Detection and Characterization of Microplastics in Commercial Salts in India

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One of the primary concerns associated with plastic pollution is the accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the ecosystem, particularly in the marine ecosystem. Microplastics pollution in marine environment is a matter of grave concern because marine resources are one of the primarily contributors to human food supply. In addition, the marine environment possesses a plethora of bioactive compounds that are used in a wide variety of products, intended for human use. One of the easiest routes of MPs ingestion from marine environment is through salt, an indispensable ingredient in cooking. This study aimed at analysing commercial brands of sea salt and rock salt for the presence of MPs by Nile red fluorescent staining (NR) and characterizing the plastic polymers by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). A total of thirty different brands of salts available in India were collected and analysed. The results indicate that presence of MPs is highly prevalent in sea salts with variable number, particles size and polymer types. In sea salt samples, the number of MPs ranged between 13- 27 particles/100g whereas in rock salt, it ranged between 8- 29 particles/100g. Both plastic microfibers and MPs were detected in the categories of samples analysed, ranging between 2- 14 particles/100 g for microfibers and 2- 27 particles/100g for microparticles. The size of MPs ranged between 19.45μm - 512.91μm in sea salts and between 29.69μm– 1432.85μm in rock salt. FTIR Spectroscopy identified polyethylene terephthalate as the most prevalent polymer (37%) in the salt samples, followed by polyvinyl chloride (25.9%) polypropylene (22.2%), polyethylene (11%), and polystyrene (3.7%). This study highlights yet another source of MPs ingestion by humans. Given the fact that salt is a preservative, a taste enhancer, and a source of an essential micronutrient, there is an imminent need for potential mitigation techniques to ensure MP-free salts for human consumption. Sea salt Rock salt Microplastic Marine pollution FTIR Polyethylene terephthalate Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction In recent years, the health impacts of plastic pollution have drawn closer attention on a global scale particularly on the microscopic but alarming fragments, known as Microplastics (MPs). Microplastics, often defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 millimetres in size, are pervasive in our environment and can be encountered anywhere from the deepest ocean depths to the most isolated mountain ranges (Lee et al. 2019 ; Peixoto et al. 2019 ). Marine plastic pollution has emerged as one of the main worldwide environmental issues, alongside ozone depletion, climate change, and ocean acidification (Galloway and Lewis 2016 ). Since its first commercial favourable factors like stability, lightweight, and low production costs. However, over the last few decades, excessive production and use have led to environmental contamination in an unprecedented manner worldwide (Lofty et al. 2023). MPs can easily infiltrate the aquatic environment due to anthropogenic activities (Choudhury et al. 2023 ). Studies have shown that MPs make their way into the human body through the consumption of food and water from the ecosystems that are infiltrated with MPs (Carbery et al. 2018 ). Indeed, MPs have been detected in the digestive system (Schwabl et al. 2019 ; Amelia et al. 2021 ), blood (Leslie et al. 2022 ), and lungs (Jenner et al. 2022 ) of humans. Ingestion of MPs has been shown to cause detrimental effects in model system-based research, primarily through disruption of endocrine receptor functions by the polymers (Ullah et al. 2023 ). MPs are now considered emerging food pollutants as they can move up the food chain (Nakat et al. 2023 ). Thus, understanding the number of MPs that the human body is inadvertently taking in is crucial to establishing consumption guidelines to effectively minimize pollution and to analyse health hazards associated with MP exposure (Lee et al. 2021 ). Salt is an indispensable component in every cuisine around the world and it not only serves as a taste enhancer but also serves as a source of micronutrients and as a preservative. Therefore, daily consumption of salt is inevitable as it is for water and air (WHO 2012; Barboza et al. 2018 ). An estimated 300 million tonnes of salt were consumed globally in 2018, of which approximately 11.6% (including table salts and food processing) was for human consumption (Ore et al. 2020 ). Table salt is classified into different types according to their origins such as sea salt, lake salt, rock salt, and river or well salt. Sea salt and lake salt are obtained by evaporation whereas rock salts are produced by the mining of a mineral rock called halite (GOI 2017 ) and hence its quality is affected by anthropogenic activities. Although the daily intake of salt is considerably less compared to other food items that are obtained from ecosystems likely to be contaminated by MPs, it is still a matter of concern simply because salt is used in every form of cooking (Zhang et al. 2020 ). The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United States (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommend consuming no more than 5 g of salt per day (Mozaffarian et al. 2014 ), however, the average salt consumption in India is quite high at 11 g/day (Johnson et al. 2019 ). Several fluorescent dyes such as Nile red, rhodamine B, safranin T, and fluorescein iso-phosphate can label plastic polymers and hence are used in detecting MPs. Among these fluorescent dyes, Nile red, a lipophilic dye (9-diethylamino-5H-benzo[α] phenoxazine5-one) outperforms others because of its high fluorescence intensity, good affinity towards polymer, and shorter incubation time (Sturm et al. 2023 ; Meyers et al. 2022 ). Nile red staining not only helps in qualitative detection but also helps in enumerating the number of MP fiber/particles (Shim et al. 2016 ). The spectral analysis methods that are commonly used in the characterization of MPs include Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, with FTIR being the preferred choice (Thiele et al. 2023 ; Mazlan et al. 2023 ). This study primarily focused on detecting the presence of MPs in different types of salts and their characterization by FTIR. Materials and Methods Collection of salt samples Thirty different brands of commercial salts (18 brands of sea salt and 12 brands of rock salt) were purchased from different retail markets, supermarkets, and sales outlets in and around Mangalore City, Karnataka, India. Salts that are packed and sealed were only chosen and three packets were purchased for each salt brand. Preparation of Nile Red (NR) solution Stock solution of Nile red (NR) solution was prepared in acetone at 1µg/mL. This was then diluted to a 1:10 ratio with ultra-pure deionized water to yield a working concentration of 10 µg/mL and stored at 4°C in an amber-coloured glass bottle. NR stain adheres to the plastic surface and fluoresces at a specific wavelength (Cassola et al. 2017; Mohan et al. 2023 ). Optimization of Nile Red Interaction with Salt To determine the accuracy of the absorbance value of NR stain upon interaction with salt, various concentrations of salt solutions ranging from 0 mg/mL to 100 mg/mL were prepared by mixing salt with ultra-pure deionized water. Further, 0.1mL of NR was added and incubated for 30 minutes in the dark at room temperature. Later, the absorbance was measured at 532nm using a spectrophotometer. All the samples were prepared in glass bottles to avoid the interference of plastics. Sample preparation 100 mL of the salt solution from the stock was taken into a sterile glass bottle and injected with 1mL of NR solution stock and the bottle was recapped and incubated for 30 minutes in the dark at room temperature. Further, the solution was vacuum filtered through a glass fiber filter (Whatman grade 934-AH, 55 mm diameter, 1.5 µm pore). Filters were then examined under fluorescence microscopy. For each analysis, 100 mL of deionized water collected in the lab was injected with 1 mL of Nile red, filtered, and labelled as a blank sample, which served as a negative control for estimating background noise in fluorescence intensity or ruling out laboratory contamination. Comparative analysis of heat-induced salt To assess the impact of heating on MPs within the chosen samples, which were previously identified with confirmed MP presence, we mimicked the cooking process. 10mg of salt was added to the 100mL of double distilled water and boiled for 15 minutes. Similarly, 10mg of salt was added to the 100mL of pre-boiled water (85⁰C), later the samples were subjected to FTIR analysis. Microscopy Identification The glass fiber filter papers were visualized for fluorescence in a dark condition using a fluorescent microscope (Leica DM2500, Germany). The samples were placed in uncovered petri plates on the stage under the RFP (Red fluorescence protein) filter at 5x magnification and the fluorescent particles were counted manually by dividing the microscopic field into 4 quadrants. The fluorescence particles were photographed and the particle size was counted using Leica Application (LasX, Leica, Germany). Characterization of polymers using FTIR spectroscopy To identify the type of polymer, 100 mL of the prepared stock salt solution was filtered through a glass fiber filter (Whatman grade 934-AH, 55 mm diameter, 1.5 um pore). The filtrate was then washed with 200µL of deionized water, collected in a glass tube, and subjected to FTIR (BRUKER Alpha-2, Germany). After analysis, the result was enumerated through a graph of spectra. Results Optimization of Nile Red Interaction with Salt The optimization of NR interaction with salt was carried out using salt solutions of different concentrations ranging from 0 to 100mg/mL and measuring the absorbance at 532nm. The OD values obtained for all the concentrations tested ranged from 0.25- 0.26, which indicated minimal fluctuations across the spectrum of NaCl concentrations ( Table I ). Detection and quantification of MPs from salts: Out of 30 different brands of salts tested, 28 brands showed the presence of MPs except for two brands of flour salt (processed salt: P1-P2). Based on the fluorescent images, the polymers were categorized as microparticles and microfibers ( Fig.1 ). The identified microfibers ranged from 2- 14 particles/100g whereas the microparticles ranged from 5- 26 particles/100g of sample. In total, the number of MPs ranged from 3- 27 particles/100g in sea salt and 8-29 particles/100g in rock salt. Further, the size of MPs analyzed ranged from 19.45μm - 512.91μm in sea salts and 29.69μm – 1432.85μm in rock salt ( Table II ). Characterization of polymer type by FTIR spectroscopy Confirmation of the Nile red staining by FTIR spectroscopy analysis identified diverse polymer particles such as PVC, PET, PS, PP, and PE in the salt samples analysed. The identity of the MP polymers was done on the unique absorption spectra, based on the presence of distinct functional groups. The spectral peaks of the PVC showed at 618.51 cm -1 , 632.51 cm -1 , 1331.57 cm -1 , and 2813.64 cm -1 , PET at 1246.99 cm -1 , 1411.20 cm -1 , 1724.5 cm -1 , 2360.7 cm -1 and 2913.8 cm -1 , PS at 1039.55 cm -1 , 1482.04 cm -1 , and 2933.63 cm -1 , PP at 1367.5 cm -1 , 1724.5 cm -1 and 2913 cm -1 , and PE at 710.51 cm -1 , 1388.98 cm -1 , 1466.06 cm -1 , 1724.56 cm -1 and 2913.84 cm -1 ( Fig.2 ). Characterization of heat-induced salt The confirmed MP sample (R4), was subjected to FTIR analysis to check the effect of the heating process on the polymers. The samples showed similar prominent peaks of PVC at 619.76 cm -1 , 697.16 cm -1 and 1428.33 cm -1 , PET at 1420.09 cm -1 , 1453.73 cm -1 , 1509.30 cm -1 , 2352.58 cm -1 , 3050.34 cm -1 and 3421.56 cm -1 , PS at 697.16 cm -1 , 756.47 cm -1 , 1491.08 cm -1 , and 3031.93 cm -1 , PP at 852.40 cm -1 , 2851.34 cm -1 , 2914.44 cm -1 and 2957.46 cm -1 , and PE at 716.62 cm -1 , 2851.34 cm -1 and 2914.44 cm -1 ( Fig.3A ). The MP sample (R4), when added after the heating process still showed the similar peaks of PVC at 607.10 cm -1 , 634.17 cm -1 , 682.40 cm -1 , 1945.46 cm -1 and 2915.34 cm -1 , PET at 1345.46 cm -1 , 1405.19 cm -1 , 2341.27 cm -1 , and 2915.34 cm -1 , PS at 693.52cm -1 , 1026.99 cm -1 , 1442.49 cm -1 and 2849.34 cm -1 , PP at 1380.69 cm -1 , 2835.13 cm -1 and 2915.34 cm -1 , and PE at 722.14 cm -1 , 1380.69 cm -1 , 1466.07 cm -1 , 2849.34 cm -1 and 2915.34 cm -1 ( Fig.3B) . The R4 sample, which underwent different experimental methods subjected to the FTIR showed similar polymers present. Discussion Microplastic contamination has turned into a global problem due to its pervasive presence in the environment and harmful effects on organisms (Cole et al. 2011 ). MPs can absorb waterborne pollutants and/or release dangerous chemicals that can pose risks to human health. Their small size, variable shape, applied coatings, and large surface make the detection, identification, and quantification of MPs and NPs a challenging attempt (Sturm et al. 2021 ). Several studies have shown the presence of MPs in marine resources in alarming proportions, including in those that are not meant for human consumption, which led to the hypothesis that sea salt may contain MPs (Sivahami et al. 2021). In this study, the MPs were identified in both rock salt and sea salt through Nile red staining. In 2017, Maes et al proposed the use of Nile red dye for the identification of MPs. Although several other dyes bind, Nile red has high specificity, high fluorescent emission, and shorter incubation time and hence is the most widely accepted stain. In our study, thirty different brands of salt (rock salt and sea salt) were analyzed for the presence of MPs using the NR staining method using a protocol that was described earlier (Makhdoumi et al. 2023 ). More than 93% of the samples showed the presence of MPs at variable concentrations and of different types. Two samples, P1 and P2 did not show any presence of MPs, which could be the result of efficient purification processes followed in these samples. In this study, the number of MP in sea salt and rock salt varied with higher MP particles found in sea salt compared to rock salt. A similar result was obtained by Yang et al. ( 2015 ), sea salts contain a higher quantity of MPs than rock salts, which is most likely due to the huge quantity of marine plastic litter that is present in marine ecosystems. However, the size of MPs in sea salt was lesser than that in rock salt which could be because of the fewer manufacturing steps compared to sea salt, and a contributing factor for the disparity in MP particle counts. FTIR spectroscopy is one of the most powerful tools for identifying the respective chemical polymers in MPs (Ivleva et al. 2021; Moses et al. 2023). The salt samples analyzed in this study were examined through FTIR spectroscopy at a wavelength of 500- 4000cm − 1 to determine the kind of (distinct) polymer the data were displayed as a graph of FTIR spectra that had peaks at specific wavenumber positions. The absorption peaks for C-H, C-H 2 , C-H 3, C-O, C = O, C = C, C-Cl, =C-H- with benzene group were detected between 600–780cm − 1 , 1050–1250 cm − 1 , 1330–1420 cm − 1 , 1600–1680 cm − 1 , 2840–2950 cm − 1 and 3049 cm − 1 respectively. Previous studies have validated the absorption spectra for the MPs obtained from the salt samples showing prominent peaks that were identical to the peaks identified for specific polymers such as PVC between 605-700cm − 1 , 1330–1430 cm − 1 , 1945 cm − 1 and 2813–2916 cm − 1 (Park et al. 2018 ; Park et al. 2020 ), PET between 1246–1421 cm − 1 , 1508–1725 cm − 1 , 2340–2361 cm − 1 , 2913–2916 cm − 1 and 3050–3422 cm − 1 (Pereira et al. 2017 ; El-Saftawy et al. 2014 ), polystyrene (PS) 690–757 cm-1,1026–1492 cm-1 and 2848–3032 cm-1 (F et al. 2013), polypropylene (PP) at 852 cm − 1 ,1367–1725 cm − 1 and 2835–2958 cm − 1 (Mazhar et al. 2014 ; Ibor et al. 2023 ) and polyethylene (PE) at 709–723 cm − 1 ,1380–1725 cm − 1 and 2849–2916 cm − 1 (Mohan et al. 2023 ; Asgari et al. 2014 ). In our samples, PET was found to be the most abundant polymer (37%), followed by PVC (26%) PP (22%), and polyethylene (11%). Polystyrene (1%) was the least abundant polymer, an observation similar to the results shown by Lee et al 2019 . The results indicated an increase in the presence of PVC in salt as compared to the study conducted to analyse the presence of MPs in edible sea salt where they found only 1–3% PVC in salt (Vidyasakar et al. 2021 ). This could be due to the excessive use of PVC which is one of the most versatile plastics in urbanization in developing countries like India. MPs decompose at specific thermal ranges in different nitrogen and oxygen environments leaving carbon residues (Rozman et al. 2021 ). The FTIR analysis of the simulated cooking process revealed no alteration in the MP polymers present indicating that the MPs in the salt remains intake even after cooking, posing a risk of accumulation through ingestion in the body. The heat and moisture during cooking may release MPs from the salt into the cooked food. The extent of leaching may depend on factors such as the type of plastic, cooking duration, and temperature. Ingesting MPs in minimal amounts has raised concerns about the potential impact on human health. Studies have suggested that MPs can accumulate in the body and may have adverse effects, however, to date the full extent of these effects is not yet fully understood (CK Seth and A Shriwastav 2018 ). Conclusion The presence of MPs in table salt raises serious concerns about their potential impact on human health, as salt is commonly used as a flavour enhancer and food preservative. Random analysis of common available brands of sea and rock salts showed the presence of MPs, in 93% of the samples tested. To date, few reports have examined the presence of MPs in commercial salts. Hence the results of this study assume significance as further research on this topic, particularly on the impact of persistent ingestion of MPs on human health, is much warranted. Salt is an indispensable ingredient in all kinds of cuisines and is often used in uncooked form in salads and other ready-to-eat products. Thus, MP contamination of salt may be considered as a public health concern and focused attention on its removal during the purification processes is a must to ensure a safe product to the public. Abbreviations MPs: Microplastics NR: Nile red FTIR: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy PET: Polyethylene terephthalate PVC: Polyvinyl chloride PE: Polyethylene PP: Polypropylene PS: Polystyrene WHO: World Health Organization GOI: Government of India Declarations Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this manuscript. Author Contributions RV: Involved in data analysis and prepared the original draft. SX: Performed the experiments. MM: Partly performed the experiments and involved in data analysis. GC: Conceptualized the study, supervised the work and edited the drafted manuscript. AC: Supervised the work, participated in the data analysis and revision of the manuscript Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research (NUCSER) and Nitte (Deemed to be University) for providing facilities and infrastructure for the research. Supplementary materials NIL References Amelia TS, Khalik WM, Ong MC, Shao YT, Pan HJ, Bhubalan K. Marine microplastics as vectors of major ocean pollutants and its hazards to the marine ecosystem and humans. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science. 2021 Dec;8(1):1-26. Asgari P, Moradi O, Tajeddin B. The effect of nanocomposite packaging carbon nanotube base on organoleptic and fungal growth of Mazafati brand dates. International Nano Letters. 2014 Mar;4:1-5. Carbery M, O'Connor W, Palanisami T. 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Microplastic contamination in edible sea salt from the largest salt-producing states of India. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2021 Oct 1;171:112728. W.H. Organization, Guideline: Sodium Intake for Adults and Children, World Health Organization, 2012. Yang D, Shi H, Li L, Li J, Jabeen K, Kolandhasamy P. Microplastic pollution in table salts from China. Environmental science & technology. 2015 Nov 17;49(22):13622-7. Zhang Q, Xu EG, Li J, Chen Q, Ma L, Zeng EY, Shi H. A review of microplastics in table salt, drinking water, and air: direct human exposure. Environmental Science & Technology. 2020 Mar 2;54(7):3740-51. Tables Table I. Optimization of the interaction of NR with salt at OD at 532nm Tubes no. Volume of NaCl (mL) Volume of deionized water (mL) Conc. Of NaCl (mg/mL) Volume of NR Incubation for 30mins in Dark Absorbance at 532 nm 1. 0 10 0.0 0.1 0.257 2. 0.001 9.999 0.01 0.1 0.250 3. 0.01 9.99 0.1 0.1 0.250 4. 0.1 9.9 1.0 0.1 0.26 5. 1.0 9.0 10 0.1 0.251 6. 10 0 100 0.1 0.25 Table II. Composition of microparticles, the total number of MPs per 100gm of sample analyzed, and their sizes in all the thirty salt samples analyzed. Samples Microparticles Microfibers Total MPs (Microparticles + microfibers) Size(µm) S1 15 - 15 512.91 S2 19 5 24 80.5 S3 14 - 14 198.56 S4 12 - 12 37.91 S5 22 2 24 33.72 S6 15 3 18 90.64 S7 13 - 13 155.72 S8 12 9 21 325.7 S9 11 7 18 237.74 S10 13 - 13 19.45 S11 14 13 27 238.41 S12 15 4 19 492.13 S13 12 4 18 176 S14 13 - 13 84.31 S15 9 14 23 205.98 S16 5 13 18 451.48 R1 23 - 23 126.84 R2 26 - 26 412.18 R3 9 8 17 302.44 R4 27 2 29 166.1 R5 2 6 8 754.38 R6 3 9 12 125.5 R7 11 10 21 541.23 R8 13 9 22 138.67 R9 9 11 21 29.69 R10 15 - 15 1432.85 R11 7 3 10 787.13 R12 11 4 15 968.39 P1 - - - - P2 - - - - *S - Sea salt, R- Rock salt, P- Processed salt Supplementary Files floatimage1.png Graphical Abstract Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3893146","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":273619073,"identity":"521abfbd-1d4e-43eb-a57c-e5f64b54ded8","order_by":0,"name":"Rajeshwari Vittal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nitte (Deemed to be University) Centre for Science Education \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rajeshwari","middleName":"","lastName":"Vittal","suffix":""},{"id":273619074,"identity":"e8c0579e-40d6-43ec-83d6-7abc07199a71","order_by":1,"name":"Sneha Xavier","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nitte (Deemed to be University) Centre for Science Education \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sneha","middleName":"","lastName":"Xavier","suffix":""},{"id":273619075,"identity":"a8798944-80c7-42de-a05f-864395228c75","order_by":2,"name":"Masmarika Mohan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nitte (Deemed to be University) Centre for Science Education \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Masmarika","middleName":"","lastName":"Mohan","suffix":""},{"id":273619076,"identity":"ae5ddf02-0ecb-430e-a826-0dd8c5656e45","order_by":3,"name":"Anirban Chakraborty","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nitte (Deemed to be University) Centre for Science Education \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anirban","middleName":"","lastName":"Chakraborty","suffix":""},{"id":273619077,"identity":"88dc9777-9b48-4949-adfa-91261abc0e40","order_by":4,"name":"Gunimala Chakraborty","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAwwMFgz8DIwNcO4BIrRIMEg2MDY2HCBWCwNIi8EBoDUwLXiBfETuwUM3aiTkjW83tz/+UMEgx3cjgfFwAR4thjfyEg7nHJMw3HbnINBhZxiMJW8kMByegU/LjByDwzlsEozbbiQ2NhxsY0jcANLCQ1DLPwn7zTNAWv4x1BPUIi8B1JLbJpG4QQKkpYEhwYCQFgOeN0AtfRLJM4AOm3EG6KmZZx424LelPcf4c843G9v+GekPPlTU2MjzHU8+/BmvLQdQ+RJADEsGuGzBLz0KRsEoGAWjAAgACLNZ5DmcmV0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5904-492X","institution":"Nitte (Deemed to be University) Centre for Science Education \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gunimala","middleName":"","lastName":"Chakraborty","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-24 06:32:42","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3893146/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3893146/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":51374594,"identity":"5112e419-f22c-4e60-ba7d-e02a68f091ad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-20 13:18:18","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":302166,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentative images of MPs detected in different salt samples. Images A, B, C, and D represent\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003emicroplastic microfibers, and E and F represent microplastic particles.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3893146/v1/cb8511786432feed0fccc859.png"},{"id":51374591,"identity":"faf2cb43-d54b-4728-84a1-d356146eef80","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-20 13:18:16","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":338352,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentative FTIR spectra show the presence of (A) PS (Brown) and PVC (Red), (B) PET\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Purple), and (C) PP (Orange) and PE (blue).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3893146/v1/d4032d5dd7febf0806a37227.png"},{"id":51374597,"identity":"ea78e1c0-ef98-44b5-b2ae-549fd07cd78f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-20 13:18:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":123768,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentative FTIR spectra, (A) salt was added during the heating process and (B) salt was\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eadded after heating, shows the presence of PS (Brown), PVC (Red), PET (Purple), PP (Orange) and PE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(blue).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3893146/v1/d01e1bc38af2f6c16aa16cdc.png"},{"id":52503356,"identity":"6ff31a05-3d52-4130-8e7e-5b5aa09769df","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-12 10:11:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1154447,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3893146/v1/6e10a08c-5624-4f5d-9056-775dc8e238e4.pdf"},{"id":51374598,"identity":"10dfb446-b28e-46c8-a5b4-43635871e0d3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-20 13:18:20","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":327086,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3893146/v1/545efff3e1d57fbd918c5dfd.png"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Detection and Characterization of Microplastics in Commercial Salts in India","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the health impacts of plastic pollution have drawn closer attention on a global scale particularly on the microscopic but alarming fragments, known as Microplastics (MPs). Microplastics, often defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 millimetres in size, are pervasive in our environment and can be encountered anywhere from the deepest ocean depths to the most isolated mountain ranges (Lee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Peixoto et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Marine plastic pollution has emerged as one of the main worldwide environmental issues, alongside ozone depletion, climate change, and ocean acidification (Galloway and Lewis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Since its first commercial favourable factors like stability, lightweight, and low production costs. However, over the last few decades, excessive production and use have led to environmental contamination in an unprecedented manner worldwide (Lofty et al. 2023). MPs can easily infiltrate the aquatic environment due to anthropogenic activities (Choudhury et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have shown that MPs make their way into the human body through the consumption of food and water from the ecosystems that are infiltrated with MPs (Carbery et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, MPs have been detected in the digestive system (Schwabl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Amelia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), blood (Leslie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and lungs (Jenner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) of humans. Ingestion of MPs has been shown to cause detrimental effects in model system-based research, primarily through disruption of endocrine receptor functions by the polymers (Ullah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). MPs are now considered emerging food pollutants as they can move up the food chain (Nakat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, understanding the number of MPs that the human body is inadvertently taking in is crucial to establishing consumption guidelines to effectively minimize pollution and to analyse health hazards associated with MP exposure (Lee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Salt is an indispensable component in every cuisine around the world and it not only serves as a taste enhancer but also serves as a source of micronutrients and as a preservative. Therefore, daily consumption of salt is inevitable as it is for water and air (WHO 2012; Barboza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). An estimated 300\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of salt were consumed globally in 2018, of which approximately 11.6% (including table salts and food processing) was for human consumption (Ore et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Table salt is classified into different types according to their origins such as sea salt, lake salt, rock salt, and river or well salt. Sea salt and lake salt are obtained by evaporation whereas rock salts are produced by the mining of a mineral rock called halite (GOI \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and hence its quality is affected by anthropogenic activities. Although the daily intake of salt is considerably less compared to other food items that are obtained from ecosystems likely to be contaminated by MPs, it is still a matter of concern simply because salt is used in every form of cooking (Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United States (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommend consuming no more than 5 g of salt per day (Mozaffarian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), however, the average salt consumption in India is quite high at 11 g/day (Johnson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral fluorescent dyes such as Nile red, rhodamine B, safranin T, and fluorescein iso-phosphate can label plastic polymers and hence are used in detecting MPs. Among these fluorescent dyes, Nile red, a lipophilic dye (9-diethylamino-5H-benzo[α] phenoxazine5-one) outperforms others because of its high fluorescence intensity, good affinity towards polymer, and shorter incubation time (Sturm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Meyers et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Nile red staining not only helps in qualitative detection but also helps in enumerating the number of MP fiber/particles (Shim et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The spectral analysis methods that are commonly used in the characterization of MPs include Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, with FTIR being the preferred choice (Thiele et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Mazlan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This study primarily focused on detecting the presence of MPs in different types of salts and their characterization by FTIR.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCollection of salt samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThirty different brands of commercial salts (18 brands of sea salt and 12 brands of rock salt) were purchased from different retail markets, supermarkets, and sales outlets in and around Mangalore City, Karnataka, India. Salts that are packed and sealed were only chosen and three packets were purchased for each salt brand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of Nile Red (NR) solution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStock solution of Nile red (NR) solution was prepared in acetone at 1\u0026micro;g/mL. This was then diluted to a 1:10 ratio with ultra-pure deionized water to yield a working concentration of 10 \u0026micro;g/mL and stored at 4\u0026deg;C in an amber-coloured glass bottle. NR stain adheres to the plastic surface and fluoresces at a specific wavelength (Cassola et al. 2017; Mohan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOptimization of Nile Red Interaction with Salt\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the accuracy of the absorbance value of NR stain upon interaction with salt, various concentrations of salt solutions ranging from 0 mg/mL to 100 mg/mL were prepared by mixing salt with ultra-pure deionized water. Further, 0.1mL of NR was added and incubated for 30 minutes in the dark at room temperature. Later, the absorbance was measured at 532nm using a spectrophotometer. All the samples were prepared in glass bottles to avoid the interference of plastics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 mL of the salt solution from the stock was taken into a sterile glass bottle and injected with 1mL of NR solution stock and the bottle was recapped and incubated for 30 minutes in the dark at room temperature. Further, the solution was vacuum filtered through a glass fiber filter (Whatman grade 934-AH, 55 mm diameter, 1.5 \u0026micro;m pore). Filters were then examined under fluorescence microscopy. For each analysis, 100 mL of deionized water collected in the lab was injected with 1 mL of Nile red, filtered, and labelled as a blank sample, which served as a negative control for estimating background noise in fluorescence intensity or ruling out laboratory contamination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparative analysis of heat-induced salt\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the impact of heating on MPs within the chosen samples, which were previously identified with confirmed MP presence, we mimicked the cooking process. 10mg of salt was added to the 100mL of double distilled water and boiled for 15 minutes. Similarly, 10mg of salt was added to the 100mL of pre-boiled water (85⁰C), later the samples were subjected to FTIR analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMicroscopy Identification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe glass fiber filter papers were visualized for fluorescence in a dark condition using a fluorescent microscope (Leica DM2500, Germany). The samples were placed in uncovered petri plates on the stage under the RFP (Red fluorescence protein) filter at 5x magnification and the fluorescent particles were counted manually by dividing the microscopic field into 4 quadrants. The fluorescence particles were photographed and the particle size was counted using Leica Application (LasX, Leica, Germany).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCharacterization of polymers using FTIR spectroscopy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the type of polymer, 100 mL of the prepared stock salt solution was filtered through a glass fiber filter (Whatman grade 934-AH, 55 mm diameter, 1.5 um pore). The filtrate was then washed with 200\u0026micro;L of deionized water, collected in a glass tube, and subjected to FTIR (BRUKER Alpha-2, Germany). After analysis, the result was enumerated through a graph of spectra.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOptimization of Nile Red Interaction with Salt\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe optimization of NR interaction with salt was carried out using salt solutions of different concentrations ranging from 0 to 100mg/mL and measuring the absorbance at 532nm. The OD values obtained for all the concentrations tested ranged from 0.25- 0.26, which indicated minimal fluctuations across the spectrum of NaCl concentrations (\u003cstrong\u003eTable I\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDetection and quantification of MPs from salts:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOut of 30 different brands of salts tested, 28 brands showed the presence of MPs except for two brands of flour salt (processed salt: P1-P2).\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eBased on the fluorescent images, the polymers were categorized as microparticles and microfibers (\u003cstrong\u003eFig.1\u003c/strong\u003e). The identified microfibers ranged from 2- 14 particles/100g whereas the microparticles ranged from 5- 26 particles/100g of sample. In total, the number of MPs ranged from 3- 27 particles/100g in sea salt and\u0026nbsp;8-29\u0026nbsp;particles/100g in rock salt. Further, the size of MPs analyzed ranged from 19.45\u0026mu;m - 512.91\u0026mu;m in sea salts and 29.69\u0026mu;m \u0026ndash; 1432.85\u0026mu;m in rock salt (\u003cstrong\u003eTable II\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCharacterization of polymer type by FTIR spectroscopy\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConfirmation of the Nile red staining by FTIR spectroscopy analysis identified diverse polymer particles such as PVC, PET, PS, PP, and PE in the salt samples analysed. The identity of the MP polymers was done on the unique absorption spectra, based on the presence of distinct functional groups. The spectral peaks of the PVC showed at 618.51 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 632.51 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1331.57 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 2813.64 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PET at 1246.99 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1411.20 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1724.5 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2360.7 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2913.8 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PS at 1039.55 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1482.04 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 2933.63 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PP at 1367.5 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1724.5 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2913 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and PE at 710.51 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1388.98 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1466.06 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1724.56 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2913.84 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (\u003cstrong\u003eFig.2\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCharacterization of heat-induced salt\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe confirmed MP sample (R4), was subjected to FTIR analysis to check the effect of the heating process on the polymers. The samples showed similar prominent peaks of PVC at 619.76 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 697.16 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 1428.33 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PET at 1420.09 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1453.73 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1509.30 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2352.58 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 3050.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 3421.56 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PS at 697.16 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 756.47 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1491.08 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 3031.93 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PP at 852.40 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2851.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2914.44 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2957.46 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and PE at 716.62 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2851.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2914.44 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003eFig.3A\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe MP sample (R4), when added after the heating process still showed the similar peaks of PVC at 607.10 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 634.17 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 682.40 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1945.46 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2915.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PET at 1345.46 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1405.19 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2341.27 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 2915.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PS at 693.52cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1026.99 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1442.49 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2849.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, PP at 1380.69 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2835.13 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2915.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, and PE at 722.14 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1380.69 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1466.07 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2849.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2915.34 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e(\u003cstrong\u003eFig.3B)\u003c/strong\u003e. The R4 sample, which underwent different experimental methods subjected to the FTIR showed similar polymers present.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastic contamination has turned into a global problem due to its pervasive presence in the environment and harmful effects on organisms (Cole et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). MPs can absorb waterborne pollutants and/or release dangerous chemicals that can pose risks to human health. Their small size, variable shape, applied coatings, and large surface make the detection, identification, and quantification of MPs and NPs a challenging attempt (Sturm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have shown the presence of MPs in marine resources in alarming proportions, including in those that are not meant for human consumption, which led to the hypothesis that sea salt may contain MPs (Sivahami et al. 2021). In this study, the MPs were identified in both rock salt and sea salt through Nile red staining. In 2017, Maes et al proposed the use of Nile red dye for the identification of MPs. Although several other dyes bind, Nile red has high specificity, high fluorescent emission, and shorter incubation time and hence is the most widely accepted stain. In our study, thirty different brands of salt (rock salt and sea salt) were analyzed for the presence of MPs using the NR staining method using a protocol that was described earlier (Makhdoumi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). More than 93% of the samples showed the presence of MPs at variable concentrations and of different types. Two samples, P1 and P2 did not show any presence of MPs, which could be the result of efficient purification processes followed in these samples. In this study, the number of MP in sea salt and rock salt varied with higher MP particles found in sea salt compared to rock salt. A similar result was obtained by Yang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), sea salts contain a higher quantity of MPs than rock salts, which is most likely due to the huge quantity of marine plastic litter that is present in marine ecosystems. However, the size of MPs in sea salt was lesser than that in rock salt which could be because of the fewer manufacturing steps compared to sea salt, and a contributing factor for the disparity in MP particle counts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR spectroscopy is one of the most powerful tools for identifying the respective chemical polymers in MPs (Ivleva et al. 2021; Moses et al. 2023). The salt samples analyzed in this study were examined through FTIR spectroscopy at a wavelength of 500- 4000cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to determine the kind of (distinct) polymer the data were displayed as a graph of FTIR spectra that had peaks at specific wavenumber positions. The absorption peaks for C-H, C-H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, C-H\u003csub\u003e3,\u003c/sub\u003e C-O, C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O, C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C, C-Cl, =C-H- with benzene group were detected between 600\u0026ndash;780cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1050\u0026ndash;1250 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1330\u0026ndash;1420 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1600\u0026ndash;1680 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2840\u0026ndash;2950 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 3049 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Previous studies have validated the absorption spectra for the MPs obtained from the salt samples showing prominent peaks that were identical to the peaks identified for specific polymers such as PVC between 605-700cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1330\u0026ndash;1430 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1945 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2813\u0026ndash;2916 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Park et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Park et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), PET between 1246\u0026ndash;1421 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1508\u0026ndash;1725 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2340\u0026ndash;2361 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 2913\u0026ndash;2916 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 3050\u0026ndash;3422 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e(Pereira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; El-Saftawy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), polystyrene (PS) 690\u0026ndash;757 cm-1,1026\u0026ndash;1492 cm-1 and 2848\u0026ndash;3032 cm-1 (F et al. 2013), polypropylene (PP) at 852 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e,1367\u0026ndash;1725 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 2835\u0026ndash;2958 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Mazhar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ibor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and polyethylene (PE) at 709\u0026ndash;723 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e,1380\u0026ndash;1725 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003eand 2849\u0026ndash;2916 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e(Mohan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Asgari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In our samples, PET was found to be the most abundant polymer (37%), followed by PVC (26%) PP (22%), and polyethylene (11%). Polystyrene (1%) was the least abundant polymer, an observation similar to the results shown by Lee et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e. The results indicated an increase in the presence of PVC in salt as compared to the study conducted to analyse the presence of MPs in edible sea salt where they found only 1\u0026ndash;3% PVC in salt (Vidyasakar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This could be due to the excessive use of PVC which is one of the most versatile plastics in urbanization in developing countries like India.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPs decompose at specific thermal ranges in different nitrogen and oxygen environments leaving carbon residues (Rozman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The FTIR analysis of the simulated cooking process revealed no alteration in the MP polymers present indicating that the MPs in the salt remains intake even after cooking, posing a risk of accumulation through ingestion in the body. The heat and moisture during cooking may release MPs from the salt into the cooked food. The extent of leaching may depend on factors such as the type of plastic, cooking duration, and temperature. Ingesting MPs in minimal amounts has raised concerns about the potential impact on human health. Studies have suggested that MPs can accumulate in the body and may have adverse effects, however, to date the full extent of these effects is not yet fully understood (CK Seth and A Shriwastav \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe presence of MPs in table salt raises serious concerns about their potential impact on human health, as salt is commonly used as a flavour enhancer and food preservative. Random analysis of common available brands of sea and rock salts showed the presence of MPs, in 93% of the samples tested. To date, few reports have examined the presence of MPs in commercial salts. Hence the results of this study assume significance as further research on this topic, particularly on the impact of persistent ingestion of MPs on human health, is much warranted. Salt is an indispensable ingredient in all kinds of cuisines and is often used in uncooked form in salads and other ready-to-eat products. Thus, MP contamination of salt may be considered as a public health concern and focused attention on its removal during the purification processes is a must to ensure a safe product to the public.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMPs:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMicroplastics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNR:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNile red\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFTIR:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePET:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePolyethylene terephthalate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePVC:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePolyvinyl chloride\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePE:\u003c/strong\u003e Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePP:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePolypropylene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePS:\u003c/strong\u003e Polystyrene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWHO:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWorld Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGOI:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eGovernment of India\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRV:\u003c/strong\u003e Involved in data analysis and prepared the original draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSX:\u003c/strong\u003e Performed the experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMM:\u003c/strong\u003e Partly performed the experiments and involved in data analysis.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGC:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualized the study, supervised the work and edited the drafted manuscript.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAC:\u003c/strong\u003e Supervised the work, participated in the data analysis and revision of the manuscript\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research (NUCSER) and Nitte (Deemed to be University) for providing facilities and infrastructure for the research. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNIL\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAmelia TS, Khalik WM, Ong MC, Shao YT, Pan HJ, Bhubalan K. 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Science of The Total Environment. 2022 Jul 20;831:154907.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJohnson C, Santos JA, Sparks E, Raj TS, Mohan S, Garg V, Rogers K, Maulik PK, Prabhakaran D,Neal B, Webster J. Sources of dietary salt in North and South India estimated from 24 hour dietary recall. Nutrients. 2019 Feb 1;11(2):318.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLeslie HA, Van Velzen MJ, Brandsma SH, Vethaak AD, Garcia-Vallejo JJ, Lamoree MH. Discovery and quantification of plastic particle pollution in human blood. Environment international. 2022 May 1;163:107199.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eL.G.A. Barboza, A.D. Vethaak, B.R.B.O. Lavorante, A.-K. Lundebye, L. Guilhermino Marine microplastic debris: an emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health Mar. Pollut. Bull., 133 (2018), pp. 336-348\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLee H, Kunz A, Shim WJ, Walther BA. Microplastic contamination of table salts from Taiwan, including a global review. Scientific reports. 2019 Jul 12;9(1):1-9.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLofty J, Valero D, Wilson CA, Franca MJ, Ouro P. Microplastic and natural sediment in bed load saltation: material does not dictate the fate. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.14990. 2023 Mar 27.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaes T, Jessop R, Wellner N, Haupt K, Mayes AG. A rapid-screening approach to detect and quantify microplastics based on fluorescent tagging with Nile Red. Scientific reports. 2017 Mar 16;7(1):44501.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMakhdoumi P, Pirsaheb M, Amin AA, Kianpour S, Hossini H. Microplastic pollution in table salt and sugar: Occurrence, qualification and quantification and risk assessment. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2023 Jun 1;119:105261.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMazhar M, Abdouss M, Shariatinia Z, Zargaran M. Graft copolymerization of methacrylic acid monomers onto polypropylene fibers. Chemical Industry and Chemical Engineering Quarterly. 2014;20(1):87-96.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMazlan N, Shukhairi SS, Husin MJ, Shalom J, Saud SN, Sani MS, Ong MC, Mohan NK, Sopian NA. Evaluation of microplastics isolated from sea cucumber Acaudina molpadioides in Pulau Langkawi, Malaysia. Heliyon. 2023 Jun 1;9(6).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMeyers N, Catarino AI, Declercq AM, Brenan A, Devriese L, Vandegehuchte M, De Witte B, Janssen C, Everaert G. Microplastic detection and identification by Nile red staining: Towards a semi-automated, cost-and time-effective technique. Science of the Total Environment. 2022 Jun 1;823:153441.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMohan M, Gaonkar AA, Nanjappa DP, Krithika K, Vittal R, Chakraborty A, Chakraborty G. Screening for microplastics in drinking water and its toxicity profiling in zebrafish. Chemosphere. 2023 Nov 1;341:139882.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMoses SR, Roscher L, Primpke S, Hufnagl B, L\u0026ouml;der MG, Gerdts G, Laforsch C. Comparison of two rapid automated analysis tools for large FTIR microplastic datasets. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2023 Mar 20:1-3.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNakat Z, Dgheim N, Ballout J, Bou-Mitri C. Occurrence and exposure to microplastics in salt for human consumption, present on the Lebanese market. Food Control. 2023 Mar 1;145:109414.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePark KB, Oh SJ, Begum G, Kim JS. Production of clean oil with low levels of chlorine and olefins in a continuous two-stage pyrolysis of a mixture of waste low-density polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride. Energy. 2018 Aug 15;157:402-11.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePark M, Choi I, Lee S, Hong SJ, Kim A, Shin J, Kang HC, Kim YW. Renewable malic acid-based plasticizers for both PVC and PLA polymers. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2020 Aug 25;88:148-58.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePeixoto D, Pinheiro C, Amorim J, Oliva-Teles L, Guilhermino L, Vieira MN. Microplastic pollution in commercial salt for human consumption: A review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2019 Apr 5;219:161-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePereira EL, de Oliveira Junior AL, Fineza AG. Optimization of mechanical properties in concrete reinforced with fibers from solid urban wastes (PET bottles) for the production of ecological concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2017 Sep 15;149:837-48.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRozman U, Turk T, Skalar T, Zupančič M, Koro\u0026scaron;in NČ, Marin\u0026scaron;ek M, Olivero-Verbel J, Kalč\u0026iacute;kov\u0026aacute; G. An extensive characterization of various environmentally relevant microplastics\u0026ndash;material properties, leaching and ecotoxicity testing. Science of The Total Environment. 2021 Jun 15;773:145576.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchwabl P, K\u0026ouml;ppel S, K\u0026ouml;nigshofer P, Bucsics T, Trauner M, Reiberger T, Liebmann B. Detection of various microplastics in human stool: a prospective case series. Annals of internal medicine. 2019 Oct 1;171(7):453-7.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSeth CK, Shriwastav A. Contamination of Indian sea salts with microplastics and a potential prevention strategy. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2018 Oct;25:30122-31.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eShim WJ, Song YK, Hong SH, Jang M. Identification and quantification of microplastics using Nile Red staining. Marine pollution bulletin. 2016 Dec 15;113(1-2):469-76.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eShruti VC, P\u0026eacute;rez-Guevara F, Roy PD, Kutralam-Muniasamy G. Analyzing microplastics with Nile Red: Emerging trends, challenges, and prospects. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2022 Feb 5;423:127171.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSivagami M, Selvambigai M, Devan U, Velangani AA, Karmegam N, Biruntha M, Arun A, Kim W, Govarthanan M, Kumar P. Extraction of microplastics from commonly used sea salts in India and their toxicological evaluation. Chemosphere. 2021 Jan 1;263:128181.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSturm MT, Horn H, Schuhen K. The potential of fluorescent dyes\u0026mdash;comparative study of Nile red and three derivatives for the detection of microplastics. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2021 Feb;413(4):1059-71.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSturm MT, Myers E, Schober D, Korzin A, Schuhen K. Development of an inexpensive and comparable microplastic detection method using fluorescent staining with novel nile red derivatives. Analytica. 2023 Feb 1;4(1):27-44.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThiele CJ, Grange LJ, Haggett E, Hudson MD, Hudson P, Russell AE, Zapata-Restrepo LM. Microplastics in European sea salts\u0026ndash;An example of exposure through consumer choice and interstudy methodological discrepancies. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2023 Apr 15;255:114782.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUllah S, Ahmad S, Guo X, Ullah S, Nabi G, Wanghe K. A review of the endocrine disrupting effects of micro and nano plastic and their associated chemicals in mammals. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2023 Jan 16;13:1084236.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVidyasakar A, Krishnakumar S, Kumar KS, Neelavannan K, Anbalagan S, Kasilingam K, Srinivasalu S, Saravanan P, Kamaraj S, Magesh NS. Microplastic contamination in edible sea salt from the largest salt-producing states of India. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2021 Oct 1;171:112728.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eW.H. Organization, Guideline: Sodium Intake for Adults and Children, World Health Organization, 2012.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYang D, Shi H, Li L, Li J, Jabeen K, Kolandhasamy P. Microplastic pollution in table salts from China. Environmental science \u0026amp; technology. 2015 Nov 17;49(22):13622-7.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang Q, Xu EG, Li J, Chen Q, Ma L, Zeng EY, Shi H. A review of microplastics \u0026nbsp;in table salt, drinking water, and air: direct human exposure. Environmental \u0026nbsp; Science \u0026amp; Technology. 2020 Mar 2;54(7):3740-51.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable I. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eOptimization of the interaction of NR with salt at OD at 532nm\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"610\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.658456486042693%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTubes no.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.628899835796387%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVolume of NaCl (mL)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.689655172413794%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVolume of deionized water (mL)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.31527093596059%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConc. Of NaCl \u0026nbsp;(mg/mL)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.464696223316913%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVolume of NR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.50903119868637%\" rowspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncubation for 30mins in Dark\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.733990147783253%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbsorbance at 532\u003csub\u003enm\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.027522935779816%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.229357798165138%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.119266055045873%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.761467889908257%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.045871559633028%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.81651376146789%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.257\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.027522935779816%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.229357798165138%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.119266055045873%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.761467889908257%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.045871559633028%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.81651376146789%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.027522935779816%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.229357798165138%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.119266055045873%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.761467889908257%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.045871559633028%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.81651376146789%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.027522935779816%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.229357798165138%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.119266055045873%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.761467889908257%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.045871559633028%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.81651376146789%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.027522935779816%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.229357798165138%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.119266055045873%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.761467889908257%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.045871559633028%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.81651376146789%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.027522935779816%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.229357798165138%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.119266055045873%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.761467889908257%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.045871559633028%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.81651376146789%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable II.\u003c/strong\u003e Composition of microparticles, the total number of MPs per 100gm of sample analyzed, and their sizes in all the thirty salt samples analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"549\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSamples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroparticles\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicrofibers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal MPs\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Microparticles + microfibers)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSize(\u0026micro;m)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e512.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e198.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n 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width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e238.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e492.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n 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\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.843351548269581%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.493624772313296%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.029143897996356%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.59016393442623%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.043715846994534%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e*S - Sea salt, R- Rock salt, P- Processed salt\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sea salt, Rock salt, Microplastic, Marine pollution, FTIR, Polyethylene terephthalate","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3893146/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3893146/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePlastic waste accumulation is an ever-growing menace affecting both aquatic and terrestrial environments. One of the primary concerns associated with plastic pollution is the accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the ecosystem, particularly in the marine ecosystem. Microplastics pollution in marine environment is a matter of grave concern because marine resources are one of the primarily contributors to human food supply. In addition, the marine environment possesses a plethora of bioactive compounds that are used in a wide variety of products, intended for human use. One of the easiest routes of MPs ingestion from marine environment is through salt, an indispensable ingredient in cooking. This study aimed at analysing commercial brands of sea salt and rock salt for the presence of MPs by Nile red fluorescent staining (NR) and characterizing the plastic polymers by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). A total of thirty different brands of salts available in India were collected and analysed. The results indicate that presence of MPs is highly prevalent in sea salts with variable number, particles size and polymer types. In sea salt samples, the number of MPs ranged between 13- 27 particles/100g whereas in rock salt, it ranged between 8- 29 particles/100g. \u0026nbsp;Both plastic microfibers and MPs were detected in the categories of samples analysed, ranging between 2- 14 particles/100 g for microfibers and 2- 27 particles/100g for microparticles. The size of MPs ranged between 19.45μm - 512.91μm in sea salts and between 29.69μm– 1432.85μm in rock salt. FTIR Spectroscopy identified polyethylene terephthalate as the most prevalent polymer (37%) in the salt samples, followed by polyvinyl chloride (25.9%) polypropylene (22.2%), polyethylene (11%), and polystyrene (3.7%). This study highlights yet another source of MPs ingestion by humans. Given the fact that salt is a preservative, a taste enhancer, and a source of an essential micronutrient, there is an imminent need for potential mitigation techniques to ensure MP-free salts for human consumption.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Detection and Characterization of Microplastics in Commercial Salts in India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-20 13:18:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3893146/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"33272e0d-89ee-45e1-ad34-925d81bfa5a9","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 20th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-03-12T10:06:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-20 13:18:11","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3893146","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3893146","identity":"rs-3893146","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}