Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Treatment in Gamba Village, North Region of Cameroon: Ethnopharmacological Survey; In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous Extracts of Khaya Senegalensis Bark.

Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Treatment in Gamba Village, North Region of Cameroon: Ethnopharmacological Survey; In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous Extracts of Khaya Senegalensis Bark. | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Treatment in Gamba Village, North Region of Cameroon: Ethnopharmacological Survey; In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous Extracts of Khaya Senegalensis Bark. Davy-Hyacinthe Anguechia Gouissi, Roselyne Teponging Nzangue, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-438203/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: In traditional medicine, the floral diversity permits the inhabitants of North Cameroon to use a great number of plants to fight against Malaria. The aim of this study was to identify plants used in traditional medicine to treat malaria, and to verify the scientific basis for the use of one of these plants in the locality of Gamba. Methods : An Ethnopharmacological survey was carried out on 15 traditional healers. We collected data on use of medicinal plants using questionnaires. Then in-vivo antimalarial activity of the decoctioned and macerated aqueous extracts of khaya senegalensis trunk bark was evaluated. The 4-day suppressive peters test was realised on mus musculus swiss albino mice. On day one, mice were infected with 10 7 plasmodium berghei parasitized red blood cells through intra-peritoneal inoculation. 2 hours after infestation, mice in batches of 6 were treated orally at a dose of 75, 150.300 mg/Kg for macerated aqueous extract and 65, 120.260 mg/Kg for decoctioned extract daily during 3 days at an administration volume of 10 ml/Kg. An extract was considered (% reduction): Highly active (between 100-90 %); moderate (between 90-50 %); weak (between 50-10 %); Inactive (between 0 %). P-values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results: A total of 18 plant species belonging to 12 families were identified for the preparation of 12 recipes. The decocted aqueous extract of khaya senegalensis showed moderate anti-plasmodial activity (% reduction = 52.46%) at the highest dose of 260 mg/kg with p<0.001 compared to the positive control group. The aqueous macerate at doses of 150 and 300mg/kg gave respectively a percentage reduction of parasitaemia of 59.42% and 71.80% and also showed moderate anti-plasmodial activity; with p<0.001 between the different extracts and the positive control (99.18%). Conclusion: In conclusion, extracts of khaya senegalensis showed moderate anti-plasmodial activity. It would therefore be necessary to evaluate the anti-malarial activity in-vivo and the toxicity of the aqueous extracts macerated using other solvents and also test the other plants listed. Infectious Diseases Malaria Ethnopharmacology Antimalarial activity Gamba Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Malaria is a parasitosis affecting humans, rodents and monkeys. It is a hemopathy due to a haematozoan of the genus Plasmodium sp. , transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles . There are five species responsible for this disease in humans: P. vivax , P. ovale , P. malariae , P. falciparum and P. knowlesii , but the most harmful and widespread remains Plasmodium falciparum [ 1 , 2 ]. This disease mainly affects populations living in endemic areas (intertropical zones) and remains the world's leading parasitic endemic. Synthetic antimalarial drugs (nivaquine, flavoquine, mefloquine, artesunate etc.) have expanded the possibilities offered by quinine and artemisinin, natural antimalarial drugs and insecticides [ 3 ]. These antimalarial drugs raised hopes that malaria would be eradicated. Unfortunately, the germs of malaria are still far from being defeated, malaria is on the rise. According to the WHO 2020 report, the number of malaria cases is estimated at 229 million in 2019. The african region alone 94% of cases[ 4 ].In 2019, Cameroon has 2,628,191 confirmed cases of malaria with a percentage of deaths of 18.3%[ 5 ]. The principal problem with the treatment using these classical synthetic drugs is that of plasmodium drug resistance. Moreover, the female Anopheles mosquitoes, the vectors that carry the parasites are now resistant to insecticides and the parasites themselves are increasingly less sensitive to the usual drugs. [ 6 , 7 ]. It is therefore urgent to research alternative therapies. One of the solutions to these problems is to valorise anti-malarial medicinal plants and traditional know-how and knowledge through an ethno-pharmacological approach. Despite the scientific advances made by modern medicine, 80% of the African population still use traditional medicine in primary health care [ 8 ]. The flora in the locality of Gamba, like everywhere else in the Northern region of Cameroon is rich and varied [ 9 ]. This richness and diversity in flora enables the inhabitants of this locality to use a large number of plants to fight against diseases such as malaria. This study therefore, which aimed at valorizing African medicinal plants and the know-how of herbal therapists, had as main objective, cataloguing the anti-malarial recipes made from medicinal plants in the locality of Gamba and evaluate the scientific basis of the use of the most cited plants in order to develop an improved traditional medicine that is effective, safe and accessible to low-income families. Specifically, we sought to carry-out an ethnopharmacological survey, with the aim of making an inventory of anti-malarial medicinal plants used by phytotherapists and to assess the scientific basis of the use of one of the plants through the evaluation of the anti-malarial activity in vivo using the murine model Plasmodium berghei / Swiss white mouse of Mus musculus type. Material And Methods Ethnopharmacological survey Plant samples were collected during an ethnopharmacological survey from August 1st to September 2nd 2017 from 15 traditional doctors in the locality of Gamba (Fig. 1 ). With the help of a botanist technician, the species collected were identified using the national herbarium of Cameroon. Antimalarial activity Studied Plants The barks of Khaya senegalensis stems were collected in GAMBA, a village located along the national road n 0 1in the department of Mayo-Rey, North region of Cameroon and identified by a plant taxonomist. Khaya senegalensis specimens are deposited under N◦ 49 688 at the National Herbarium of Cameroon (Yaoundé). Preparation of Khaya senegalensis extracts The fresh bark of Khaya senegalensis was dried at room temperature away from sunlight and moisture. Decoctions were prepared by boiling 60 g of Khaya senegalensis bark powder in 350 ml of water for 15 minutes. For maceration, 60 g of Khaya senegalensis bark powder was extracted in 350 ml of cold distilled water for 24 hours, then filtered using a Wattman N o 1 filter paper, the decoction and maceration were evaporated in an oven at 40°C and 6g of a brown colored solid was obtained. The yields of the decocted (black powder) and macerated (brown powder) were 11.6% and 10% respectively. Experimental animals The animal species chosen for this study were naive female white mus musculus swiss albino mice aged 8–12 weeks and weighing between 18–26 grams. They were purchased from the National Veterinary Laboratory of Garoua, North Cameroon, then bred in a pet shop and maintained in a light/dark cycle of 12 hours at room temperature with access to food and water. All animals were fasted prior to all tests and were randomly assigned to 5 experimental groups, each of 6 mice. In vivo anti-plasmodial efficacy assessment A strain of Plasmodium berghei was used to evaluate the antimalarial activity in vivo. On the day of the test, donor mice previously infected with Plasmodium berghei were anaesthetized by injection of 100 µL of a mixture of Diazepam550/Ketamine (50mg/ml). The infected blood (with ~ 30%-50% parasitaemia) was then drawn by cardiac puncture from the right atrium and collected in tubes containing an anticoagulant (EDTA). The collected parasitized blood was diluted in physiological water (Sodium Chloride 0.9%) such that 200 µl of blood contained 10 7 infected red blood cells. Assessment of in vivo antiplasmodial activity Mice who had previously undergone overnight fasting (48 mice), were weighed and divided into 8 batches of 6 mice each. Two hours after infection with 0.2 ml of blood containing 10 7 intraperitoneally parasitized red blood cells, the first 3 batches received doses of 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg/day respectively of the macerated extract, and the 3 other batches received 65, 130, 260 mg/kg/day respectively of the decocted extract for 4 consecutive days, while the remaining 2 batches received respectively quinine at 10 mg/kg/day (positive control group) and 10 ml/kg of distilled water (negative control group) for 4 consecutive days (D0-D4) using an oral feeding tube. On the fifth day (D5), the mice were weighed and thin blood smears made from blood taken from their tails were fixed using methanol, stained with 10% Giemsa and read with an optical microscope using the X100 objective. Parasitaemia was evaluated using the equation [ 10 ]: The percentage reduction in parasitaemia was used to assess antimalarial activity and determined according to the following equation [ 10 ] : Where, C : is the average percent parasitemia in the control group ; T : the average percent parasitemia in the treated group. The scale of appreciation of the anti-malarial activity of Rasoanaivo plant extracts made it possible to determine the parasitological effectiveness of our extracts [ 11 ]. For an extract tested at a dose ≤ 300 mg/kg, its activity was considered: Highly active (% reduction was found between 100 and 90 %) ; moderate ( % reduction was found between 90 and 50 % ; weak ( % reduction was found between 50 and 10 %. ); Inactive ( % reduction was 0 %.). Statistical analysis Sphinx 2-V5 software was used to prepare the questionnaire and analyze the data collected from the traditional practitioners. Stat graphics® software was used to perform the one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). Fischer's test was used to compare the results of the antimalarial test and p-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results Ethnopharmacological study: A total of 18 plant species belonging to 12 families were recorded during this study. The importance of the plants was materialized by their citation frequencies (CF). The most frequently cited species are: Azadirachta indica (CF = 87%), Khaya senegalensis , Eucalyptus globulus , Nauclea latifolia with CF = 60% each (Table 1 ) In vivo antiplasmodial activity Effect of the decocted aqueous extract on mouse parasitemia: The mean parasitemia values determined in the treated groups ranged from 19.50 to 26.56% (Table 2 ). There was a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the different extracts and the negative control 40.67% (p < 0,01). Effect of the macerated aqueous extract on parasitemia in mice: The mean parasitemia values determined in the treated groups ranged from 16.83 to 24.17% depending on the dose, compared to the negative control values of 40.67%. There was a very significant difference (p < 0.01) between the different extracts and the negative control (Table 2 ). Table 1 Antimalarial medicinal plants from Gamba locality. Plant Families Plant Species Local name frequency of citation (%) Plant part(s)used Mode of preparation Application mode Accession number Fabaceae Senna siamea (lam.) Irvin Acassia 53 leaves Decoction oral HNC.n°25 661 Senna javanica /cassia javanica l Gamoye 40 bark Maceration oral HNC.n°45 764 Burseraceae Boswellia dalziellii hutch. Nzapi 40 leaves Decoction oral HNC.n°39 928 Boswellia papyrifera robbr. Ex colebr. Nzap 47 bark Decoction oral HNC.n°39 949 Caealpiniaceae senna alata (l.) Roxb. Kenkelibaa 20 Whole plant Decoction bath + oral HNC.n°57 704 Senna occidentalis (l.) Link Faux kenkeliba 27 Whole plant Decoction bath + oral HNC.n° 7 848 Rubiaceae Nauclea latifolia sm. Demhock 60 roots Decoction oral HNC.n°20 144 Limiaceae Ocimum basilicum l Baselic 20 Whole plant Decoction oral HNC.n°42 757 Ocimum gratissimum l. Ikaa 20 Whole plant Decoction oral HNC.n°49 083 Asteraceae Vernonia guineensis bak Kougue 20 root Decoction anal HNC.n°24 247 Meliaceae Khaya senegalensis Staapo 60 bark Decoction ou maceration oral HNC.n°49 688 Azadirachta indica a. Juss/neem Neem 87 leaves Decoction oral HNC.n° 4 447 Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptus 60 leaves Decoction oral HNC.n° 4 077 Zingberceae Zingiber officinale rosc Djidja 20 Whole plant Decoction oral HNC.n°43 146 Caricaceae Carica papaya l.] Doukoudje 33 leaves Infusion oral Hnc.n°18 647 Myrtaceae Psidium guajava l Guayave 27 leaves Decoction oral Hnc.n°65 619 Mimosaceae Entada africana guill. & perr. Ewandoue 47 leaves Infusion oral HNC.n°49 693 Euphorbiacae Manihot esculenta crantz Mbaye 13 leaves Decoction bath HNC.n°18 619 Table 2 Effects of Khaya Senegalensis extracts on Plasmodium berghei parasitemia. Treatment groups Dose (mg/Kg/day) Mean Parasitemia(%) ± SD Maceration 75 24.17 ± 1.17 *a 150 16.83 ± 1.83 * b 300 12.17 ± 2.04 *c Distilled water 10ml/Kg 40.67 ± 3.33 *d Quinine 10 0.33 ± 0.52 * Decoction 65 26.50 ± 2.16 *a 130 21.00 ± 1.67 *b 260 19.50 ± 1.64 *b Distilled water 10ml/Kg 40.67 ± 3.33 *c Quinine 10 0.33 ±0.52 * * indicates a statistically significant difference. The different letters (a-c) highlight the significant differences between the groups. Effect of treatment with macerated and decocted aqueous extract on the percentage reduction of parasitaemia Generally, tests carried out in vivo with the aqueous extracts showed a reduction in parasitaemia proportional to the doses administered. The aqueous macerate at doses of 75, 150 and 300mg/kg gave respectively a percentage reduction of parasitemia of 39.74%, 59.42%, and 71.80% (Fig. 3). There was a significant difference (p < 0.001) between the different extracts and the positive control (99.18%). Quinine showed a significant reduction of parasitemia 1.4 times higher than the macerated extract at the 300mg/kg dose. The percentages of parasitemia reduction with the decocted aqueous extracts were 34.84, 48.36 and 52.46% respectively at the doses of 65, 130 and 260 mg/kg body weight of the animals although not significant at the two highest doses (P < 0.05) (Fig. 2). Quinine showed a reduction in parasitemia approximately two-times higher than the decocted extract at 260 mg/kg dose. Discussion A total of 18 medicinal plants belonging to 12 families have been registered. A general review of the literature on these medicinal plants showed that they are also used in many African countries in the treatment of malaria, such as in Ghana: Carica papaya, Khaya senegalensis , Nauclea latifolia, Azadirachta indica, Psidium guajava [ 12 ]; in Ivory coast: Ocimum gratissum, Entada Africana, Vernonia guineens [ 13 , 14 ]; in Uganda : Carica papaya; Boswellia papyrifera, vernonia guineensis [ 15 ]; and in Nigeria: Boswellia dalziellii, Eucalyptus globulus, Senna siamea [ 16 ]. This consensus among users in different countries reflects the importance of medicinal plants to African populations, and the fact that these same plants are used by different communities for the same purpose could possibly indicate their effectiveness. Previous laboratory studies provide evidence to support the anti-malarial activity of many plant species harvested in the locality of Gamba as shown in Appendix 1 which presents the antiplasmodial activity and phytochemical characteristics that confirm their traditional use. In general, in vivo antimalarial activity tests in mice infected with P. berghei showed a dose-dependent reduction in parasitemia in mice parasitized with the tested extracts and quinine. Compared to the Rosanaivo scale, the decocted aqueous extract which gave percentage reductions of 34.84%, 48.36% respectively at doses of 65 and 130 mg/kg body weight had a low activity, while at 260 mg/kg the extract had a moderate activity (52.46%). The antiplasmodial activity of the macerated extract (39.74%) at the 75mg/kg dose reflected a low antiplasmodial activity, compared to the other two doses of 150 and 300 mg/kg, the reduction in parasitemia was 59.41% and 71.79% respectively reflecting a moderate antiplasmodial activity about twice as high as the decocted extract at the 260 mg/kg dose. At the administration dose of 300 mg/kg, the parasite inhibition by the aqueous macerate was 71.80% whereas at the dose of 10 mg/kg, quinine resulted in 99.18% parasite inhibition. The parasite inhibition of quinine could probably be matched by doubling the dosage and/or optimizing the extraction. The macerate showed better parasitic inhibition than the decocted one. This means that the aqueous decoction was less active than the macerate. This could be related to the boiling temperature, which may have destroyed certain bioactive chemical compounds [ 17 ]. The antimalarial drug of reference remains largely more effective than the macerated extract. This is easily understandable when we know that quinine (a fast-acting schizonticide) is a pure molecule [ 18 ], while the aqueous macerate is an agglomerate of chemical molecules that can act synergistically or develop antagonism. An isolation of the active molecules responsible for the anti-malarial activity, would allow a much more reliable comparative study to be made. At this stage of the study, it would be difficult to make any structure-activity relationship but we can say that the activity observed could be due to all the chemical groups identified in our extracts according to the literature. Indeed certain phytochemical studies carried out on Khaya senegalensis bark have revealed the presence of saponins, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, etc[ 19 , 20 ]. Studies have shown that the alkaloids and terpenoids of the plants would have an activity on plasmodium falciparum by shizonicidal action. A blood schizonticide is an active product against asexual forms of the blood (cause of clinical manifestations) and cures malaria. Alkaloids are believed to inhibit the polymerization of the haemoglobin heme and thus prevent the reproduction of plasmodium. And terpenoids block an enzyme ,Ca++-ATPase which allows the parasite to pump calcium and thus prevent it from developing. [ 21 ]. The limoïdes which are terpenoids were indeed highlighted in this plant. [ 22 ]. A study showed that limoids from the meliacae family had moderate activity on Plasmodium berghei [ 23 ]. On the other hand, only one in vitro study on khaya senegalensis was found to confer good antiplasmodial activity on the chloroquino-resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum with an IC50 of 5.5 µg/ml [ 24 ]. Moderate in vivo activity may also be due to low oral bioavailability of certain chemical molecules. With these results, Khaya senegalensis cannot exert its activity only by direct action against parasites, the beneficial therapeutic effects claimed by patients could also be due to the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating activities described for this plant [ 25 , 26 ]. Conclusions It appeared from this study that the locality of Gamba has an interesting floristic biodiversity in terms of antimalarial plants. The plants listed in this study constitute a panel that can serve as a starting point for biological screening in the laboratory. The macerated aqueous extract of Khaya senegalensis bark showed the highest antiplasmodial activity compared to the decocted aqueous extract. However, this activity remained moderate. These results allowed us to conclude that although presenting a moderate activity on Plasmodium Berghei in vivo and a good in vitro activity, Khaya senegalensis had a possible antiplasmodial activity. It would therefore be necessary to evaluate the in vivo antimalarial activity of Khaya senegalensis bark using other extractive solvents and to evaluate the in vivo antimalarial activity and toxicity of other listed plants. Abbreviations CF : citation frequencies CP : Positive control. D : days EDTA : Ethylene Diamine Tetra-acetic Acid HNC : National Herbarium of Cameroon P : Plasmodium WHO: World Health Organization Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Although our work did not involve human subjects, we followed all the rules laid down by the regulations in force concerning work involving animals at the University of Ngaoundere . Consent for publication: Not Applicable Availability of data and materials: Not Applicable Conflict of interests: The authors report no competing of interest in this work. Funding : This review did not receive any specific grant. Authors’ Contributions: Davy-Hyacinthe Anguechia Gouissi, Roselyne Teponging Nzangue were responsible for the conception, integrity and reliability of the study. Davy-Hyacinthe Anguechia Gouissi, Josue Haskandi Kalaza, Siméon Pierre Fodouop Chegaing, contributed in the write up and data analysis. All authors took part in the acquisition and analysis of data or interpretation of results, and also examined and approved the final version of the write up. Acknowledgements: We are very appreciative for the traditional doctors of the Gamba village, who provided us with their knowledge on anti-malarial plants. References Hayakawa T, Culleton R, Otani H, Horii T, Tanabe K. Big Bang in the Evolution of Extant Malaria Parasites. Mol Biol Evol. 1 oct 2008;25(10):2233‑9. 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In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Essential Oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on Mice Infected with Plasmodium berghei . Planta Med. janv 2005;71(1):20‑3. Nweze EI, Eze EE. Justification for the use of Ocimum gratissimum L in herbal medicine and its interaction with disc antibiotics. BMC Complement Altern Med [Internet]. déc 2009 [cité 29 nov 2017];9(1). Disponible sur: http://bmccomplementalternmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6882-9-37 Toyang NJ, Krause MA, Fairhurst RM, Tane P, Bryant J, Verpoorte R. Antiplasmodial activity of sesquiterpene lactones and a sucrose ester from Vernonia guineensis Benth. (Asteraceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 3 juin 2013;147(3):618‑21. Ugoh SC, Agarry OO, Garba SA. Studies on the antibacterial activity of Khaya senegalensis [(Desr.) A. Juss)] stem bark extract on Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi [(ex Kauffmann and Edwards) Le Minor and Popoff]. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 1 mai 2014;4(Supplement 1):S279‑83. Njayou FN, Aboudi ECE, Tandjang MK, Tchana AK, Ngadjui BT, Moundipa PF. Hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities of stem bark extract of Khaya grandifoliola (Welw) C. DC and Entada africana Guill. et Perr. J Nat Prod. 2013;6:73–80. Prawat H, Mahidol C, Ruchirawat S, Prawat U, Tuntiwachwuttikul P, Tooptakong U, et al. Cyanogenic and non-cyanogenic glycosides from Manihot esculenta. Phytochemistry. 1 nov 1995;40(4):1167‑73. Anagu OL, Attama AA, Okore VC, Gugu HT, Ngene AA, Esimone CO. Azadirachta indica extract-artesunic acid combination produces an increased cure rate of Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. Pharm Biol. juill 2014;52(7):883‑9. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Caneva G, Toniolo C, Nicoletti M. Ethnobotanical uses of neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.; Meliaceae) leaves in Bali (Indonesia) and the Indian subcontinent in relation with historical background and phytochemical properties. J Ethnopharmacol. 2 août 2016;189:186‑93. Zofou D, Tene M, Ngemenya MN, Tane P, Titanji VPK. In Vitro Antiplasmodial Activity and Cytotoxicity of Extracts of Selected Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers of Western Cameroon [Internet]. Malaria Research and Treatment. 2011 [cité 29 nov 2017]. Disponible sur: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/mrt/2011/561342/abs/ Pereira SI, Freire CSR, Neto CP, Silvestre AJD, Silva AMS. Chemical composition of the essential oil distilled from the fruits of Eucalyptus globulus grown in Portugal. Flavour Fragr J. 1 juill 2005;20(4):407‑9. Ahmad I, Zahin M, Aqil F, Hasan S, Khan MSA, Owais M. Bioactive compounds from Punica granatum, Curcuma longa and Zingiber officinale and their therapeutic potential. Drugs Future. 2008;33(4):329. Ali BH, Blunden G, Tanira MO, Nemmar A. Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food Chem Toxicol. 1 févr 2008;46(2):409‑20. Kovendan K, Murugan K, Panneerselvam C, Aarthi N, Kumar PM, Subramaniam J, et al. Antimalarial activity of Carica papaya (Family: Caricaceae) leaf extract against Plasmodium falciparum. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 1 janv 2012;2(Supplement 1):S306‑11. Schweiggert RM, Steingass CB, Mora E, Esquivel P, Carle R. Carotenogenesis and physico-chemical characteristics during maturation of red fleshed papaya fruit (Carica papaya L.). Food Res Int. 1 juin 2011;44(5):1373‑80. Gutiérrez RMP, Mitchell S, Solis RV. Psidium guajava: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. avr 2008;117(1):1‑27. Appendix APPENDIX : Physicochemical and antimalarial properties of plants Species physicochemical properties Antimarial activity Senna siamea (Lam.) Irvin & Barneby Triterpenoids, anthraquinones, flavonoïds In vitro antplasmodial activity [27] Alkaloïds [28] Senna javanica /Cassia javanica L Anthraquinone, Javanins, quercétins ; alkaloïds In vitro antplasmodial activity [29] Quercetin [30] Boswellia papyrifera Robbr. ex Colebr. triterpens : β-amyrin, α-amyrin, β-amyrenon acétate d' ocyle , acide α-boswellic [31] Senna alata (L.) Roxb. tanins, stéroïdes, alkaloïdes, anthraquinones, terpens In vitro antplasmodial activity [32] saponines[33] Senna occidentalis (L.) Link chrysophanol saponins, alkaloïds, sterols, triterpenoids, In vitro antplasmodial activity [32] , tanins et flavonoïds [34] Nauclea latifolia Sm. Akcaloïds , saponins and catechic tannins In vivo antplasmodial activity [35] c[36] Ocimum basilicum L Tanins, Phenolic compound , steroïds [38] In vitro antplasmodial activity [39] Ocimum gratissimum L. Saponins, flavonoïds,tanins, reducing sugar , In vivo antplasmodial activity [40] anthroquinone[41] vernonia guineensis BAK sesquiterpene lactones , ester saccharose [42] antplasmodial activity [42] Khaya senegalensis A. Juss./Cailcédrat saponines, tanins, phlobatannins, flavonoïds, terpenoïds alkaloïdes, anthroquinones [43] Entada Africana Guill. & Perr. Flavonoïds, tannins, polyphénols [44] Manihot esculenta Crantz flavonoïds,saponins, lotaustraline, , Glycosids cyanogenic, non-cyanogenic [45] Azadirachta indica A. Juss/Neem Diterpen, triterpens, phénoliques ; Flavonoïds ; Tannins In vivo antplasmodial activity [46] Alcaloïdes ; [47] Eucalyptus globulus Sesquiterpènes, tanin , Robustaol A, Robustadial B In vitro antplasmodial activity [48] pinène [49] Zingiber officinale Rosc sesquiterpene hydrocarbons , sesquiterpene alcohols In vitro antplasmodial activity [50] gingerols and shogaols [51] Carica papaya L.] Anthraquinone; Terpénoïds ; Flavonoïds, Saponins; Tanins In vitro antplasmodial activity [52] alkaloïds, cardiac glycosides [53] Psidium guajava L phenolic compounds and flavonoids; triterpenic acids tanin[54] In vitro antplasmodial activity [54] Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Note: The designations employed and the presentation of the material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Research Square concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This map has been provided by the authors.","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-438203/v1/d0f384101fa9bef8886dc01e.jpg"},{"id":8247145,"identity":"4df4b88b-94bf-4d84-88c4-b8b8ea450bde","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-20 21:06:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"% reduction of parasitaemia aqueous extracts decocted; (The different letters (a-c) highlight the significant differences between the groups.) CP: Positive control.","description":"","filename":"Figure2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-438203/v1/167e4b97a7b08a8279892e91.jpg"},{"id":8247251,"identity":"c9f91740-2370-4dfd-89bd-4b29d22d244b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-20 21:09:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25124,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"% reduction of parasitaemia macerated aqueous extract (The different letters (a-c) highlight the significant differences between the groups.) CP: Positive control.","description":"","filename":"Figure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-438203/v1/29479afac62d6d9f5513f31c.jpg"},{"id":15673581,"identity":"17da34fa-e65b-4a9a-8afd-2254cc17a9d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-11-18 14:18:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":735170,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-438203/v1/8c94ce90-97e5-4401-a5cb-d15ce245bc2b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eMedicinal Plants Used for Malaria Treatment in Gamba Village, North Region of Cameroon: Ethnopharmacological Survey; \u003cem\u003eIn\u003c/em\u003e Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous Extracts of \u003cem\u003eKhaya Senegalensis Bark.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":" \u003cp\u003eMalaria is a parasitosis affecting humans, rodents and monkeys. It is a hemopathy due to a haematozoan of the genus \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium sp.\u003c/em\u003e, transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e. There are five species responsible for this disease in humans: \u003cem\u003eP. vivax\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. ovale\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. malariae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. falciparum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP. knowlesii\u003c/em\u003e, but the most harmful and widespread remains \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium falciparum\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. This disease mainly affects populations living in endemic areas (intertropical zones) and remains the world's leading parasitic endemic. Synthetic antimalarial drugs (nivaquine, flavoquine, mefloquine, artesunate etc.) have expanded the possibilities offered by quinine and artemisinin, natural antimalarial drugs and insecticides [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. These antimalarial drugs raised hopes that malaria would be eradicated. Unfortunately, the germs of malaria are still far from being defeated, malaria is on the rise. According to the WHO 2020 report, the number of malaria cases is estimated at 229\u0026nbsp;million in 2019. The african region alone 94% of cases[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].In 2019, Cameroon has 2,628,191 confirmed cases of malaria with a percentage of deaths of 18.3%[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The principal problem with the treatment using these classical synthetic drugs is that of plasmodium drug resistance. Moreover, the female Anopheles mosquitoes, the vectors that carry the parasites are now resistant to insecticides and the parasites themselves are increasingly less sensitive to the usual drugs. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. It is therefore urgent to research alternative therapies. One of the solutions to these problems is to valorise anti-malarial medicinal plants and traditional know-how and knowledge through an ethno-pharmacological approach. Despite the scientific advances made by modern medicine, 80% of the African population still use traditional medicine in primary health care [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The flora in the locality of Gamba, like everywhere else in the Northern region of Cameroon is rich and varied [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. This richness and diversity in flora enables the inhabitants of this locality to use a large number of plants to fight against diseases such as malaria. This study therefore, which aimed at valorizing African medicinal plants and the know-how of herbal therapists, had as main objective, cataloguing the anti-malarial recipes made from medicinal plants in the locality of Gamba and evaluate the scientific basis of the use of the most cited plants in order to develop an improved traditional medicine that is effective, safe and accessible to low-income families. Specifically, we sought to carry-out an ethnopharmacological survey, with the aim of making an inventory of anti-malarial medicinal plants used by phytotherapists and to assess the scientific basis of the use of one of the plants through the evaluation of the anti-malarial activity \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e using the murine model \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium berghei / Swiss white mouse\u003c/em\u003e of \u003cem\u003eMus musculus\u003c/em\u003e type.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Material And Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthnopharmacological survey\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlant samples were collected during an ethnopharmacological survey from August 1st to September 2nd 2017 from 15 traditional doctors in the locality of Gamba (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). With the help of a botanist technician, the species collected were identified using the national herbarium of Cameroon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAntimalarial activity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eStudied Plants\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe barks of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e stems were collected in GAMBA, a village located along the national road n\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e1in the department of Mayo-Rey, North region of Cameroon and identified by a plant taxonomist. \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e specimens are deposited under N◦ 49 688 at the National Herbarium of Cameroon (Yaound\u0026eacute;).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePreparation of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis \u003c/em\u003eextracts\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fresh bark of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e was dried at room temperature away from sunlight and moisture. Decoctions were prepared by boiling 60 g of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e bark powder in 350 ml of water for 15 minutes. For maceration, 60 g of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e bark powder was extracted in 350 ml of cold distilled water for 24 hours, then filtered using a Wattman N\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 1 filter paper, the decoction and maceration were evaporated in an oven at 40\u0026deg;C and 6g of a brown colored solid was obtained. The yields of the decocted (black powder) and macerated (brown powder) were 11.6% and 10% respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eExperimental animals\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe animal species chosen for this study were naive female white \u003cem\u003emus musculus swiss\u003c/em\u003e albino mice aged 8\u0026ndash;12 weeks and weighing between 18\u0026ndash;26 grams. They were purchased from the National Veterinary Laboratory of Garoua, North Cameroon, then bred in a pet shop and maintained in a light/dark cycle of 12 hours at room temperature with access to food and water. All animals were fasted prior to all tests and were randomly assigned to 5 experimental groups, each of 6 mice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eIn vivo anti-plasmodial efficacy assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA strain of \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium berghei\u003c/em\u003e was used to evaluate the antimalarial activity in vivo. On the day of the test, donor mice previously infected with \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium berghei\u003c/em\u003e were anaesthetized by injection of 100 \u0026micro;L of a mixture of Diazepam550/Ketamine (50mg/ml). The infected blood (with ~\u0026thinsp;30%-50% parasitaemia) was then drawn by cardiac puncture from the right atrium and collected in tubes containing an anticoagulant (EDTA). The collected parasitized blood was diluted in physiological water (Sodium Chloride 0.9%) such that 200 \u0026micro;l of blood contained 10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e infected red blood cells.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAssessment of in vivo antiplasmodial activity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMice who had previously undergone overnight fasting (48 mice), were weighed and divided into 8 batches of 6 mice each. Two hours after infection with 0.2 ml of blood containing 10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e intraperitoneally parasitized red blood cells, the first 3 batches received doses of 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg/day respectively of the macerated extract, and the 3 other batches received 65, 130, 260 mg/kg/day respectively of the decocted extract for 4 consecutive days, while the remaining 2 batches received respectively quinine at 10 mg/kg/day (positive control group) and 10 ml/kg of distilled water (negative control group) for 4 consecutive days (D0-D4) using an oral feeding tube. On the fifth day (D5), the mice were weighed and thin blood smears made from blood taken from their tails were fixed using methanol, stained with 10% Giemsa and read with an optical microscope using the X100 objective. Parasitaemia was evaluated using the equation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe percentage reduction in parasitaemia was used to assess antimalarial activity and determined according to the following equation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] :\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere, \u003cstrong\u003eC\u003c/strong\u003e : is the average percent parasitemia in the control group ; \u003cstrong\u003eT\u003c/strong\u003e : the average percent parasitemia in the treated group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe scale of appreciation of the anti-malarial activity of Rasoanaivo plant extracts made it possible to determine the parasitological effectiveness of our extracts [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. For an extract tested at a dose\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;300 mg/kg, its activity was considered: Highly active (% reduction was found between 100 and 90 %) ; moderate ( % reduction was found between 90 and 50 % ; weak ( % reduction was found between 50 and 10 %. ); Inactive ( % reduction was 0 %.).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSphinx 2-V5 software was used to prepare the questionnaire and analyze the data collected from the traditional practitioners. Stat graphics\u0026reg; software was used to perform the one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). Fischer's test was used to compare the results of the antimalarial test and p-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 were considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthnopharmacological study:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 18 plant species belonging to 12 families were recorded during this study. The importance of the plants was materialized by their citation frequencies (CF). The most frequently cited species are: \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e (CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;87%), \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEucalyptus globulus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNauclea latifolia\u003c/em\u003e with CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60% each (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vivo\u003c/em\u003e antiplasmodial activity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEffect of the decocted aqueous extract on mouse parasitemia:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mean parasitemia values determined in the treated groups ranged from 19.50 to 26.56% (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). There was a statistically significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) between the different extracts and the negative control 40.67% (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEffect of the macerated aqueous extract on parasitemia in mice:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mean parasitemia values determined in the treated groups ranged from 16.83 to 24.17% depending on the dose, compared to the negative control values of 40.67%. There was a very significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) between the different extracts and the negative control (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntimalarial medicinal plants from Gamba locality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlant Families\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlant Species\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLocal name\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003efrequency of citation (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlant part(s)used\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMode of preparation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApplication mode\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccession number\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFabaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenna siamea (lam.) Irvin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcassia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e53\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;25 661\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenna javanica /cassia javanica l\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGamoye\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebark\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaceration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;45 764\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBurseraceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoswellia dalziellii hutch.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNzapi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;39 928\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoswellia papyrifera robbr. Ex colebr.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNzap\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebark\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;39 949\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaealpiniaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003esenna alata (l.) Roxb.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKenkelibaa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhole plant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebath\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;oral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;57 704\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenna occidentalis (l.) Link\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFaux kenkeliba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e27\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhole plant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebath\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;oral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg; 7 848\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNauclea latifolia sm.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDemhock\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eroots\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;20 144\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLimiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum l\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBaselic\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhole plant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;42 757\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum l.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIkaa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhole plant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;49 083\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia guineensis bak\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKougue\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eroot\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eanal\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;24 247\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaapo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebark\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction ou maceration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;49 688\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica a. Juss/neem\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNeem\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e87\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg; 4 447\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEucalyptus globulus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEucalyptus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg; 4 077\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZingberceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale rosc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDjidja\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhole plant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;43 146\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaricaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarica papaya l.]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDoukoudje\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e33\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInfusion\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHnc.n\u0026deg;18 647\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsidium guajava l\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGuayave\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e27\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHnc.n\u0026deg;65 619\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMimosaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntada africana guill. \u0026amp; perr.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEwandoue\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInfusion\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;49 693\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbiacae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eManihot esculenta crantz\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMbaye\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eleaves\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecoction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebath\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHNC.n\u0026deg;18 619\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of \u003cem\u003eKhaya Senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e extracts on \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium berghei\u003c/em\u003e parasitemia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTreatment groups\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDose (mg/Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean Parasitemia(%)\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaceration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17 \u003csup\u003e*a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.83 \u003csup\u003e* b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.04 \u003csup\u003e*c\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistilled water\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10ml/Kg\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.33 \u003csup\u003e*d\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuinine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDecoction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.16 \u003csup\u003e*a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67 \u003csup\u003e*b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.64 \u003csup\u003e*b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistilled water\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10ml/Kg\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.33 \u003csup\u003e*c\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuinine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.33 \u0026plusmn;0.52 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e* indicates a statistically significant difference. The different letters (a-c) highlight the significant differences between the groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEffect of treatment with macerated and decocted aqueous extract on the percentage reduction of parasitaemia\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGenerally, tests carried out in vivo with the aqueous extracts showed a reduction in parasitaemia proportional to the doses administered. The aqueous macerate at doses of 75, 150 and 300mg/kg gave respectively a percentage reduction of parasitemia of 39.74%, 59.42%, and 71.80% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). There was a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) between the different extracts and the positive control (99.18%). Quinine showed a significant reduction of parasitemia 1.4 times higher than the macerated extract at the 300mg/kg dose. The percentages of parasitemia reduction with the decocted aqueous extracts were 34.84, 48.36 and 52.46% respectively at the doses of 65, 130 and 260 mg/kg body weight of the animals although not significant at the two highest doses (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Quinine showed a reduction in parasitemia approximately two-times higher than the decocted extract at 260 mg/kg dose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eA total of 18 medicinal plants belonging to 12 families have been registered. A general review of the literature on these medicinal plants showed that they are also used in many African countries in the treatment of malaria, such as in Ghana: \u003cem\u003eCarica papaya, Khaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNauclea latifolia, Azadirachta indica, Psidium guajava\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]; in Ivory coast: \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissum, Entada Africana, Vernonia guineens\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]; in Uganda : \u003cem\u003eCarica papaya; Boswellia papyrifera, vernonia guineensis\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]; and in Nigeria: \u003cem\u003eBoswellia dalziellii, Eucalyptus globulus, Senna siamea\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. This consensus among users in different countries reflects the importance of medicinal plants to African populations, and the fact that these same plants are used by different communities for the same purpose could possibly indicate their effectiveness. Previous laboratory studies provide evidence to support the anti-malarial activity of many plant species harvested in the locality of Gamba as shown in Appendix 1 which presents the antiplasmodial activity and phytochemical characteristics that confirm their traditional use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn general, \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e antimalarial activity tests in mice infected with \u003cem\u003eP. berghei\u003c/em\u003e showed a dose-dependent reduction in parasitemia in mice parasitized with the tested extracts and quinine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared to the Rosanaivo scale, the decocted aqueous extract which gave percentage reductions of 34.84%, 48.36% respectively at doses of 65 and 130 mg/kg body weight had a low activity, while at 260 mg/kg the extract had a moderate activity (52.46%). The antiplasmodial activity of the macerated extract (39.74%) at the 75mg/kg dose reflected a low antiplasmodial activity, compared to the other two doses of 150 and 300 mg/kg, the reduction in parasitemia was 59.41% and 71.79% respectively reflecting a moderate antiplasmodial activity about twice as high as the decocted extract at the 260 mg/kg dose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the administration dose of 300 mg/kg, the parasite inhibition by the aqueous macerate was 71.80% whereas at the dose of 10 mg/kg, quinine resulted in 99.18% parasite inhibition. The parasite inhibition of quinine could probably be matched by doubling the dosage and/or optimizing the extraction. The macerate showed better parasitic inhibition than the decocted one. This means that the aqueous decoction was less active than the macerate. This could be related to the boiling temperature, which may have destroyed certain bioactive chemical compounds [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe antimalarial drug of reference remains largely more effective than the macerated extract. This is easily understandable when we know that quinine (a fast-acting schizonticide) is a pure molecule [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], while the aqueous macerate is an agglomerate of chemical molecules that can act synergistically or develop antagonism. An isolation of the active molecules responsible for the anti-malarial activity, would allow a much more reliable comparative study to be made. At this stage of the study, it would be difficult to make any structure-activity relationship but we can say that the activity observed could be due to all the chemical groups identified in our extracts according to the literature. Indeed certain phytochemical studies carried out on Khaya senegalensis bark have revealed the presence of saponins, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, etc[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies have shown that the alkaloids and terpenoids of the plants would have an activity on plasmodium falciparum by shizonicidal action. A blood schizonticide is an active product against asexual forms of the blood (cause of clinical manifestations) and cures malaria. Alkaloids are believed to inhibit the polymerization of the haemoglobin heme and thus prevent the reproduction of plasmodium. And terpenoids block an enzyme ,Ca++-ATPase which allows the parasite to pump calcium and thus prevent it from developing. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The limo\u0026iuml;des which are terpenoids were indeed highlighted in this plant. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. A study showed that limoids from the meliacae family had moderate activity on Plasmodium berghei [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, only one \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e study on khaya senegalensis was found to confer good antiplasmodial activity on the chloroquino-resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum with an IC50 of 5.5 \u0026micro;g/ml [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Moderate \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e activity may also be due to low oral bioavailability of certain chemical molecules. With these results, \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e cannot exert its activity only by direct action against parasites, the beneficial therapeutic effects claimed by patients could also be due to the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating activities described for this plant [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":" \u003cp\u003eIt appeared from this study that the locality of Gamba has an interesting floristic biodiversity in terms of antimalarial plants. The plants listed in this study constitute a panel that can serve as a starting point for biological screening in the laboratory. The macerated aqueous extract of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e bark showed the highest antiplasmodial activity compared to the decocted aqueous extract. However, this activity remained moderate. These results allowed us to conclude that although presenting a moderate activity on \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium Berghei in vivo\u003c/em\u003e and a good \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e activity, \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e had a possible antiplasmodial activity. It would therefore be necessary to evaluate the \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e antimalarial activity of \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e bark using other extractive solvents and to evaluate the \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e antimalarial activity and toxicity of other listed plants.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCF\u003c/strong\u003e: citation frequencies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCP\u003c/strong\u003e: Positive control.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eD\u003c/strong\u003e: days\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEDTA\u003c/strong\u003e: Ethylene Diamine Tetra-acetic Acid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHNC\u003c/strong\u003e: National Herbarium of Cameroon\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e: Plasmodium\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWHO:\u003c/strong\u003e World Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough our work did not involve human subjects, we followed all the rules laid down by the regulations in force concerning work involving animals at the University of Ngaoundere\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interests: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors report no competing of interest in this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis review did not receive any specific grant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDavy-Hyacinthe Anguechia Gouissi, Roselyne Teponging Nzangue were responsible for the conception, integrity and reliability of the study. Davy-Hyacinthe Anguechia Gouissi, Josue Haskandi Kalaza, Sim\u0026eacute;on Pierre Fodouop Chegaing, contributed in the write up and data analysis. All authors took part in the acquisition and analysis of data or interpretation of results, and also examined and approved the final version of the write up.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are very appreciative for the traditional doctors of the Gamba village, who provided us with their knowledge on anti-malarial plants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHayakawa T, Culleton R, Otani H, Horii T, Tanabe K. Big Bang in the Evolution of Extant Malaria Parasites. Mol Biol Evol. 1 oct 2008;25(10):2233‑9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eP\u0026eacute;rez-Tris J, Hasselquist D, Hellgren O, Krizanauskiene A, Waldenstr\u0026ouml;m J, Bensch S. What are malaria parasites? 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Food Chem Toxicol. 1 f\u0026eacute;vr 2008;46(2):409‑20.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKovendan K, Murugan K, Panneerselvam C, Aarthi N, Kumar PM, Subramaniam J, et al. Antimalarial activity of Carica papaya (Family: Caricaceae) leaf extract against Plasmodium falciparum. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 1 janv 2012;2(Supplement 1):S306‑11.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchweiggert RM, Steingass CB, Mora E, Esquivel P, Carle R. Carotenogenesis and physico-chemical characteristics during maturation of red fleshed papaya fruit (Carica papaya L.). Food Res Int. 1 juin 2011;44(5):1373‑80.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuti\u0026eacute;rrez RMP, Mitchell S, Solis RV. Psidium guajava: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. avr 2008;117(1):1‑27.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Appendix ","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAPPENDIX\u003c/strong\u003e : Physicochemical and antimalarial properties of plants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ephysicochemical properties\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Antimarial activity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenna siamea (Lam.) Irvin \u0026amp; Barneby\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTriterpenoids, anthraquinones, flavono\u0026iuml;ds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [27]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlkalo\u0026iuml;ds [28]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenna javanica /Cassia javanica L \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnthraquinone, Javanins, querc\u0026eacute;tins\u0026nbsp;; alkalo\u0026iuml;ds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [29]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuercetin [30]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoswellia papyrifera Robbr. ex Colebr.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003etriterpens : \u0026beta;-amyrin, \u0026alpha;-amyrin, \u0026beta;-amyrenon\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eac\u0026eacute;tate d' ocyle , acide \u0026alpha;-boswellic [31]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Senna alata (L.) Roxb.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003etanins, st\u0026eacute;ro\u0026iuml;des, alkalo\u0026iuml;des, anthraquinones, terpens\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [32]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003esaponines[33]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenna occidentalis (L.) Link \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003echrysophanol saponins, alkalo\u0026iuml;ds, sterols, triterpenoids,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [32]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e, tanins et flavono\u0026iuml;ds [34]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNauclea latifolia Sm.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAkcalo\u0026iuml;ds\u003cstrong\u003e,\u003c/strong\u003e saponins and catechic tannins\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vivo\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [35]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;c[36]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum L\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTanins, Phenolic compound , stero\u0026iuml;ds [38]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [39]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum L.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSaponins, flavono\u0026iuml;ds,tanins, reducing sugar ,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn vivo antplasmodial activity [40]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;anthroquinone[41]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003evernonia guineensis BAK\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003esesquiterpene lactones , ester saccharose [42]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eantplasmodial activity [42]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e Khaya senegalensis A. Juss./Cailc\u0026eacute;drat\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003esaponines, tanins, phlobatannins, flavono\u0026iuml;ds, terpeno\u0026iuml;ds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"274\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"394\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ealkalo\u0026iuml;des, anthroquinones [43]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"393\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntada Africana Guill. \u0026amp; Perr.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFlavono\u0026iuml;ds, tannins, polyph\u0026eacute;nols [44]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eManihot esculenta Crantz\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eflavono\u0026iuml;ds,saponins, lotaustraline, , Glycosids\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ecyanogenic, non-cyanogenic [45]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica A. Juss/Neem\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiterpen, triterpens, ph\u0026eacute;noliques\u0026nbsp;; Flavono\u0026iuml;ds\u0026nbsp;; Tannins\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vivo\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [46]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlcalo\u0026iuml;des\u0026nbsp;; [47]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEucalyptus globulus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSesquiterp\u0026egrave;nes,\u003ca href=\"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanin\"\u003etanin\u003c/a\u003e, Robustaol A, Robustadial B\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [48]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin%C3%A8ne\"\u003epin\u0026egrave;ne\u003c/a\u003e\u0026nbsp;[49]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale Rosc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003esesquiterpene hydrocarbons , sesquiterpene alcohols\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [50]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003egingerols and shogaols [51]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarica papaya L.]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnthraquinone; Terp\u0026eacute;no\u0026iuml;ds ; Flavono\u0026iuml;ds, Saponins; Tanins\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [52]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ealkalo\u0026iuml;ds, cardiac glycosides [53]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsidium guajava L\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ephenolic compounds and flavonoids; triterpenic acids\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"280\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"390\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;tanin[54]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd width=\"389\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e antplasmodial activity [54]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Malaria, Ethnopharmacology, Antimalarial activity, Gamba","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-438203/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-438203/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003eIn traditional medicine, the floral diversity permits the inhabitants of North Cameroon to use a great number of plants to fight against Malaria. The aim of this study was to identify plants used in traditional medicine to treat malaria, and to verify the scientific basis for the use of one of these plants in the locality of Gamba.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: An Ethnopharmacological survey was carried out on 15 traditional healers. We collected data on use of medicinal plants using questionnaires. Then \u003cem\u003ein-vivo\u003c/em\u003e antimalarial activity of the decoctioned and macerated aqueous extracts of \u003cem\u003ekhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e trunk bark was evaluated. The 4-day suppressive peters test was realised on \u003cem\u003emus musculus\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eswiss\u003c/em\u003e albino mice. On day one, mice were infected with 10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eplasmodium berghei\u003c/em\u003e parasitized red blood cells through intra-peritoneal inoculation. 2 hours after infestation, mice in batches of 6 were treated orally at a dose of 75, 150.300 mg/Kg for macerated aqueous extract and 65, 120.260 mg/Kg for decoctioned extract daily during 3 days at an administration volume of 10 ml/Kg. An extract was considered (% reduction): Highly active (between 100-90 %); moderate (between 90-50 %); weak (between 50-10 %); Inactive (between 0 %). P-values \u0026lt;0.05 were considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eA total of 18 plant species belonging to 12 families were identified for the preparation of 12 recipes. The decocted aqueous extract of \u003cem\u003ekhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e showed moderate anti-plasmodial activity (% reduction = 52.46%) at the highest dose of 260 mg/kg with p\u0026lt;0.001 compared to the positive control group. The aqueous macerate at doses of 150 and 300mg/kg gave respectively a percentage reduction of parasitaemia of 59.42% and 71.80% and also showed moderate anti-plasmodial activity; with p\u0026lt;0.001 between the different extracts and the positive control (99.18%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eIn conclusion, extracts of \u003cem\u003ekhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e showed moderate anti-plasmodial activity. It would therefore be necessary to evaluate the anti-malarial activity \u003cem\u003ein-vivo\u003c/em\u003e and the toxicity of the aqueous extracts macerated using other solvents and also test the other plants listed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Treatment in Gamba Village, North Region of Cameroon: Ethnopharmacological Survey; In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous Extracts of Khaya Senegalensis Bark.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2021-04-20 21:03:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-438203/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b5fdddf2-f4e8-4863-968a-386d0420933f","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 20th, 2021","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":3775897,"name":"Infectious Diseases"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2021-04-20T21:03:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2021-04-20 21:03:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-438203","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-438203","identity":"rs-438203","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"FbvkV6FR0MCFSLy54lSbu","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}