutic claims. These efforts would support a balanced approach that both respects cultural heritage and promotes the sustainable use of Amazonian fauna. Declarations Human Ethics and Consent to Participation Declaration: Participation was voluntary and occurred only after signing an informed consent form (two copies, one for the research team and the other for the participants). Ethics Approval Declaration: The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Acre, protocol no. 4264284. All participants signed the Participation Consent Form and are protected by the General Data Protection Law of Brazilian Legislation. Funding: This study did not receive funding. Author Contribution V.S.V.: Conceptualization, Investigation, methodology, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing; D.G.S.R.: Validation, Investigation, writing—review and editing; D.B.M.: Investigation, Writing—original draft preparation; T.L.S.: Conceptualization, Investigation, methodology, writing—original draft preparation; M.J.C.: Investigation, Writing—original draft preparation; M.N.O.: Investigation, Writing—original draft preparation; M.I.A.S.: Conceptualization, Investigation, methodology, supervision, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing. Acknowledgement To Dr. Lucena Rocha Virgílio for all the support provided. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Human Ecology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 24 Sep, 2025 Reviews received at journal 24 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 24 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Jun, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Jun, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 23 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 23 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 17 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6917554","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":476260185,"identity":"be1f4c11-ca74-45ba-99cb-a2ca83b7604c","order_by":0,"name":"Victor Silva Vasconcelos","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade Federal do Acre","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Victor","middleName":"Silva","lastName":"Vasconcelos","suffix":""},{"id":476260186,"identity":"003cd137-88f6-46ba-8724-7c677eb9fae4","order_by":1,"name":"Dirceu Guilherme de Souza Ramos","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8ElEQVRIie3NsYrCMBjA8U8O4hLqmuJxPsFBilAUxGdJEdwOHd100qUv4Ds4CEJx/KSgS6RrtqMITg66yG1nokun1FEwf0JIQn58AC7XK4Z65RNz+kAY0fsLKSfRnRAB8lkCD0I5SHiCeNkiwGjdGXzP4ivDT/jylCCHkYX46sQxkv12IvcJQwpNX4lqIC2EK6nJNOWh+knqZwrRUk/xJ+Xkn4e/p6OZMi4nWWwI6imUGCJ4GfEVGWrS46HsN1tIWTCX+SywES9LV+fLtMvDXZqrTdxpeLveNrcRYKJwqcTM7FYAUMPi7c/+2eVyud6zGxqeXETZYazNAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade Federal de Jataí","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dirceu","middleName":"Guilherme de Souza","lastName":"Ramos","suffix":""},{"id":476260188,"identity":"7adcd8c2-5db5-45e9-ad43-f0738b4db88f","order_by":2,"name":"Diego Barroso Muniz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto de Defesa Agropecuária e Florestal do Acre","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Diego","middleName":"Barroso","lastName":"Muniz","suffix":""},{"id":476260189,"identity":"a372cf63-aa1e-4569-9ea3-6f94a7a97c26","order_by":3,"name":"Tiago Lucena da Silva","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade Federal do Acre","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tiago","middleName":"Lucena da","lastName":"Silva","suffix":""},{"id":476260190,"identity":"809e760e-8dba-4558-aa1a-dd20f5139884","order_by":4,"name":"Manuela Jucá Correia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade Federal do Acre","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Manuela","middleName":"Jucá","lastName":"Correia","suffix":""},{"id":476260191,"identity":"54ae6c2d-e9d8-43ea-ab1e-161586453802","order_by":5,"name":"Matheus Nascimento Oliveira","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade Federal do Acre","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matheus","middleName":"Nascimento","lastName":"Oliveira","suffix":""},{"id":476260192,"identity":"680cbd01-8b3a-4c12-b826-a1407bf502bb","order_by":6,"name":"Maria Isabel Afonso da Silva","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade Federal do Acre","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maria","middleName":"Isabel Afonso da","lastName":"Silva","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-17 22:23:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917554/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917554/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-026-00687-0","type":"published","date":"2026-04-01T15:58:30+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85508592,"identity":"9b93702f-28cf-4b8c-8ade-e37c862a2ce4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-26 16:06:13","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1024639,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap illustrating the communities involved in the research, with markers indicating the specific locations of participant communities.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917554/v1/35e281b87b5834b7fd5dcb58.png"},{"id":106344862,"identity":"b33bbfbd-48f9-445b-bb40-76af49c84df6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:17:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2019894,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917554/v1/db644127-0730-412d-a96b-f01553b3afdb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Community perspectives on the use of hunting fauna as zootherapeutics in a traditional community in the Brazilian Amazon","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe use of nature as a resource for human survival is ancient. Traditional medicinal systems involve using plants, animals, and minerals to produce remedies for various diseases and ailments (Teixeira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These traditional forms of medicine have been extensively integrated into contemporary society, including practices such as phytotherapy (use of plants) and zootherapy (use of animals or their parts) (Quadros et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have demonstrated the widespread use of zootherapy across various regions (Alonso-Castro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Alves and Alves, 2011; Fischer et al., 2018). In Latin America, many cultures incorporate animal-derived remedies as part of their traditional medicinal practices, with deep historical roots in the use of wildlife, including endangered species (Soewu, 2008; Mart\u0026iacute;nez, 2013). In Brazil, approximately 290 animal species have been used for zootherapy (Alves et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional communities in the Amazon are shaped by multiple processes of colonization and miscegenation, characterized by historical exchanges between diverse peoples and ethnic groups (Lira and Chaves, 2016). Hunting plays a vital role in the development of traditional communities in the Brazilian Amazon (Chaves et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), where, in addition to subsistence consumption, the use of these animals in traditional medicine contributes to the decline of wildlife populations. This study aimed to identify the primary animal species used as zootherapeutics in a traditional community in the western region of the Brazilian Amazon.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the far western region of the Brazilian Amazon, in the municipality of Guajar\u0026aacute; (7\u0026deg; 32\u0026prime; 45\u0026Prime; S, 72\u0026deg; 35\u0026prime; 02\u0026Prime; W), state of Amazonas. The research focused on the traditional residents of Paran\u0026atilde; da Floresta, encompassing the communities of Altinas, Barro Branco, Farofa, Formigueiro, Tuca, Assentamento, Terra Firme de Cima, and Terra Firme de Baixo (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured questionnaires were used following the methodology outlined by Boni and Quaresma (2005). Participation was voluntary and occurred only after signing an informed consent form (two copies, one for the research team and the other for the participants). The form ensured the complete confidentiality of the participants\u0026rsquo; identities. To identify and document the various ways in which the community members utilized animals, the questionnaire was structured with specific questions addressing the species used, parts of the animals employed, preparation methods, and respective purposes of use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Informed Consent Form (ICF) was prepared in accordance with the General Data Protection Law (LGPD) \u0026ndash; Law No. 13,709/2018, which ensures the protection of participants' personal data. The document clearly and objectively informed all participants about the potential risks and benefits of their participation in the study. It also made explicit that participants could withdraw from the research at any time, without any penalty or prejudice. Furthermore, it was emphasized that, under no circumstances, would the personal data, including participants' names, be disclosed, thus guaranteeing privacy, confidentiality, and the protection of the information collected (Brazil, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eAmong the interviewees, 90% reported using animals or animal-derived parts for the treatment of various ailments. Notably, some respondents indicated that hunting activities were conducted exclusively for medicinal purposes, independent of subsistence needs. This finding highlights the specific role of wildlife in traditional therapeutic practices within the studied communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of approximately 20 wild animal species were recorded as being used for zootherapeutic purposes. Mammals constituted the most frequently cited group, encompassing 10 species, followed by reptiles with 6 species, birds with 2 species, and fish also with 2 species. The medicinal use of these species often reflects both empirical knowledge and symbolic associations linked to the animals' biological and behavioral characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the wild animal species used for therapeutic purposes, including their scientific names, the animal parts utilized, and the associated diseases or symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClasses of animals and their respective species used in traditional medicine: body parts utilized, methods of use, and therapeutic purposes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass/ Scientific Name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody Part\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrypturellus\u003c/em\u003e spp. Brabourne and Chubb, 1914\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSnake bite tea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRamphastos toco\u003c/em\u003e M\u0026uuml;ller, 1776\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeak\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea made from the burned beak for shortness of breath\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReptiles\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBothrops atox\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor high blood pressure; tea made from poison to treat snake bites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoison\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrink for snake bites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoa constrictor\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for COVID-19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLachesis muta\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpine Bone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for back pain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChelonoides denticulatus\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for back pain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsume to treat a hernia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaiman crocodilus\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeather\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for stroke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTupinambis teguixim\u003c/em\u003e Dum\u0026eacute;ril and Bibron, 1839\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApply to the body for allergies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMammals\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDicotyles tajacu\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for stroke, asthma, anemia, and pneumonia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHydrochoerus\u0026nbsp;hydrochaeris\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for back pain, stroke, and rheumatism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNail\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for hernia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEat fat for ulcers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePteronura brasiliensis\u003c/em\u003e Gmelin, 1788\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for those who choked on a fish bone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTamandua tetradactyla\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for stroke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for stroke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDidelphis marsupialis\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEat the fat to avoid labor pain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCunicullus paca\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSnake bite tea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGallbladder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoing through a knife;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrink for Malaria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoendou prehensilis\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThorns\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for stroke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSciurus\u003c/em\u003e spp. Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTooth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for a child who is about to have a tooth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTail\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for asthma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTayassu pecari\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1789\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea for pneumonia and stroke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFish\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePotamotrygon\u003c/em\u003e spp. Garman, 1877\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePass over the burn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eElectrophorus electricus\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEat fat for diabetes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, approximately 20 species of wild animals were recorded as being used in zootherapeutic practices. Mammals represented the most frequently used group (10 species), followed by reptiles (6 species), birds (2 species), and fish (2 species).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotable uses include: One prominent example is \u003cem\u003ePteronura brasiliensis\u003c/em\u003e, whose fur is used to prepare infusions believed to relieve choking caused by fishbones. Another species commonly mentioned was \u003cem\u003eDidelphis marsupialis\u003c/em\u003e, utilized by pregnant women to ease labor pains, presumably due to cultural interpretations of its reproductive behavior. Similarly, the teeth of \u003cem\u003eSciurus\u003c/em\u003e species are used in teas administered to infants in order to alleviate teething discomfort.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the reptilian species identified, \u003cem\u003eBothrops atrox\u003c/em\u003e stands out due to the frequent use of its body fat for the treatment of hypertension. Additionally, there were reports of venom ingestion by individuals who had previously experienced snakebites, under the belief that such practice neutralizes the effects of envenomation. \u003cem\u003eLachesis muta\u003c/em\u003e was also cited, with its vertebrae being used to prepare teas intended to relieve back pain. Another frequently used species was \u003cem\u003eChelonoidis denticulatus\u003c/em\u003e, whose fat is applied as a wound-healing agent, while tea made from its head is used in the treatment of asthma, and its burned shell is employed in infusions to mitigate lower back pain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral of these practices appear to be influenced by symbolic interpretations rather than solely by therapeutic effectiveness. The selection of specific animal species is often based on perceived analogies between the animals\u0026rsquo; characteristics and the symptoms or conditions being treated, reflecting a culturally embedded logic in the construction of traditional medicinal knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results indicate the strong cultural significance of zootherapeutic practices in western Amazonian communities. The high proportion of respondents who reported such practices (90%) reflects the persistence and embeddedness of animal-based therapies in local health systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the use of wildlife in traditional medicine is not typically classified as an immediate environmental threat (Souto et al., 2011), the targeted hunting of species for medicinal purposes — independent of food consumption — suggests increasing pressure on biodiversity. This practice parallels wildlife trafficking and unsustainable consumption of wild species, both of which are leading drivers of biodiversity loss (Rocha, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe predominant use of mammals, followed by reptiles, contrasts with findings from other Amazonian regions where fish species were more commonly used (Silva, 2008). These differences may reflect local ecological availability and specific sociocultural contexts that shape therapeutic choices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe selection of certain species appears to be guided by symbolic logic rooted in the animal's biological and behavioral traits. For instance, the use of \u003cem\u003eP. brasiliensis\u003c/em\u003e for treating fishbone choking may be attributed to its piscivorous diet, as perceived by local knowledge systems. However, this species also suffers from overhunting due to its perceived competition with human fishers (Marques, 1995), compounding the conservation risks it faces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, \u003cem\u003eD. marsupialis\u003c/em\u003e is employed by pregnant women owing to its reproductive traits, particularly its apparent resilience during childbirth. Such associations reflect traditional medical systems where ethological observations of animals inform their symbolic and therapeutic relevance (Moura and Marques, 2008). In the case of \u003cem\u003eSciurus spp.\u003c/em\u003e, the use of teeth for infant teething and of the penis in other contexts for treating sexual impotence (Bacelar \u0026amp; Canoê, 2011) illustrates how physical attributes of animals can carry complex cultural meanings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePractices involving venomous snakes, such as the ingestion of \u003cem\u003eB. atrox\u003c/em\u003e venom or the use of \u003cem\u003eL. muta\u003c/em\u003e vertebrae, reveal a localized understanding of envenomation and countermeasures. Similar uses have been documented in traditional communities of Pará (Lima et al., 2021), though the safety and efficacy of such practices remain poorly studied, raising concerns about public health risks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe widespread zootherapeutic use of \u003cem\u003eC. denticulatus\u003c/em\u003e aligns with ethnobiological records from other Amazonian regions (Oliveira et al., 2020), reaffirming this species’ significance in regional medical traditions. However, the unregulated exploitation of this and other species may exacerbate threats to their populations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn many traditional Amazonian belief systems, diseases are interpreted as imbalances in cosmic energy, and animals are viewed as mediators of spiritual and physical healing (Posey and Elisabetsky, 1991). Through contact or ingestion, it is believed that the animal’s energy can restore human well-being. While culturally significant, such practices may endanger vulnerable species and present health hazards to human populations (Cipriano et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the ecological and public health implications, it is essential to develop sustainable strategies that reconcile biodiversity conservation with the preservation of traditional knowledge. Public policies should focus on environmental education, regulation of wildlife use, and scientific validation of therapeutic claims. These efforts would support a balanced approach that both respects cultural heritage and promotes the sustainable use of Amazonian fauna.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participation Declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eParticipation was voluntary and occurred only after signing an informed consent form (two copies, one for the research team and the other for the participants).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval Declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Acre, protocol no. 4264284. All participants signed the Participation Consent Form and are protected by the General Data Protection Law of Brazilian Legislation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis study did not receive funding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eV.S.V.: Conceptualization, Investigation, methodology, writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, writing\u0026mdash;review and editing; D.G.S.R.: Validation, Investigation, writing\u0026mdash;review and editing; D.B.M.: Investigation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation; T.L.S.: Conceptualization, Investigation, methodology, writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation; M.J.C.: Investigation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation; M.N.O.: Investigation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation; M.I.A.S.: Conceptualization, Investigation, methodology, supervision, writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, writing\u0026mdash;review and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo Dr. Lucena Rocha Virg\u0026iacute;lio for all the support provided.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eALONSO-CASTRO A.J., CARRANZA-\u0026Aacute;LVAREZ C., MALDONADO-MIRANDA J.J., JACOBO-SALCEDO M.R., QUEZADA-RIVERA D.A., LORENZO-M\u0026Aacute;RQUEZ H., FIGUEROA-Z\u0026Uacute;\u0026Ntilde;IGA L.A., FERN\u0026Aacute;NDEZ-GALICIA C., R\u0026Iacute;OS-REYES N.A., DE LE\u0026Oacute;N-RUBIO M.\u0026Aacute;., RODR\u0026Iacute;GUEZ-GALLEGOS V., MEDELL\u0026Iacute;N-MIL\u0026Aacute;N P., 2011 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Zootherapeutic practices in Aquism\u0026oacute;n, San Luis Potos\u0026iacute;, M\u0026eacute;xico.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eJournal of Ethnopharmacology\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 138(1), 233\u0026ndash;237. 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Doi: 10.37118/ijdr.23133.11.2021\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLIRA T.M., CHAVES M.P.S.R., 2016 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Comunidades ribeirinhas na Amaz\u0026ocirc;nia: organiza\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o sociocultural e pol\u0026iacute;tica.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntera\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 17, 66\u0026ndash;76. Doi: 10.20435/1518-70122016107\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMARQUES J.G.W., 1995 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePescando pescadores: etnoecologia abrangente no baixo S\u0026atilde;o Francisco alagoano\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e.\u0026rdquo; S\u0026atilde;o Paulo, Brasil: N\u0026uacute;cleo de Apoio \u0026agrave; Pesquisa de Popula\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es Humanas em \u0026Aacute;reas \u0026Uacute;midas Brasileiras da Universidade de S\u0026atilde;o Paulo, pp. 307.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMART\u0026Iacute;NEZ G.J., 2013 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Use of fauna in the traditional medicine of native Toba (Qom) from the Argentine Gran Chaco region: an ethnozoological and conservationist approach.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthnobiology and Conservation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 2, 1-43. Doi: 10.15451/ec2013-8-2.2-1-43\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMOURA F.B.P., MARQUES J.G.W., 2008 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Zooterapia popular na Chapada Diamantina: uma medicina incidental?\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCi\u0026ecirc;nc \u0026amp; Sa\u0026uacute;de Coletiva\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 13, 2179\u0026ndash;2188. Doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232008000900023\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOLIVEIRA M.N., LOPES-FILHO I.I., VASCONCELOS V.S., BRAZIL M.V.S., COSTA E.N., SILVA M.I.A., SILVA T.L., 2020 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Exposi\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es cient\u0026iacute;ficas como ferramenta de coleta de dados para o desenvolvimento de estrat\u0026eacute;gias de conserva\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de tartarugas amaz\u0026ocirc;nicas.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnsaios e Ci\u0026ecirc;ncia: Ci\u0026ecirc;ncias Biol\u0026oacute;gicas, Agr\u0026aacute;rias e da Sa\u0026uacute;de\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 24(3), 289\u0026ndash;292. Doi: 10.17921/1415-6938.2020v24n3p289-292\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePOSEY D.A., ELISABETSKY E., 1991 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Conceitos de animais e seus esp\u0026iacute;ritos em rela\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o a doen\u0026ccedil;as e curas entre os \u0026iacute;ndios Kayap\u0026oacute; da Aldeia Gorotire, Par\u0026aacute;.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoletim do Museu Paraense Em\u0026iacute;lio Goeldi s\u0026eacute;rie Antropologia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 7(1), 21\u0026ndash;36.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQUADROS N.R.F.R., NEVES J.D.V., QUADROS J.P.F., 2023 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Revaloriza\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o dos saberes amaz\u0026ocirc;nicos em sa\u0026uacute;de: explorando novas possibilidades de pr\u0026aacute;ticas integrativas e complementares (PICS) no contexto decolonial.\u0026rdquo;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e Humanidades \u0026amp; Inova\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 10(14), 364\u0026ndash;367.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eROCHA A.C.L., 2023 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Tr\u0026aacute;fico de animais silvestres: Uma amea\u0026ccedil;a \u0026agrave; biodiversidade e uma viola\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o dos direitos dos animais.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePeri\u0026oacute;dico de Ci\u0026ecirc;ncias Biol\u0026oacute;gicas da\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eUNIVASF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 2(3), 19\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSILVA A.L., 2008 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Medicinal animals: Knowledge and use among riverine populations of the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoletim do Museu Paraense Em\u0026iacute;lio Goeldi s\u0026eacute;rie Ci\u0026ecirc;ncias Humanas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 3, 343\u0026ndash;357. Doi: 10.1590/S1981-81222008000300005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSOEWU D.A., 2008 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Wild animals in ethnozoological practices among the Yorubas of southwestern Nigeria and the implications for biodiversity conservation.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 3(6), 421-427. Doi: 10.5897/AJAR.9000765\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSOUTO W.M.S., VIEIRA W.L.S., MONTENEGRO P.F.G., ALVES H.N., ALVES R.R.N., 2011 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Breve revis\u0026atilde;o sobre uso de fauna medicinal no Brasil: Aspectos hist\u0026oacute;ricos, farmacol\u0026oacute;gicos e de conserva\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o.\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSitientibus S\u0026eacute;rie Ci\u0026ecirc;ncias Biol\u0026oacute;gicas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 2, 201\u0026ndash;210. Doi: 10.13102/scb71\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTEIXEIRA J.V.S., SANTOS J.S., GUANAES D.H.A., ROCHA W.D., SCHIAVETTI A., 2020 \u0026ndash; \u0026ldquo;Uses of wild vertebrates in traditional medicine by farmers in the region surrounding the Serra do Conduru State Park (Bahia, Brazil).\u0026rdquo; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eBiota Neotropica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e 20, e20190793. Doi: 10.1590/1676-0611-BN-2019-0793\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"human-ecology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"huec","sideBox":"Learn more about [Human Ecology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10745)","snPcode":"10745","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10745/3","title":"Human Ecology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Amazon, Tea, Mammals, Traditional medicine, Hunting animals","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917554/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917554/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHunting plays a significant role in the lives of traditional communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Most animals are hunted for consumption; however, some species are killed solely for therapeutic purposes, further compromising their biology and conservation of certain species. A study conducted in the Paran\u0026atilde; da Floresta community in the far western Amazon revealed that 90% of the interviewees use animals for therapeutic purposes, with some hunting specifically for medicinal reasons. This practice not only puts pressure on local fauna but also contributes to the population decline of several species. The therapeutic use of animals highlights the complex relationship between human communities and wildlife, highlighting the importance of harmonizing biodiversity conservation with recognition of local cultural traditions. Given the negative impact of traditional medicinal practices on biodiversity, it is crucial to promote conservation strategies that protect the natural resources of the Amazon and the well-being of local communities. Sustainable approaches that integrate environmental education with scientific research on the therapeutic properties of animals could help reconcile traditional knowledge with wildlife preservation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Community perspectives on the use of hunting fauna as zootherapeutics in a traditional community in the Brazilian Amazon","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-26 16:06:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917554/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-24T17:17:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-24T14:47:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"164743285225843459473975974833745702933","date":"2025-08-25T12:48:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-24T23:03:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"303867032255665928577995742067386100382","date":"2025-06-26T01:59:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-24T13:01:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-24T01:38:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-24T01:37:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Human Ecology","date":"2025-06-17T22:07:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"human-ecology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"huec","sideBox":"Learn more about [Human Ecology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10745)","snPcode":"10745","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10745/3","title":"Human Ecology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c5626568-1266-4344-9e17-2804b94211ea","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:13:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6917554","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-026-00687-0","journal":{"identity":"human-ecology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Human Ecology"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-01 15:58:30","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 1st, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-26 16:06:08","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10745-026-00687-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-026-00687-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6917554","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6917554","identity":"rs-6917554","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}