Clinical and Kinematic Responses to Neck Injuries in Low-Speed Reverse Motor Vehicle Collision Tests: A Human Volunteer Study

Clinical and Kinematic Responses to Neck Injuries in Low-Speed Reverse Motor Vehicle Collision Tests: A Human Volunteer Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Clinical and Kinematic Responses to Neck Injuries in Low-Speed Reverse Motor Vehicle Collision Tests: A Human Volunteer Study Hee Young LEE, Chan Young KANG, Kang Hyun LEE, Oh Hyun KIM, Hee Jung KIM, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7304442/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Research question/objective: Low-speed motor vehicle collisions (MVCs), especially in reverse driving scenarios, frequently lead to neck pain complaints despite the absence of radiological evidence of injury. This raises concerns about ex-post moral hazard and overtreatment. To evaluate the clinical, neurophysiological, and biomechanical responses to low-speed reverse MVCs in healthy adults, and assess the potential for cervical spine injury. Methodology: This prospective experimental study involved 12 healthy adults who participated in controlled low-speed rear-end collisions while driving in reverse. Six vehicle combinations were used with alternating full and offset frontal impacts. Pre- and post-collision assessments included cervical spine X-rays, MRI, electromyography (EMG), and nerve conduction velocity (NCV) tests. Head-neck-trunk motions were captured via markerless 3D motion analysis, and biomechanical parameters such as torque, impulse, and Neck Injury Criterion (NIC) were calculated. Pain levels were self-reported using a numeric rating scale. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used for statistical analysis. Results: No participant exhibited clinically significant radiologic or neurophysiological abnormalities. Post-collision MRI revealed cervical lordosis straightening in 75% of subjects, with no evidence of structural damage. EMG/NCV changes were statistically significant but within physiological norms. Pain reports decreased from 58.3% immediately post-collision to 25.0% after one week. Torque exceeded 30 N·m in 50% of participants, but all NIC values remained well below the 15 m²/s² injury threshold. Conclusions: Low-speed reverse collisions generate transient biomechanical loads and symptoms but do not result in clinically significant cervical spine injuries. Multimodal assessments, including high-resolution MRI, neurophysiological testing (EMG/NCS), pain scales, and kinematic indicators such as NIC and torque thresholds, highlight the need for objective evaluation to distinguish benign responses from true injury, aiding both clinical and medicolegal decisions. Health sciences/Health care Health sciences/Medical research Health sciences/Neurology Biological sciences/Neuroscience Low-speed motor vehicle collisions Driving in reverse Neck injury MRI Electromyogram (EMG) Nerve conduction velocity (NCV) Kinematics Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 I. Introduction Whiplash is an injury that happens when sudden force or movement strains your neck and spine, damaging bone, muscle, ligaments and nerves. It’s most common in motor vehicle collisions (MVCs), but can also happen for other reasons [ 1 ]. It is a damage to bone or soft tissue can cause impact and cause some kind of clinical symptoms. Additionally, whiplash injuries are typically caused by low-speed MVCs below 25 km/h [ 2 ]. The debate over whether injuries occur in light-contact traffic accidents has become a very big social issue. In most cases, it is a moral hazard phenomenon, and even though no one was injured in a traffic accident, there is an actual intention to obtain a medical certificate out of a sense of unfairness, falsely complain of pain, and have the perpetrator receive compensation for the act. However, such actions by victims result in enormous social costs and ultimately only have the effect of increasing the number of insurance subscribers. The damage is a continuation of a vicious cycle that affects all of us. The cost of treatment for whiplash injuries or neck sprains caused by rear-end collisions is estimated to be $ 2.7 billion in the United States [ 3 ], and approximately 10 billion euros in Europe [ 4 ]. In Korea, as of 2022, there were 3,629 accidents caused by vehicle-to-vehicle collisions with driving in reverse, and 4,907 people were injured, accounting for about 2% of the total 235,000 people injured in vehicle-to-vehicle collisions. The number of MVCs due to collisions with driving in reverse increased by approximately 44.1% from 2,517 in 2018 to 3,629 in 2022, and the one of injuries due to collisions with driving in reverse increased by 41.7% from 3,463 in 2018 to 4,907 in 2022 [ 5 ]. The proportion of medical expenses for patients with minor injuries, which was 57% of all medical expenses for personal compensation, increased to 67% in 2020, and based on the increase rate, it was 3.4%, which is 5.3 times more than that for patients with serious injuries (annual average of 2.5%). The majority of minor injuries are spinal sprains and simple bruises, and it is difficult to clearly measure the presence and severity of the injury medically, so treatment has to rely on the victim's subjective complaints of pain, so there are many cases in which insurance benefits are paid, creating a high moral hazard. It is causing overtreatment. This unnecessary leakage of insurance money due to excessive medical treatment undermines the efficiency of the automobile insurance system, acting as a burden to increase insurance premiums, and can undermine fairness in that the perpetrator pays excessive insurance money compared to the severity of the victim's injuries [ 6 ]. There were several research cases aimed at reducing social costs to address these issues. Castro et al. presented that it conducted an experiment with the effective collision speed (delta V, ΔV) in the range of 8.3 to 14.2 km/h on volunteers and reported that the hyperextension of neck did not occur. They concluded that the “limit of harmlessness” from rear-end collisions is 10 to 15 km/h [ 7 ]. Brault et al. showed that the possibility of neck injury varied depending on the headrest position [ 8 ]. Szabo et al. presented the possibility of injury when additional impact was applied to patients with past illness [ 9 ]. In South Korea, an experiment was conducted on 50 Korean adult men in their 30s to 50s, assuming a rear-end collision with the ΔV of 5 to 8 km/h. In this experiment, 44 out of 50 subjects were not found to have any abnormal symptoms, and none of the remaining 6 subjects complained of neck discomfort. The ΔV refers to the speed at which the stopped vehicle moves forward when two vehicles collide, so the amount of impact delivered to the occupants can be indirectly estimated at the ΔV obtained through a vehicle-to-vehicle collision test [ 10 ]. In addition, the biomechanical threshold for the strain of neck in minor MVCs is still being discussed, but no final conclusion appears to have been reached. Additionally, it is frequently reported that minor whiplash injuries are biomechanically difficult to detect, even when using advanced technological medical equipment such as MRI and CT scanners. Therefore, doctors are generally unable to treat patients accurately, and some false whiplash associated disorders insurance claims cannot be filtered out [ 11 ]. In previous studies in the United States, the causes and effects of overdose, false medical treatment, and compensation practices conducted by American insurance companies were analyzed in terms of ex post moral hazard. Dionne and St-Mitchel presented the definition of ex-post moral hazard as behavior that magnifies damage in order to receive more compensation after an accident [ 12 ]. Derrig et al. found that the cause of moral hazard after a traffic accident was that personal compensation claimants received more compensation [ 13 ], and Brown and Puelz showed that the increase in personal compensation insurance benefits slowed down after the improvement of the alimony system [ 14 ]. Loughran and David suggested how to measure ex post moral hazard and presented the difference between the individual compensation treatment costs that insurers expected based on accident information and the actual costs of treatment for a particular injury was less than the cost of treatment [ 15 ]. The aim of this study was to examine the clinical and kinematic responses associated with the occurrence of neck injuries from human volunteers in low-speed motor vehicle collision tests with driving in reverse. II. Methods Prospective experimental study This study was conducted as a prospective experimental design to evaluate human kinematic and clinical responses during low-speed rear-end collisions while driving in reverse. A total of 12 healthy adult volunteers with valid driver's licenses participated. The experimental setting involved a controlled environment in which each participant drove a vehicle in reverse and experienced standardized low-speed collisions. The study aimed to simulate real-world minor collision scenarios while maintaining participant safety and experimental consistency. Participants were recruited to represent diverse age groups and both sexes, enabling analysis of potential differences across demographics. Individuals with any medical conditions, including prior or existing disorders of the cervical or lumbar spine, or those with a history of insurance claims for neck or back injuries, were excluded to minimize health risks and confounding factors. All procedures were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Yonsei University Wonju Severance Christian Hospital (IRB approval number: CR323046), and written informed consent was obtained from all participants before the study commenced. This clinical study complied with the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, and was conducted in accordance with the Korean Good Clinical Practice (KGCP) and related regulations, taking into account the rights and safety of the subjects. Collision test conditions settings A total of 6 models of 3 types were selected: two small passenger cars (Spark LT ® , Kona OS ® ), two large passenger cars (Genesis DH ® , Grandeur IG ® ), and two sport utility vehicles (Sorento UM ® , X4 ® ). All occupants were asked to sit in the driver's seat and the second row right rear seat in their natural posture as usual. In order to avoid being aware of the moment of impact, they wore an eye patch, listened to music, and maintained a sitting posture. A camera was installed along the occupant's shoulder line to capture their movements throughout the entire collision test. In order not to miss the joint point of the occupant's head and neck, women with long hair were asked to tie their hair up (Fig. 1). Impact scenarios The accident type consisted of a reproduction of a reverse collision accident, and the test was conducted six times in which a vehicle reversing at a low speed at 8 km/h collided with the front of a stationary vehicle. Two vehicles each were paired up and took turns performing reverse collisions: Grandeur IG vs. Genesis DH, Sorento UM vs. Spark LT, and X4 vs. Kona OS. Offset settings were applied alternately between 100% frontal contact and 50% offset collision. A man and a woman sat in the driver's seat and the right rear seat. If, in the first test, a man sat in the driver's seat and a woman sat in the right rear seat, in the second test, a woman sat in the driver's seat and a man sat in the right rear seat, alternating between tests (Table 1 ). Radiological examination In the evaluation of the impact of a collision test on the occupants, a comprehensive diagnostic approach was undertaken through the use of X-ray and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) both before and after the test. X-ray imaging, specifically in the cervical spine anteroposterior (AP) lateral, oblique flexion, and extension views, provided detailed perspectives on the structural changes in the cervical spine during different movements. This series of X-rays aimed to assist in the interpretation of the subsequent MRI results. The MRI, conducted within 72 hours post-collision test, employed a trauma sequence including T2 Dixon sagittal, T2 axial, Gradient Echo (GRE) axial, and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) sequences. These MRI sequences were selected to capture a comprehensive assessment of the cervical spine, allowing for the visualization of soft tissue structures, potential ligamentous injuries, and changes in neural integrity. The radiologist began by carefully reading the X-ray images, focusing on any evident bone changes or fractures in the spinal column. Subsequently, the MRI provided a more detailed examination, revealing subtle nuances such as bone marrow edema and allowing for a thorough assessment of the spinal cord and its signal intensity (SI). Soft tissue analysis extended to paraspinal muscles, ligaments, and the identification of prevertebral fluid collections. Within the images, the radiologist paid particular attention to ligaments, assessing their integrity and searching for any signs of injury that might impact spinal stability. Evaluation of alignment and position changes, including instances of straightening, offered additional insights into potential muscle spasms or underlying pathologies. Additionally, to calculate the moment of inertia at the neck joint, MRI images were read to derive neck length. In this study, participants' neck length was measured, defined as the distance between the upper part of the hyoid bone to the jugular notch [ 16 ]. Electromyogram (EMG) and nerve conduction velocity (NCV) test In conjunction with X-ray and MRI assessments, EMG and NCV tests were integral components of the comprehensive evaluation conducted before and after the collision test. These neurophysiological tests were administered to gauge the impact of the collision test on the neck's neuromuscular function. EMG recordings provided insights into the electrical activity of muscles, detecting abnormalities such as spontaneous activity or altered recruitment patterns [ 17 ]. Simultaneously, NCV tests helped assess the integrity of peripheral nerves by measuring the speed at which electrical impulses traveled along them. Administered within two weeks post-collision test, these tests aimed to discern any neurophysiological changes induced by the impact on the cervical spine. The rehabilitation specialist meticulously reviewed the electrodiagnosis report, focusing on key neurophysiological parameters such as nerve conduction velocity, CMAP (Compound Muscle Action Potential), SNAP (Sensory Nerve Action Potential), and EMG (Electromyography). This analysis was intended to detect abnormalities indicative of conditions such as cervical radiculopathy or peripheral polyneuropathy, and CMAP and SNAP results identified potential nerve damage or dysfunction for motor and sensory nerve function. The results of the EMG study were to check the degree of tension in the neck muscles and whether there was any muscle injury. Self-reported pain assessment After the collision test, participants were asked whether pain occurred and the degree of pain. The occurrence of pain was checked on the day immediately after the collision test, one day after the collision test, and one week after the collision test. Up to three areas of pain were selected among the following: cervical spine (neck), shoulder and upper arm, back, lumbar spine (lower back), and waist. The level of pain was measured using the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) [ 18 ]. Extraction of occupants’ head-neck-trunk movements from videos 3D human key points were estimated in the Skinned Multi-Person Linear Model (SMPL) + head [ 19 ] format using marker-less 3D motion capture program (REMOBODY-S, REMO Inc., Republic of Korea) from 2D camera images [ 20 ]. To compute the orientations of body segments, a local coordinate system was established for each segment using anatomical landmarks. For the trunk orientation, the x-axis was defined as the vector from the right shoulder (point 13) to the left shoulder (point 14), normalized to unit length. An initial z-axis was calculated as the vector from the midpoint of both shoulders to the neck base (point 12). The y-axis was then computed as the cross product of the z-axis and x-axis to ensure orthogonality. Finally, the z-axis was recalculated as the cross product of the x-axis and y-axis to guarantee a right-handed orthonormal coordinate system. The neck segment orientation shared the y-axis (frontal direction) from the trunk coordinate system to maintain continuity. The z-axis was defined as the vector from the neck base (point 12) to the upper neck (point 15), normalized to unit length. The x-axis was computed as the cross product of the y-axis and z-axis, and the y-axis was subsequently recalculated to ensure orthonormality. For the head orientation, the x-axis was initially defined as the vector from the right ear (point 26) to the left ear (point 28). The z-axis was calculated as the vector from the upper neck (point 15) to the midpoint of both ears. Following the same orthonormalization procedure, the y-axis was computed as the cross product of the z-axis and x-axis, and the z-axis was recalculated to maintain orthogonality. The relative angles between trunk-neck and neck-head segments were then computed from these orientation matrices as three-dimensional Euler angles, representing flexion-extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation movements. Kinematics and kinetics of neck joint The linear velocities of the upper neck and head were calculated by differentiating their positional coordinates. An 8th-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 10Hz was applied to reduce high-frequency noise. Linear accelerations of the upper neck and head were subsequently obtained by differentiating the filtered velocity data and applying the same filtering method. Angular velocities of the neck and head were derived by differentiating the angular displacements between the torso and neck, and between the neck and head. These angular velocities were also filtered using a 10Hz, 8th-order Butterworth low-pass filter. Angular accelerations were subsequently obtained by differentiating the filtered angular velocity data, and the resulting signals were filtered using the same method. To model rotational dynamics, the head and neck were represented as rigid bodies, with their mass and inertial properties derived from established anthropometric data. The average mass of the head was set to 4.5 kg and that of the neck to 1.5 kg, reflecting values commonly reported in adult biomechanical studies. The moments of inertia about each segment’s center of mass were assigned as (0.025, 0.015, 0.022) kg·m² for the head and (0.008, 0.006, 0.007) kg·m² for the neck, based on prior experimental measurements and modeling studies [ 21 ]. The neck’s moment of inertia was approximated using a simplified cylindrical model with an assumed uniform mass distribution, in accordance with established biomechanical modeling practices [ 22 ]. The neck radius was estimated from average neck circumference data obtained from the 8th National Anthropometric Survey of Korea (Size Korea), and a constant average tissue density of 1,000 kg/m³ was applied [ 23 , 24 ]. The torque exerted on the upper cervical joint (C1 level) by the head was calculated using Newton-Euler equations: $$\:\underset{{\tau\:}_{neck}}{\to\:}={I}_{h}·{\underset{\alpha\:}{\to\:}}_{h}+{\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{h}\times\:\left({I}_{h}·{\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{h}\right)+{\underset{r}{\to\:}}_{h}\times\:{m}_{h}·({\underset{\alpha\:}{\to\:}}_{h}-\underset{g}{\to\:})$$ where τ neck is the total torque at the upper neck joint; I ℎ , m ℎ , α ℎ , and ω ℎ denote the head’s inertia tensor, mass, angular acceleration, and angular velocity, respectively; r ℎ is the position vector from the neck joint to the head’s center of mass; a ℎ is the linear acceleration of the head’s center of mass; and g is the gravitational acceleration vector. This equation comprises inertial torque, gyroscopic torque, and follower torque due to head translation [ 25 ]. These calculations provide a comprehensive dynamic representation of how the head exerts torque on the upper neck joint during low-speed rear-end collisions. The torque acting at the lower cervical spine (C7 or T1 joint) due to the dynamics of the combined head–neck system was calculated using the Newton–Euler equation: $$\:\underset{{\tau\:}_{C7}}{\to\:}={I}_{hn}·{\underset{\alpha\:}{\to\:}}_{hn}+{\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{hn}\times\:\left({I}_{hn}·{\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{hn}\right)+{\underset{r}{\to\:}}_{hn}\times\:{m}_{hn}·({\underset{\alpha\:}{\to\:}}_{hn}-\underset{g}{\to\:})$$ where τ C7 represents the total torque at the C7 (or T1) joint; I ℎn is the inertia tensor of the combined head–neck system; m ℎn is the combined mass of the head and neck; α ℎn and ω ℎn denote the angular acceleration and angular velocity of the head–neck system, respectively; r ℎn is the position vector from the C7 vertebra to the center of mass of the head–neck system; a ℎn is the linear acceleration of this center of mass; and g is the gravitational acceleration vector. These calculations provide a detailed dynamic representation of how the combined head–neck segment exerts torque on the lower cervical spine, particularly under low-speed rear-end impact conditions. To assess the transient mechanical loading during impact, linear and angular impulses were also calculated. At the C1 level, these were defined as: $$\:{\underset{J}{\to\:}}_{C1}^{lin}={m}_{h}·({\underset{v}{\to\:}}_{h1}-{\underset{v}{\to\:}}_{h0})\:{\underset{J}{\to\:}}_{C1}^{ang}={I}_{h}·({\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{h1}-{\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{h0})$$ where v ℎ0 and ω ℎ0 are the initial linear and angular velocities of the head, and v ℎ1 and ω ℎ1 are the peak values during impact. These impulse values represent the abrupt momentum changes transmitted to the upper cervical spine as a result of translational and rotational motions of the head during low-speed rear-end impacts. To assess the mechanical load transferred to the lower cervical spine at the C7/T1 joint, both linear and angular impulses of the head–neck system were calculated as: $$\:{\underset{J}{\to\:}}_{C7}^{lin}=({m}_{h}+{m}_{n})·({\underset{v}{\to\:}}_{hn1}-{\underset{v}{\to\:}}_{hn0})\:{\underset{J}{\to\:}}_{C7}^{ang}={I}_{hn}·({\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{hn1}-{\underset{\omega\:}{\to\:}}_{hn0})$$ The linear impulse was determined by multiplying the combined mass of the head (m ℎ ) and neck (m n ) by the change in linear velocity of their center of mass from baseline (v ℎn0 ) to peak response (v ℎn1 ). Similarly, the angular impulse was computed using the inertia tensor of the head–neck system (I hn ) and the change in angular velocity from baseline (ω ℎn0 ) to peak (ω ℎn1 ). These metrics quantify the total momentum changes transmitted through the lower cervical spine, providing insight into biomechanical loading conditions during rear-end collisions. The Neck Injury Criterion (NIC) was calculated to assess the potential risk of cervical spine injury during low-speed rear-end collisions. NIC is a biomechanical metric that combines the relative horizontal acceleration (a rel ) and velocity (v rel ) between the head and the upper thorax, typically represented by the T1 or C7 vertebra. It is defined by the following equation: $$\:NIC=0.2·{a}_{rel}+{v}_{rel}^{2}$$ Initially developed as a threshold-based indicator, the NIC quantifies the likelihood of soft tissue and ligamentous injury in the cervical spine, especially under whiplash-like conditions. In this study, NIC values were computed using high-resolution kinematic data collected from motion capture markers placed on the head and the T1 vertebra. Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). In this study, electromyographic parameters were compared between the left and right sides and between pre- and post-collision measurements. Continuous variables were expressed as means with standard deviations. A two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed with side (left vs. right) and time (pre-collision vs. post-collision) as within-subject factors. When significant main effects or interaction effects were observed, post-hoc pairwise comparisons were conducted with Bonferroni adjustment to control for type I error. Assumptions of sphericity were tested using Mauchly’s test, and when violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied. Partial eta-squared (η²) values were calculated to estimate effect sizes. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. III. Results X-ray images and MRI readings before and after collision tests Table 2 shows that cervical spine MRI conducted before and after the low-speed rear-end collision revealed no evidence of structural injury across all participants. Specifically, there were no detectable fractures, bone marrow edema, spinal cord signal intensity abnormalities, or soft tissue damage including paraspinal muscle changes, prevertebral fluid collection, or ligament disruption. However, a notable finding emerged with two out of twelve participants displaying a subtle straightening of the cervical spine post-collision, suggesting a potential biomechanical impact on spinal alignment. These findings suggest that even in the absence of radiologically apparent injuries, subtle musculoskeletal responses such as alignment straightening may occur post-collision, highlighting the importance of dynamic and functional assessment in mild cervical trauma. Table 2 Pre- and post-collision cervical spine MRI findings Participant Fracture Bone Marrow Edema Cord Signal Intensity Paraspinal Muscle Prevertebral Fluid Ligament Injury Cervical Alignment Straightening Pre / Post Pre / Post Pre / Post Pre / Post Pre / Post Pre / Post Pre / Post P1 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P2 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P3 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P4 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P5 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P6 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / + P7 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – P8 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P9 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P10 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / + P11 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + P12 – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – – / – + / + * (+): Positive finding, (-): No abnormality EMG and NCS studies before and after collision tests Table 3 summarizes the motor and sensory nerve conduction study results for the different nerve segments tested. Repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to assess the main effects of Time (pre- vs. post-collision), Side (left vs. right), and their interaction (Time × Side) on nerve conduction parameters. For the median motor nerve (Wrist-APB), a significant main effect of Time was observed for latency (F(1,11) = 14.211, p = 0.007, η²=0.670), and for the median motor nerve (Elbow-Wrist), conduction velocity also showed a significant Time effect (F(1,11) = 15.446, p = 0.006, η²=0.688). Additionally, a significant Side effect was found for duration (F(1,11) = 7.692, p = 0.028, η²=0.524). For the ulnar motor nerve (Wrist-ADM), significant Time effects were identified for peak amplitude (F(1,11) = 5.778, p = 0.047, η²=0.452) and area (F(1,11) = 6.257, p = 0.041, η²=0.472), with Time × Side interactions for latency (F(1,11) = 8.549, p = 0.022, η²=0.550) and onset amplitude (F(1,11) = 8.464, p = 0.023, η²=0.547). No significant changes were observed for the ulnar motor nerve (Below Elbow-Wrist) or the median sensory nerve (Finger-Wrist) (all p > 0.05). For the ulnar sensory nerve (Wrist-Finger), onset latency (F(1,11) = 7.569, p = 0.020, η²=0.431) and peak latency (F(1,11) = 10.563, p = 0.009, η²=0.514) showed significant Time effects. Although some nerve conduction parameters demonstrated statistically significant changes over time or between sides, these variations remained within physiological limits and did not indicate clinically meaningful cervical spine injury. Importantly, no consistent pattern of abnormality or asymmetry suggestive of nerve dysfunction or cervical spine damage was observed following the low-speed rear-end collision. These findings support the conclusion that the collision conditions studied did not result in cervical spine injury detectable by nerve conduction studies. Table 3 Summary of repeated measures two-way ANOVA results for nerve conduction parameters before and after the collision test (main effects of Time, Side, and Time × Side interaction) Nerve conduction parameters Variables Time Side Time*Side F (df1,df2) p η² F (df1,df2) p η² F (df1,df2) p η² Median Motor (Wrist-APB) Latency (ms) 14.211 (1,7) 0.007 ‡ 0.670 0.766 (1,7) 0.410 0.099 0.120 (1,7) 0.739 0.017 Amplitude (mV, onset) 0.507 (1,7) 0.499 0.068 0.234 (1,7) 0.643 0.032 2.496 (1,7) 0.158 0.263 Amplitude (mV, peak) 1.784 (1,7) 0.223 0.203 1.042 (1,7) 0.341 0.130 2.887 (1,7) 0.133 0.292 Stimulus Intensity (mA) 0.309 (1,7) 0.596 0.042 0.008 (1,7) 0.933 0.001 0.024 (1,7) 0.882 0.003 Duration (ms) 0.028 (1,7) 0.872 0.004 0.843 (1,7) 0.389 0.107 0.069 (1,7) 0.801 0.010 Area (ms*mV) 2.926 (1,7) 0.131 0.295 0.068 (1,7) 0.802 0.010 0.594 (1,7) 0.466 0.078 Median Motor (Elbow-Wrist) Latency (ms) 1.052 (1,7) 0.339 0.131 0.034 (1,7) 0.860 0.005 0.904 (1,7) 0.373 0.114 Amplitude (mV, onset) 1.228 (1,7) 0.304 0.149 0.794 (1,7) 0.402 0.102 0.869 (1,7) 0.382 0.110 Amplitude (mV, peak) 2.836 (1,7) 0.136 0.288 2.317 (1,7) 0.172 0.249 1.462 (1,7) 0.266 0.173 Conduction Velocity (ms) 15.446 (1,7) 0.006 ‡ 0.688 0.751 (1,7) 0.415 0.097 1.861 (1,7) 0.215 0.210 Distance (mm) 1.000 (1,7) 0.351 0.125 0.467 (1,7) 0.516 0.063 1.000 (1,7) 0.351 0.125 Stimulus Intensity (mA) 2.460 (1,7) 0.161 0.260 0.778 (1,7) 0.407 0.100 0.186 (1,7) 0.679 0.026 Duration (ms) 0.336 (1,7) 0.580 0.046 7.692 (1,7) 0.028 ‡ 0.524 1.358 (1,7) 0.282 0.163 Area (ms*mV) 3.321 (1,7) 0.111 0.322 0.021 (1,7) 0.889 0.003 0.568 (1,7) 0.476 0.075 Ulnar Motor (Wrist-ADM) Latency (ms) 2.238 (1,7) 0.178 0.242 5.437 (1,7) 0.052 0.437 8.549 (1,7) 0.022 ‡ 0.550 Amplitude (mV, onset) 0.452 (1,7) 0.523 0.061 0.191 (1,7) 0.675 0.027 8.464 (1,7) 0.023 ‡ 0.547 Amplitude (mV, peak) 5.778 (1,7) 0.047 ‡ 0.452 0.848 (1,7) 0.388 0.108 1.381 (1,7) 0.278 0.165 Stimulus Intensity (mA) 0.006 (1,7) 0.943 0.001 0.028 (1,7) 0.871 0.004 0.221 (1,7) 0.653 0.031 Duration (ms) 0.006 (1,7) 0.942 0.001 2.166 (1,7) 0.185 0.236 0.046 (1,7) 0.836 0.007 Area (ms*mV) 6.257 (1,7) 0.041 ‡ 0.472 0.135 (1,7) 0.725 0.019 0.002 (1,7) 0.963 0.000 Ulnar Motor (Bl.Elbow-Wrist) Latency (ms) 0.082 (1,7) 0.783 0.012 0.270 (1,7) 0.619 0.037 0.425 (1,7) 0.535 0.057 Amplitude (mV, onset) 1.052 (1,7) 0.339 0.131 0.047 (1,7) 0.835 0.007 0.114 (1,7) 0.745 0.016 Amplitude (mV, peak) 4.533 (1,7) 0.071 0.393 0.027 (1,7) 0.874 0.004 0.065 (1,7) 0.805 0.009 Conduction Velocity (ms) 2.175 (1,7) 0.184 0.237 0.502 (1,7) 0.501 0.067 1.956 (1,7) 0.205 0.218 Stimulus Intensity (mA) 0.632 (1,7) 0.453 0.083 0.121 (1,7) 0.739 0.017 0.136 (1,7) 0.724 0.019 Duration (ms) 0.382 (1,7) 0.556 0.052 0.384 (1,7) 0.555 0.052 0.327 (1,7) 0.585 0.045 Area (ms*mV) 5.317 (1,7) 0.055 0.432 0.326 (1,7) 0.586 0.045 0.037 (1,7) 0.853 0.005 Median Sensory (Finger-Wrist) Latency (Onset) (ms) 0.556 (1,11) 0.471 0.048 0.743 (1,11) 0.407 0.063 0.801 (1,11) 0.390 0.068 Latency (Peak) (ms) 0.516 (1,11) 0.487 0.045 0.856 (1,11) 0.375 0.072 0.719 (1,11) 0.415 0.061 Amplitude (mV) 0.001 (1,11) 0.973 0.000 0.408 (1,11) 0.536 0.036 0.131 (1,11) 0.724 0.012 Stimulus Intensity (mA) 0.322 (1,11) 0.582 0.028 0.235 (1,11) 0.637 0.021 0.738 (1,11) 0.408 0.063 Ulnar Sensory (Wrist-Finger) Latency (Onset) (ms) 7.569 (1,10) 0.020 ‡ 0.431 0.053 (1,10) 0.823 0.005 0.700 (1,10) 0.422 0.065 Latency (Peak) (ms) 10.563 (1,10) 0.009 ‡ 0.514 0.491 (1,10) 0.499 0.047 0.140 (1,10) 0.717 0.014 Amplitude (mV) 0.036 (1,10) 0.854 0.004 1.718 (1,10) 0.219 0.147 1.769 (1,10) 0.213 0.150 Stimulus Intensity (mA) 0.142 (1,10) 0.714 0.014 4.206 (1,10) 0.067 0.296 0.891 (1,10) 0.368 0.082 ‡ Greenhouse-Geisser corrected values reported (p < 0.05). * APB: abductor pollicis brevis, ADM: abductor digiti minimi, Bl.: below, ms: millisecond, mV: millivolt, mA: milliampere, η²: partial eta squared Self-reported pain assessment Table 4 presents the results of a questionnaire assessing participants' pain perception following the collision test at three different time points: immediately after the collision, one day after, and one week after. Immediately after the collision, one participant reported pain in the cervical spine with an average pain level of 2.11 ± 1.17 on the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS), while one participant also reported pain in the shoulder and upper arm. Additionally, five participants experienced pain in the lumbar spine and two in the waist area. At this time, five participants reported no pain. One day after the collision, no participants reported cervical spine pain, although the average pain level remained at 2.25 ± 1.89; one participant reported pain in the shoulder and upper arm, and three reported lumbar spine pain, with no reports of waist pain. Eight participants reported no pain at this time. One week after the collision, no cervical spine pain was reported, with the average pain level at 2.25 ± 2.12; one participant reported pain in the shoulder and upper arm, and one reported lumbar spine pain, while no pain was reported in the waist. The number of participants reporting no pain increased to ten. It is important to note that participants could report pain in multiple body regions simultaneously. Overall, pain reports decreased over time, particularly in the cervical spine, while the number of participants without pain increased, and the pain intensity remained relatively low throughout the observation period. Table 4 Results of a questionnaire on participants’ pain perception after the collision test Time of survey Body region with pain No. of participants reporting pain Level of pain using Numeric Rating Scale No. of participants with no pain Immediately after collision test Cervical spine 1 2.11 ± 1.17 point 5 Shoulder and upper arm 1 Lumbar spine 5 Waist 2 One day after collision test Cervical spine 0 2.25 ± 1.89 point 8 Shoulder and upper arm 1 Lumbar spine 3 Waist 0 One week after collision test Cervical spine 0 2.25 ± 2.12 point 10 Shoulder and upper arm 1 Lumbar spine 1 Waist 0 * Available responding to multiple pain body regions Biomechanical assessment of cervical spine kinematics and metrics during occupant motion Table 5 presents the anthropometric characteristics and cervical response metrics of twelve participants exposed to low-speed rear-end collisions. Participants exhibited a range of body dimensions, with height varying from 1.58 m to 1.81 m and weight ranging from 42 kg to 90 kg. Neck length ranged from 0.106 m to 0.138 m, while neck circumference ranged from 0.316 m to 0.392 m. Peak neck torque measurements spanned from 16.58 N·m (P8) to 50.80 N·m (P10). Among the twelve participants, six (P3, P4, P5, P9, P10, and P11) recorded torque values exceeding 30 N·m. The remaining six participants (P1, P2, P6, P7, P8, and P12) showed torque values below this threshold. The NIC values ranged between 0.58 m²/s² (P8) and 2.47 m²/s² (P6). All participants exhibited NIC values below 15 m²/s². No participant exceeded this threshold, indicating consistency in NIC responses across the group. Overall, half of the participants (6 out of 12) exceeded the 30 N·m torque threshold, whereas none exceeded the 15 m²/s² NIC threshold. This dichotomy suggests a greater variation in torque response relative to NIC values across individuals within the same exposure condition. Table 5 Participant anthropometry and cervical injury metrics: peak torque and NIC with threshold-based evaluation Participant Height (m) Weight (kg) Neck Length (m) Neck Circumstance (m) Peak Neck Torque (N*m) NIC (m 2 /s 2 ) Torque Threshold (> 30 N*m) NIC Threshold (> 15 m 2 /s 2 ) P1 1.61 42 0.129 0.317 24.91 1.32 No No P2 1.81 78 0.124 0.378 22.96 1.38 No No P3 1.77 75 0.136 0.383 33.45 1.53 Yes No P4 1.67 57 0.138 0.321 39.51 2.22 Yes No P5 1.70 63 0.130 0.321 33.33 2.27 Yes No P6 1.73 72 0.127 0.392 28.05 2.47 No No P7 1.78 75 0.118 0.392 29.38 0.89 No No P8 1.66 53 0.132 0.321 16.58 0.58 No No P9 1.58 90 0.110 0.324 39.08 1.64 Yes No P10 1.69 70 0.124 0.381 50.80 1.78 Yes No P11 1.69 61 0.106 0.376 43.38 0.82 Yes No P12 1.61 53 0.114 0.316 27.39 1.05 No No * NIC: Neck injury criterion IV. Discussion This study comprehensively evaluated the clinical, radiological, neurophysiological, and biomechanical responses to low-speed (~ 8 km/h) reverse collisions in 12 healthy adult volunteers, focusing on neck injury potential. Although measurable mechanical loads were observed, there were no clinically significant cervical spine injuries detected by any modality. Radiological Findings In this study, pre- and post-collision MRI assessments of the cervical spine across 12 participants revealed no evidence of fractures, bone marrow edema, spinal cord signal abnormalities, or soft tissue changes. However, 75% of participants exhibited straightening of the cervical lordosis on post-collision imaging, despite the absence of overt structural injury. This finding aligns with biomechanical models of cervical acceleration–deceleration (CAD) injuries, which describe an initial “snap-through” or S-shaped buckling of the spine during impact leading to loss of normal curvature. Our observations are consistent with the results of a previous study, which documented an average 10° loss of lordotic curvature following rear‑end collisions in a retrospective cohort [ 26 ]. Similar findings have been reported, indicating that motor vehicle collisions frequently induce post-MVC cervical hypolordosis, which may be amenable to correction via extension traction techniques [ 27 ]. While our study did not include post-collision interventions, the prevalence of straightening underscores a mechanical response even in low-velocity impacts. Although long-term MRI studies following whiplash often focus on degeneration, such as disc changes, without correlating with alignment, previous research has noted progressive degenerative changes over two decades that were not necessarily related to clinical symptoms [ 28 , 29 ]. Our acute post-impact findings suggest that straightening may represent an early musculoskeletal adaptation before structural degeneration becomes apparent. Ligamentous injury has been hypothesized as a key contributor to loss of lordosis post‑collision. Studies using high‑resolution MRI or radiography report high-grade transverse ligament changes and loss of curve even after muscle spasms resolve [ 30 , 31 ]. This supports the notion that straightening may not be purely a temporary muscle spasm but may reflect enduring soft tissue strain or micro-instability. The clinical relevance of cervical straightening post-collision lies in its established association with poorer outcomes. In summary, despite the absence of overt MRI-detectable structural damage, cervical spine straightening was common after low-speed collisions. This supports the importance of including sagittal alignment evaluation in post‑collision imaging protocols. Further research should assess the persistence of lordotic loss, its relation to emerging symptoms, and potential benefits of early therapeutic interventions such as cervical extension traction. Neurophysiological Findings The neurophysiological assessments demonstrated statistically significant changes in selected nerve conduction parameters post-collision. For instance, median motor nerve latency (wrist-APB) increased significantly (F(1,11) = 14.211, p = 0.007, η²=0.670), and median motor nerve conduction velocity (elbow-wrist) decreased (F(1,11) = 15.446, p = 0.006, η²=0.688). However, these changes remained within normal physiological limits and showed no pathological pattern suggestive of nerve injury. These findings are consistent with previous studies that reported no neurophysiological evidence of cervical spine injury in low-speed rear-end collision scenarios, despite subjective symptom reports [ 32 ]. Other studies have also indicated that cervical muscle activity changes may occur in response to minor collisions, but without corresponding nerve damage [ 33 ]. Our results reinforce the concept that statistically significant variations in neurophysiological parameters do not necessarily indicate clinically relevant injury in low-speed collisions. Subjective Pain Immediately following the collision, 58.3% of participants reported experiencing pain, primarily in the cervical spine (71.4% of those with pain) and lower back (42.9%). One week later, this proportion dropped to 25.0%, with symptoms persisting mainly in the cervical spine (66.7% of those with persistent pain). Our pain prevalence is comparable to that reported in a Korean low-speed collision study, in which 12% of subjects reported transient neck discomfort at ΔV 5–8 km/h [ 34 ]. However, our slightly higher immediate pain report rate may reflect differences in study design, collision direction (reverse vs. rear-end), or participant awareness. Kinematic and Biomechanical Analysis In our test cohort, 50% of participants exceeded 30 N·m peak neck torque, yet no clinical or radiological injury occurred, paralleling findings from cadaver models where momentary torque spikes did not induce tissue damage [ 35 ]. This supports the notion that torque alone, in brief low-speed conditions, may not reliably predict injury. All NIC readings (0.58–2.47 m²/s²) remained well under the commonly referenced 15 m²/s² threshold [ 36 , 37 ], reinforcing that low-speed rear impacts remain within a “non-injury zone.” Some biomechanical models even suggest a lower threshold (~ 8.7 m²/s²) as more precise when assessing intervertebral damage [ 38 ]. Our findings further corroborate the biomechanical data indicating that low-speed reverse collisions do not subject the neck to forces sufficient to cause injury. Taken together, the data support the conclusion that the low-speed impacts tested in this cohort were unlikely to result in clinically meaningful cervical spine injury. The combination of moderate torque values and low NIC responses reflects a biomechanically tolerable condition, especially in healthy adult subjects. These results emphasize the need for multi-parameter assessment when evaluating injury potential in low-speed collision studies, as reliance on a single metric may over- or underestimate actual risk. V. Conclusion In summary, low-speed reverse collisions at approximately 8 km/h induce quantifiable biomechanical loads and transient symptoms but do not result in clinically significant cervical spine injuries. Radiological findings of cervical lordosis straightening, while prevalent, appear to represent acute-phase adaptive musculoskeletal responses rather than markers of structural damage or long-term pathology. The integration of multimodal assessments, including high-resolution MRI, neurophysiological testing (EMG/NCS), subjective pain scales, and kinematic indices such as NIC and torque thresholds, reinforces the need for objective evaluation protocols. These tools are critical for differentiating benign biomechanical reactions from genuine injury, particularly in the context of potential ex-post moral hazard associated with minor vehicle collisions. Such differentiation holds value not only for clinical decision-making but also for medicolegal determinations and insurance adjudications. Looking ahead, longitudinal research is warranted to examine the chronic evolution of cervical alignment changes and to elucidate whether early therapeutic interventions, such as cervical extension traction, may mitigate the development of persistent post-traumatic symptoms. Moreover, extending this line of investigation to older individuals or those with predisposing musculoskeletal vulnerabilities may help refine risk stratification and support the formulation of more inclusive and evidence-based clinical guidelines for low-speed motor vehicle impacts. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate All procedures were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Yonsei University Wonju Severance Christian Hospital (IRB approval number: CR323046). This clinical study complied with the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, and was conducted in accordance with the Korean Good Clinical Practice (KGCP) and related regulations, taking into account the rights and safety of the subjects. Consent for publication All participants provided written informed consent for publication of their anonymized data. Availability of data and materials The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to this work. Funding This research was supported by the Korean Insurance Development Institute and also supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (Project No.: 2021R1A2C2094669). Authors' contributions H.Y.L. was responsible for project administration, performed formal analysis, and contributed to writing the original draft and revising the manuscript. C.Y.K. contributed to project administration and data curation. K.H.L. conceptualized the study and acquired funding. O.H.K. contributed to the development of the methodology and performed validation. H.J.K. and B.Y.L. performed formal analysis. 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Ltd","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eunkyung","middleName":"","lastName":"BAE","suffix":""},{"id":513807939,"identity":"0d69d2a4-185f-4653-b64b-39b98833963c","order_by":10,"name":"Jungyoon KIM","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"REMO Co. Ltd","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jungyoon","middleName":"","lastName":"KIM","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-06 00:38:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7304442/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7304442/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91193199,"identity":"7aa613de-6a26-4dd0-9573-4fafa20ebc98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 14:44:33","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":150386,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTest conditions: (a) driver seat, (b) 2nd-row right rear seat, (c) camera installation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7304442/v1/c4e1fcc413e3f9e2337e2ec7.png"},{"id":91193205,"identity":"c80470fc-a7b9-4a2b-9a0f-be493b055657","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 14:44:34","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":398713,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImage extraction and data preprocessing from video\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7304442/v1/c94368873e4241a03658ffcd.png"},{"id":92860175,"identity":"7ec30541-4e01-4419-b60c-2b6d38d19ad3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:08:47","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2149177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7304442/v1/bcdd0497-9a70-47c8-a93d-3ba019272f77.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Clinical and Kinematic Responses to Neck Injuries in Low-Speed Reverse Motor Vehicle Collision Tests: A Human Volunteer Study","fulltext":[{"header":"I. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhiplash is an injury that happens when sudden force or movement strains your neck and spine, damaging bone, muscle, ligaments and nerves. It\u0026rsquo;s most common in motor vehicle collisions (MVCs), but can also happen for other reasons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. It is a damage to bone or soft tissue can cause impact and cause some kind of clinical symptoms. Additionally, whiplash injuries are typically caused by low-speed MVCs below 25 km/h [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe debate over whether injuries occur in light-contact traffic accidents has become a very big social issue. In most cases, it is a moral hazard phenomenon, and even though no one was injured in a traffic accident, there is an actual intention to obtain a medical certificate out of a sense of unfairness, falsely complain of pain, and have the perpetrator receive compensation for the act. However, such actions by victims result in enormous social costs and ultimately only have the effect of increasing the number of insurance subscribers. The damage is a continuation of a vicious cycle that affects all of us. The cost of treatment for whiplash injuries or neck sprains caused by rear-end collisions is estimated to be \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2.7\u0026nbsp;billion in the United States [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], and approximately 10\u0026nbsp;billion euros in Europe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In Korea, as of 2022, there were 3,629 accidents caused by vehicle-to-vehicle collisions with driving in reverse, and 4,907 people were injured, accounting for about 2% of the total 235,000 people injured in vehicle-to-vehicle collisions. The number of MVCs due to collisions with driving in reverse increased by approximately 44.1% from 2,517 in 2018 to 3,629 in 2022, and the one of injuries due to collisions with driving in reverse increased by 41.7% from 3,463 in 2018 to 4,907 in 2022 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The proportion of medical expenses for patients with minor injuries, which was 57% of all medical expenses for personal compensation, increased to 67% in 2020, and based on the increase rate, it was 3.4%, which is 5.3 times more than that for patients with serious injuries (annual average of 2.5%). The majority of minor injuries are spinal sprains and simple bruises, and it is difficult to clearly measure the presence and severity of the injury medically, so treatment has to rely on the victim's subjective complaints of pain, so there are many cases in which insurance benefits are paid, creating a high moral hazard. It is causing overtreatment. This unnecessary leakage of insurance money due to excessive medical treatment undermines the efficiency of the automobile insurance system, acting as a burden to increase insurance premiums, and can undermine fairness in that the perpetrator pays excessive insurance money compared to the severity of the victim's injuries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were several research cases aimed at reducing social costs to address these issues. Castro et al. presented that it conducted an experiment with the effective collision speed (delta V, ΔV) in the range of 8.3 to 14.2 km/h on volunteers and reported that the hyperextension of neck did not occur. They concluded that the \u0026ldquo;limit of harmlessness\u0026rdquo; from rear-end collisions is 10 to 15 km/h [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Brault et al. showed that the possibility of neck injury varied depending on the headrest position [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Szabo et al. presented the possibility of injury when additional impact was applied to patients with past illness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In South Korea, an experiment was conducted on 50 Korean adult men in their 30s to 50s, assuming a rear-end collision with the ΔV of 5 to 8 km/h. In this experiment, 44 out of 50 subjects were not found to have any abnormal symptoms, and none of the remaining 6 subjects complained of neck discomfort. The ΔV refers to the speed at which the stopped vehicle moves forward when two vehicles collide, so the amount of impact delivered to the occupants can be indirectly estimated at the ΔV obtained through a vehicle-to-vehicle collision test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the biomechanical threshold for the strain of neck in minor MVCs is still being discussed, but no final conclusion appears to have been reached. Additionally, it is frequently reported that minor whiplash injuries are biomechanically difficult to detect, even when using advanced technological medical equipment such as MRI and CT scanners. Therefore, doctors are generally unable to treat patients accurately, and some false whiplash associated disorders insurance claims cannot be filtered out [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In previous studies in the United States, the causes and effects of overdose, false medical treatment, and compensation practices conducted by American insurance companies were analyzed in terms of ex post moral hazard. Dionne and St-Mitchel presented the definition of ex-post moral hazard as behavior that magnifies damage in order to receive more compensation after an accident [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Derrig et al. found that the cause of moral hazard after a traffic accident was that personal compensation claimants received more compensation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], and Brown and Puelz showed that the increase in personal compensation insurance benefits slowed down after the improvement of the alimony system [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Loughran and David suggested how to measure ex post moral hazard and presented the difference between the individual compensation treatment costs that insurers expected based on accident information and the actual costs of treatment for a particular injury was less than the cost of treatment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to examine the clinical and kinematic responses associated with the occurrence of neck injuries from human volunteers in low-speed motor vehicle collision tests with driving in reverse.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"II. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProspective experimental study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted as a prospective experimental design to evaluate human kinematic and clinical responses during low-speed rear-end collisions while driving in reverse. A total of 12 healthy adult volunteers with valid driver\u0026apos;s licenses participated. The experimental setting involved a controlled environment in which each participant drove a vehicle in reverse and experienced standardized low-speed collisions. The study aimed to simulate real-world minor collision scenarios while maintaining participant safety and experimental consistency. Participants were recruited to represent diverse age groups and both sexes, enabling analysis of potential differences across demographics. Individuals with any medical conditions, including prior or existing disorders of the cervical or lumbar spine, or those with a history of insurance claims for neck or back injuries, were excluded to minimize health risks and confounding factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Yonsei University Wonju Severance Christian Hospital (IRB approval number: CR323046), and written informed consent was obtained from all participants before the study commenced. This clinical study complied with the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, and was conducted in accordance with the Korean Good Clinical Practice (KGCP) and related regulations, taking into account the rights and safety of the subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCollision test conditions settings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 6 models of 3 types were selected: two small passenger cars (Spark LT\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e, Kona OS\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e), two large passenger cars (Genesis DH\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e, Grandeur IG\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e), and two sport utility vehicles (Sorento UM\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e, X4\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e). All occupants were asked to sit in the driver\u0026apos;s seat and the second row right rear seat in their natural posture as usual. In order to avoid being aware of the moment of impact, they wore an eye patch, listened to music, and maintained a sitting posture. A camera was installed along the occupant\u0026apos;s shoulder line to capture their movements throughout the entire collision test. In order not to miss the joint point of the occupant\u0026apos;s head and neck, women with long hair were asked to tie their hair up (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eImpact scenarios\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe accident type consisted of a reproduction of a reverse collision accident, and the test was conducted six times in which a vehicle reversing at a low speed at 8 km/h collided with the front of a stationary vehicle. Two vehicles each were paired up and took turns performing reverse collisions: Grandeur IG vs. Genesis DH, Sorento UM vs. Spark LT, and X4 vs. Kona OS. Offset settings were applied alternately between 100% frontal contact and 50% offset collision. A man and a woman sat in the driver\u0026apos;s seat and the right rear seat. If, in the first test, a man sat in the driver\u0026apos;s seat and a woman sat in the right rear seat, in the second test, a woman sat in the driver\u0026apos;s seat and a man sat in the right rear seat, alternating between tests (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRadiological examination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the evaluation of the impact of a collision test on the occupants, a comprehensive diagnostic approach was undertaken through the use of X-ray and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) both before and after the test. X-ray imaging, specifically in the cervical spine anteroposterior (AP) lateral, oblique flexion, and extension views, provided detailed perspectives on the structural changes in the cervical spine during different movements. This series of X-rays aimed to assist in the interpretation of the subsequent MRI results. The MRI, conducted within 72 hours post-collision test, employed a trauma sequence including T2 Dixon sagittal, T2 axial, Gradient Echo (GRE) axial, and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) sequences. These MRI sequences were selected to capture a comprehensive assessment of the cervical spine, allowing for the visualization of soft tissue structures, potential ligamentous injuries, and changes in neural integrity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe radiologist began by carefully reading the X-ray images, focusing on any evident bone changes or fractures in the spinal column. Subsequently, the MRI provided a more detailed examination, revealing subtle nuances such as bone marrow edema and allowing for a thorough assessment of the spinal cord and its signal intensity (SI). Soft tissue analysis extended to paraspinal muscles, ligaments, and the identification of prevertebral fluid collections. Within the images, the radiologist paid particular attention to ligaments, assessing their integrity and searching for any signs of injury that might impact spinal stability. Evaluation of alignment and position changes, including instances of straightening, offered additional insights into potential muscle spasms or underlying pathologies. Additionally, to calculate the moment of inertia at the neck joint, MRI images were read to derive neck length. In this study, participants\u0026apos; neck length was measured, defined as the distance between the upper part of the hyoid bone to the jugular notch [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElectromyogram (EMG) and nerve conduction velocity (NCV) test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn conjunction with X-ray and MRI assessments, EMG and NCV tests were integral components of the comprehensive evaluation conducted before and after the collision test. These neurophysiological tests were administered to gauge the impact of the collision test on the neck\u0026apos;s neuromuscular function. EMG recordings provided insights into the electrical activity of muscles, detecting abnormalities such as spontaneous activity or altered recruitment patterns [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Simultaneously, NCV tests helped assess the integrity of peripheral nerves by measuring the speed at which electrical impulses traveled along them. Administered within two weeks post-collision test, these tests aimed to discern any neurophysiological changes induced by the impact on the cervical spine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rehabilitation specialist meticulously reviewed the electrodiagnosis report, focusing on key neurophysiological parameters such as nerve conduction velocity, CMAP (Compound Muscle Action Potential), SNAP (Sensory Nerve Action Potential), and EMG (Electromyography). This analysis was intended to detect abnormalities indicative of conditions such as cervical radiculopathy or peripheral polyneuropathy, and CMAP and SNAP results identified potential nerve damage or dysfunction for motor and sensory nerve function. The results of the EMG study were to check the degree of tension in the neck muscles and whether there was any muscle injury.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-reported pain assessment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter the collision test, participants were asked whether pain occurred and the degree of pain. The occurrence of pain was checked on the day immediately after the collision test, one day after the collision test, and one week after the collision test. Up to three areas of pain were selected among the following: cervical spine (neck), shoulder and upper arm, back, lumbar spine (lower back), and waist. The level of pain was measured using the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExtraction of occupants\u0026rsquo; head-neck-trunk movements from videos\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3D human key points were estimated in the Skinned Multi-Person Linear Model (SMPL)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;head [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] format using marker-less 3D motion capture program (REMOBODY-S, REMO Inc., Republic of Korea) from 2D camera images [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. To compute the orientations of body segments, a local coordinate system was established for each segment using anatomical landmarks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the trunk orientation, the x-axis was defined as the vector from the right shoulder (point 13) to the left shoulder (point 14), normalized to unit length. An initial z-axis was calculated as the vector from the midpoint of both shoulders to the neck base (point 12). The y-axis was then computed as the cross product of the z-axis and x-axis to ensure orthogonality. Finally, the z-axis was recalculated as the cross product of the x-axis and y-axis to guarantee a right-handed orthonormal coordinate system. The neck segment orientation shared the y-axis (frontal direction) from the trunk coordinate system to maintain continuity. The z-axis was defined as the vector from the neck base (point 12) to the upper neck (point 15), normalized to unit length. The x-axis was computed as the cross product of the y-axis and z-axis, and the y-axis was subsequently recalculated to ensure orthonormality. For the head orientation, the x-axis was initially defined as the vector from the right ear (point 26) to the left ear (point 28). The z-axis was calculated as the vector from the upper neck (point 15) to the midpoint of both ears. Following the same orthonormalization procedure, the y-axis was computed as the cross product of the z-axis and x-axis, and the z-axis was recalculated to maintain orthogonality. The relative angles between trunk-neck and neck-head segments were then computed from these orientation matrices as three-dimensional Euler angles, representing flexion-extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation movements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKinematics and kinetics of neck joint\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe linear velocities of the upper neck and head were calculated by differentiating their positional coordinates. An 8th-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 10Hz was applied to reduce high-frequency noise. Linear accelerations of the upper neck and head were subsequently obtained by differentiating the filtered velocity data and applying the same filtering method. Angular velocities of the neck and head were derived by differentiating the angular displacements between the torso and neck, and between the neck and head. These angular velocities were also filtered using a 10Hz, 8th-order Butterworth low-pass filter. Angular accelerations were subsequently obtained by differentiating the filtered angular velocity data, and the resulting signals were filtered using the same method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo model rotational dynamics, the head and neck were represented as rigid bodies, with their mass and inertial properties derived from established anthropometric data. The average mass of the head was set to 4.5 kg and that of the neck to 1.5 kg, reflecting values commonly reported in adult biomechanical studies. The moments of inertia about each segment\u0026rsquo;s center of mass were assigned as (0.025, 0.015, 0.022) kg\u0026middot;m\u0026sup2; for the head and (0.008, 0.006, 0.007) kg\u0026middot;m\u0026sup2; for the neck, based on prior experimental measurements and modeling studies [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The neck\u0026rsquo;s moment of inertia was approximated using a simplified cylindrical model with an assumed uniform mass distribution, in accordance with established biomechanical modeling practices [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. The neck radius was estimated from average neck circumference data obtained from the 8th National Anthropometric Survey of Korea (Size Korea), and a constant average tissue density of 1,000 kg/m\u0026sup3; was applied [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe torque exerted on the upper cervical joint (C1 level) by the head was calculated using Newton-Euler equations:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:\\underset{{\\tau\\:}_{neck}}{\\to\\:}={I}_{h}\u0026middot;{\\underset{\\alpha\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{h}+{\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{h}\\times\\:\\left({I}_{h}\u0026middot;{\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{h}\\right)+{\\underset{r}{\\to\\:}}_{h}\\times\\:{m}_{h}\u0026middot;({\\underset{\\alpha\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{h}-\\underset{g}{\\to\\:})$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere \u0026tau;\u003csub\u003eneck\u003c/sub\u003e is the total torque at the upper neck joint; I\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e, m\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e, \u0026alpha;\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u0026omega;\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e denote the head\u0026rsquo;s inertia tensor, mass, angular acceleration, and angular velocity, respectively; r\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e is the position vector from the neck joint to the head\u0026rsquo;s center of mass; a\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e is the linear acceleration of the head\u0026rsquo;s center of mass; and g is the gravitational acceleration vector. This equation comprises inertial torque, gyroscopic torque, and follower torque due to head translation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. These calculations provide a comprehensive dynamic representation of how the head exerts torque on the upper neck joint during low-speed rear-end collisions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe torque acting at the lower cervical spine (C7 or T1 joint) due to the dynamics of the combined head\u0026ndash;neck system was calculated using the Newton\u0026ndash;Euler equation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:\\underset{{\\tau\\:}_{C7}}{\\to\\:}={I}_{hn}\u0026middot;{\\underset{\\alpha\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{hn}+{\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{hn}\\times\\:\\left({I}_{hn}\u0026middot;{\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{hn}\\right)+{\\underset{r}{\\to\\:}}_{hn}\\times\\:{m}_{hn}\u0026middot;({\\underset{\\alpha\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{hn}-\\underset{g}{\\to\\:})$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere \u0026tau;\u003csub\u003eC7\u003c/sub\u003e represents the total torque at the C7 (or T1) joint; I\u003csub\u003eℎn\u003c/sub\u003e is the inertia tensor of the combined head\u0026ndash;neck system; m\u003csub\u003eℎn\u003c/sub\u003e is the combined mass of the head and neck; \u0026alpha;\u003csub\u003eℎn\u003c/sub\u003e and \u0026omega;\u003csub\u003eℎn\u003c/sub\u003e denote the angular acceleration and angular velocity of the head\u0026ndash;neck system, respectively; r\u003csub\u003eℎn\u003c/sub\u003e is the position vector from the C7 vertebra to the center of mass of the head\u0026ndash;neck system; a\u003csub\u003eℎn\u003c/sub\u003e is the linear acceleration of this center of mass; and g is the gravitational acceleration vector. These calculations provide a detailed dynamic representation of how the combined head\u0026ndash;neck segment exerts torque on the lower cervical spine, particularly under low-speed rear-end impact conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the transient mechanical loading during impact, linear and angular impulses were also calculated. At the C1 level, these were defined as:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:{\\underset{J}{\\to\\:}}_{C1}^{lin}={m}_{h}\u0026middot;({\\underset{v}{\\to\\:}}_{h1}-{\\underset{v}{\\to\\:}}_{h0})\\:{\\underset{J}{\\to\\:}}_{C1}^{ang}={I}_{h}\u0026middot;({\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{h1}-{\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{h0})$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere v\u003csub\u003eℎ0\u003c/sub\u003e and \u0026omega;\u003csub\u003eℎ0\u003c/sub\u003e are the initial linear and angular velocities of the head, and v\u003csub\u003eℎ1\u003c/sub\u003e and \u0026omega;\u003csub\u003eℎ1\u003c/sub\u003e are the peak values during impact. These impulse values represent the abrupt momentum changes transmitted to the upper cervical spine as a result of translational and rotational motions of the head during low-speed rear-end impacts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the mechanical load transferred to the lower cervical spine at the C7/T1 joint, both linear and angular impulses of the head\u0026ndash;neck system were calculated as:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:{\\underset{J}{\\to\\:}}_{C7}^{lin}=({m}_{h}+{m}_{n})\u0026middot;({\\underset{v}{\\to\\:}}_{hn1}-{\\underset{v}{\\to\\:}}_{hn0})\\:{\\underset{J}{\\to\\:}}_{C7}^{ang}={I}_{hn}\u0026middot;({\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{hn1}-{\\underset{\\omega\\:}{\\to\\:}}_{hn0})$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe linear impulse was determined by multiplying the combined mass of the head (m\u003csub\u003eℎ\u003c/sub\u003e) and neck (m\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e) by the change in linear velocity of their center of mass from baseline (v\u003csub\u003eℎn0\u003c/sub\u003e) to peak response (v\u003csub\u003eℎn1\u003c/sub\u003e). Similarly, the angular impulse was computed using the inertia tensor of the head\u0026ndash;neck system (I\u003csub\u003ehn\u003c/sub\u003e) and the change in angular velocity from baseline (\u0026omega;\u003csub\u003eℎn0\u003c/sub\u003e) to peak (\u0026omega;\u003csub\u003eℎn1\u003c/sub\u003e). These metrics quantify the total momentum changes transmitted through the lower cervical spine, providing insight into biomechanical loading conditions during rear-end collisions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Neck Injury Criterion (NIC) was calculated to assess the potential risk of cervical spine injury during low-speed rear-end collisions. NIC is a biomechanical metric that combines the relative horizontal acceleration (a\u003csub\u003erel\u003c/sub\u003e) and velocity (v\u003csub\u003erel\u003c/sub\u003e) between the head and the upper thorax, typically represented by the T1 or C7 vertebra. It is defined by the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Eque\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Eque\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:NIC=0.2\u0026middot;{a}_{rel}+{v}_{rel}^{2}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitially developed as a threshold-based indicator, the NIC quantifies the likelihood of soft tissue and ligamentous injury in the cervical spine, especially under whiplash-like conditions. In this study, NIC values were computed using high-resolution kinematic data collected from motion capture markers placed on the head and the T1 vertebra.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). In this study, electromyographic parameters were compared between the left and right sides and between pre- and post-collision measurements. Continuous variables were expressed as means with standard deviations. A two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed with side (left vs. right) and time (pre-collision vs. post-collision) as within-subject factors. When significant main effects or interaction effects were observed, post-hoc pairwise comparisons were conducted with Bonferroni adjustment to control for type I error. Assumptions of sphericity were tested using Mauchly\u0026rsquo;s test, and when violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied. Partial eta-squared (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2;) values were calculated to estimate effect sizes. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"III. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eX-ray images and MRI readings before and after collision tests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows that cervical spine MRI conducted before and after the low-speed rear-end collision revealed no evidence of structural injury across all participants. Specifically, there were no detectable fractures, bone marrow edema, spinal cord signal intensity abnormalities, or soft tissue damage including paraspinal muscle changes, prevertebral fluid collection, or ligament disruption. However, a notable finding emerged with two out of twelve participants displaying a subtle straightening of the cervical spine post-collision, suggesting a potential biomechanical impact on spinal alignment. These findings suggest that even in the absence of radiologically apparent injuries, subtle musculoskeletal responses such as alignment straightening may occur post-collision, highlighting the importance of dynamic and functional assessment in mild cervical trauma.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre- and post-collision cervical spine MRI findings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFracture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBone Marrow Edema\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCord Signal Intensity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParaspinal Muscle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevertebral Fluid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLigament Injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCervical Alignment Straightening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre / Post\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; / \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ / +\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e* (+): Positive finding, (-): No abnormality\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMG and NCS studies before and after collision tests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the motor and sensory nerve conduction study results for the different nerve segments tested. Repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to assess the main effects of Time (pre- vs. post-collision), Side (left vs. right), and their interaction (Time \u0026times; Side) on nerve conduction parameters. For the median motor nerve (Wrist-APB), a significant main effect of Time was observed for latency (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.211, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007, η\u0026sup2;=0.670), and for the median motor nerve (Elbow-Wrist), conduction velocity also showed a significant Time effect (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.446, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006, η\u0026sup2;=0.688). Additionally, a significant Side effect was found for duration (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.692, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028, η\u0026sup2;=0.524). For the ulnar motor nerve (Wrist-ADM), significant Time effects were identified for peak amplitude (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.778, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.047, η\u0026sup2;=0.452) and area (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.257, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.041, η\u0026sup2;=0.472), with Time \u0026times; Side interactions for latency (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.549, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022, η\u0026sup2;=0.550) and onset amplitude (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.464, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.023, η\u0026sup2;=0.547). No significant changes were observed for the ulnar motor nerve (Below Elbow-Wrist) or the median sensory nerve (Finger-Wrist) (all p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). For the ulnar sensory nerve (Wrist-Finger), onset latency (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.569, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020, η\u0026sup2;=0.431) and peak latency (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.563, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009, η\u0026sup2;=0.514) showed significant Time effects. Although some nerve conduction parameters demonstrated statistically significant changes over time or between sides, these variations remained within physiological limits and did not indicate clinically meaningful cervical spine injury. Importantly, no consistent pattern of abnormality or asymmetry suggestive of nerve dysfunction or cervical spine damage was observed following the low-speed rear-end collision. These findings support the conclusion that the collision conditions studied did not result in cervical spine injury detectable by nerve conduction studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSummary of repeated measures two-way ANOVA results for nerve conduction parameters before and after the collision test (main effects of Time, Side, and Time \u0026times; Side interaction)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNerve conduction parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime*Side\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (df1,df2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eη\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (df1,df2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eη\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (df1,df2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eη\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedian Motor (Wrist-APB)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.211 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.007\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.670\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.766 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.410\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.120 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, onset)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.507 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.499\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.234 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.643\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.496 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.263\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, peak)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.784 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.223\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.203\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.042 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.341\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.887 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.292\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStimulus Intensity (mA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.309 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.008 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.933\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.024 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.882\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.843 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.389\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.069 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.801\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea (ms*mV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.926 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.295\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.068 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.802\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.594 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.078\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedian Motor (Elbow-Wrist)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.052 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.339\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.034 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.860\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.904 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.373\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, onset)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.228 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.304\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.149\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.794 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.102\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.869 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.382\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, peak)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.836 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.288\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.317 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.172\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.249\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.462 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.173\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConduction Velocity (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.446 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.751 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.415\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.861 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.215\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.351\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.467 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.516\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.351\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStimulus Intensity (mA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.460 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.161\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.260\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.778 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.407\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.186 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.679\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.336 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.580\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.692 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.524\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.358 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.282\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.163\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea (ms*mV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.321 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.322\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.889\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.568 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.476\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUlnar Motor (Wrist-ADM)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.238 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.178\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.242\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.437 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.437\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.549 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.022\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.550\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, onset)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.452 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.523\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.191 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.675\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.464 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.023\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.547\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, peak)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.778 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.848 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.388\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.381 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.278\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStimulus Intensity (mA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.943\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.221 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.653\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.942\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.166 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.185\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.046 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.836\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea (ms*mV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.257 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.041\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.472\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.135 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.725\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.963\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUlnar Motor (Bl.Elbow-Wrist)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.082 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.783\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.270 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.619\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.425 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.535\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, onset)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.052 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.339\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.835\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.114 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.745\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV, peak)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.533 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.393\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.874\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.805\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConduction Velocity (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.175 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.237\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.502 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.501\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.067\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.956 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.205\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.218\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStimulus Intensity (mA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.632 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.453\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.121 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.724\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.382 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.556\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.384 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.555\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.327 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.585\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea (ms*mV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.317 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.432\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.326 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.586\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.037 (1,7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.853\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedian Sensory (Finger-Wrist)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (Onset) (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.556 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.471\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.743 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.407\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.801 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.390\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (Peak) (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.516 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.487\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.856 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.719 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.415\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.973\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.408 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.536\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.131 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.724\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStimulus Intensity (mA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.322 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.582\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.235 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.637\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.738 (1,11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.408\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUlnar Sensory (Wrist-Finger)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (Onset) (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.569 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.020\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.431\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.053 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.823\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.700 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.422\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatency (Peak) (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.563 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.009\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.514\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.491 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.499\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.140 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.717\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmplitude (mV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.036 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.854\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.718 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.219\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.147\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.769 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.213\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStimulus Intensity (mA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.142 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.714\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.206 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.067\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.296\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.891 (1,10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.368\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e Greenhouse-Geisser corrected values reported (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e* APB: abductor pollicis brevis, ADM: abductor digiti minimi, Bl.: below, ms: millisecond, mV: millivolt, mA: milliampere, η\u0026sup2;: partial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSelf-reported pain assessment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of a questionnaire assessing participants' pain perception following the collision test at three different time points: immediately after the collision, one day after, and one week after. Immediately after the collision, one participant reported pain in the cervical spine with an average pain level of 2.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17 on the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS), while one participant also reported pain in the shoulder and upper arm. Additionally, five participants experienced pain in the lumbar spine and two in the waist area. At this time, five participants reported no pain. One day after the collision, no participants reported cervical spine pain, although the average pain level remained at 2.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.89; one participant reported pain in the shoulder and upper arm, and three reported lumbar spine pain, with no reports of waist pain. Eight participants reported no pain at this time. One week after the collision, no cervical spine pain was reported, with the average pain level at 2.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.12; one participant reported pain in the shoulder and upper arm, and one reported lumbar spine pain, while no pain was reported in the waist. The number of participants reporting no pain increased to ten. It is important to note that participants could report pain in multiple body regions simultaneously. Overall, pain reports decreased over time, particularly in the cervical spine, while the number of participants without pain increased, and the pain intensity remained relatively low throughout the observation period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults of a questionnaire on participants\u0026rsquo; pain perception after the collision test\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime of survey\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody region with pain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of participants reporting pain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLevel of pain using Numeric Rating Scale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of participants with no pain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImmediately after collision test\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCervical spine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17 point\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShoulder and upper arm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLumbar spine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWaist\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne day after collision test\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCervical spine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.89 point\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShoulder and upper arm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLumbar spine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWaist\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne week after collision test\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCervical spine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.12 point\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShoulder and upper arm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLumbar spine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWaist\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e* Available responding to multiple pain body regions\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBiomechanical assessment of cervical spine kinematics and metrics during occupant motion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the anthropometric characteristics and cervical response metrics of twelve participants exposed to low-speed rear-end collisions. Participants exhibited a range of body dimensions, with height varying from 1.58 m to 1.81 m and weight ranging from 42 kg to 90 kg. Neck length ranged from 0.106 m to 0.138 m, while neck circumference ranged from 0.316 m to 0.392 m. Peak neck torque measurements spanned from 16.58 N\u0026middot;m (P8) to 50.80 N\u0026middot;m (P10). Among the twelve participants, six (P3, P4, P5, P9, P10, and P11) recorded torque values exceeding 30 N\u0026middot;m. The remaining six participants (P1, P2, P6, P7, P8, and P12) showed torque values below this threshold. The NIC values ranged between 0.58 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2; (P8) and 2.47 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2; (P6). All participants exhibited NIC values below 15 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2;. No participant exceeded this threshold, indicating consistency in NIC responses across the group. Overall, half of the participants (6 out of 12) exceeded the 30 N\u0026middot;m torque threshold, whereas none exceeded the 15 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2; NIC threshold. This dichotomy suggests a greater variation in torque response relative to NIC values across individuals within the same exposure condition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant anthropometry and cervical injury metrics: peak torque and NIC with threshold-based evaluation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck Length\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck Circumstance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak Neck Torque\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(N*m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNIC\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTorque Threshold\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30 N*m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNIC Threshold (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;15 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.129\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.317\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.378\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.383\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.138\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.392\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.392\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.324\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.381\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.376\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.316\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e* NIC: Neck injury criterion\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"IV. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study comprehensively evaluated the clinical, radiological, neurophysiological, and biomechanical responses to low-speed (~\u0026thinsp;8 km/h) reverse collisions in 12 healthy adult volunteers, focusing on neck injury potential. Although measurable mechanical loads were observed, there were no clinically significant cervical spine injuries detected by any modality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRadiological Findings\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, pre- and post-collision MRI assessments of the cervical spine across 12 participants revealed no evidence of fractures, bone marrow edema, spinal cord signal abnormalities, or soft tissue changes. However, 75% of participants exhibited straightening of the cervical lordosis on post-collision imaging, despite the absence of overt structural injury. This finding aligns with biomechanical models of cervical acceleration\u0026ndash;deceleration (CAD) injuries, which describe an initial \u0026ldquo;snap-through\u0026rdquo; or S-shaped buckling of the spine during impact leading to loss of normal curvature. Our observations are consistent with the results of a previous study, which documented an average 10\u0026deg; loss of lordotic curvature following rear‑end collisions in a retrospective cohort [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar findings have been reported, indicating that motor vehicle collisions frequently induce post-MVC cervical hypolordosis, which may be amenable to correction via extension traction techniques [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. While our study did not include post-collision interventions, the prevalence of straightening underscores a mechanical response even in low-velocity impacts. Although long-term MRI studies following whiplash often focus on degeneration, such as disc changes, without correlating with alignment, previous research has noted progressive degenerative changes over two decades that were not necessarily related to clinical symptoms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Our acute post-impact findings suggest that straightening may represent an early musculoskeletal adaptation before structural degeneration becomes apparent. Ligamentous injury has been hypothesized as a key contributor to loss of lordosis post‑collision. Studies using high‑resolution MRI or radiography report high-grade transverse ligament changes and loss of curve even after muscle spasms resolve [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. This supports the notion that straightening may not be purely a temporary muscle spasm but may reflect enduring soft tissue strain or micro-instability. The clinical relevance of cervical straightening post-collision lies in its established association with poorer outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, despite the absence of overt MRI-detectable structural damage, cervical spine straightening was common after low-speed collisions. This supports the importance of including sagittal alignment evaluation in post‑collision imaging protocols. Further research should assess the persistence of lordotic loss, its relation to emerging symptoms, and potential benefits of early therapeutic interventions such as cervical extension traction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNeurophysiological Findings\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe neurophysiological assessments demonstrated statistically significant changes in selected nerve conduction parameters post-collision. For instance, median motor nerve latency (wrist-APB) increased significantly (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.211, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007, η\u0026sup2;=0.670), and median motor nerve conduction velocity (elbow-wrist) decreased (F(1,11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.446, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006, η\u0026sup2;=0.688). However, these changes remained within normal physiological limits and showed no pathological pattern suggestive of nerve injury. These findings are consistent with previous studies that reported no neurophysiological evidence of cervical spine injury in low-speed rear-end collision scenarios, despite subjective symptom reports [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Other studies have also indicated that cervical muscle activity changes may occur in response to minor collisions, but without corresponding nerve damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Our results reinforce the concept that statistically significant variations in neurophysiological parameters do not necessarily indicate clinically relevant injury in low-speed collisions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSubjective Pain\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImmediately following the collision, 58.3% of participants reported experiencing pain, primarily in the cervical spine (71.4% of those with pain) and lower back (42.9%). One week later, this proportion dropped to 25.0%, with symptoms persisting mainly in the cervical spine (66.7% of those with persistent pain). Our pain prevalence is comparable to that reported in a Korean low-speed collision study, in which 12% of subjects reported transient neck discomfort at ΔV 5\u0026ndash;8 km/h [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. However, our slightly higher immediate pain report rate may reflect differences in study design, collision direction (reverse vs. rear-end), or participant awareness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKinematic and Biomechanical Analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn our test cohort, 50% of participants exceeded 30 N\u0026middot;m peak neck torque, yet no clinical or radiological injury occurred, paralleling findings from cadaver models where momentary torque spikes did not induce tissue damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. This supports the notion that torque alone, in brief low-speed conditions, may not reliably predict injury. All NIC readings (0.58\u0026ndash;2.47 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2;) remained well under the commonly referenced 15 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2; threshold [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], reinforcing that low-speed rear impacts remain within a \u0026ldquo;non-injury zone.\u0026rdquo; Some biomechanical models even suggest a lower threshold (~\u0026thinsp;8.7 m\u0026sup2;/s\u0026sup2;) as more precise when assessing intervertebral damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Our findings further corroborate the biomechanical data indicating that low-speed reverse collisions do not subject the neck to forces sufficient to cause injury. Taken together, the data support the conclusion that the low-speed impacts tested in this cohort were unlikely to result in clinically meaningful cervical spine injury. The combination of moderate torque values and low NIC responses reflects a biomechanically tolerable condition, especially in healthy adult subjects. These results emphasize the need for multi-parameter assessment when evaluating injury potential in low-speed collision studies, as reliance on a single metric may over- or underestimate actual risk.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"V. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn summary, low-speed reverse collisions at approximately 8 km/h induce quantifiable biomechanical loads and transient symptoms but do not result in clinically significant cervical spine injuries. Radiological findings of cervical lordosis straightening, while prevalent, appear to represent acute-phase adaptive musculoskeletal responses rather than markers of structural damage or long-term pathology. The integration of multimodal assessments, including high-resolution MRI, neurophysiological testing (EMG/NCS), subjective pain scales, and kinematic indices such as NIC and torque thresholds, reinforces the need for objective evaluation protocols. These tools are critical for differentiating benign biomechanical reactions from genuine injury, particularly in the context of potential ex-post moral hazard associated with minor vehicle collisions. Such differentiation holds value not only for clinical decision-making but also for medicolegal determinations and insurance adjudications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLooking ahead, longitudinal research is warranted to examine the chronic evolution of cervical alignment changes and to elucidate whether early therapeutic interventions, such as cervical extension traction, may mitigate the development of persistent post-traumatic symptoms. Moreover, extending this line of investigation to older individuals or those with predisposing musculoskeletal vulnerabilities may help refine risk stratification and support the formulation of more inclusive and evidence-based clinical guidelines for low-speed motor vehicle impacts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Yonsei University Wonju Severance Christian Hospital (IRB approval number: CR323046). This clinical study complied with the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, and was conducted in accordance with the Korean Good Clinical Practice (KGCP) and related regulations, taking into account the rights and safety of the subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants provided written informed consent for publication of their anonymized data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the Korean Insurance Development Institute and also supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (Project No.: 2021R1A2C2094669).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eH.Y.L. was responsible for project administration, performed formal analysis, and contributed to writing the original draft and revising the manuscript. C.Y.K. contributed to project administration and data curation. K.H.L. conceptualized the study and acquired funding. O.H.K. contributed to the development of the methodology and performed validation. H.J.K. and B.Y.L. performed formal analysis. Additionally, H.J.K. contributed to the methodology by designing the MRI acquisition sequences and performed formal analysis through image interpretation. G.H.K. contributed to the methodology by designing collision test scenarios. N.H.K. conducted the collision experiments and contributed to data curation. E.K.B. performed formal analysis by conducting markerless 3D motion analysis. J.Y.K. contributed to visualization by extracting 2D images from 3D motion data and also participated in formal analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank all staff at the Korean Insurance Development Institute who conducted this low-speed rear-end collision test. We also thank all the medical staff who performed the MRI scan and EMG-Nerve conduction studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpitzer, W. O. (1995). Scientific monograph of the Quebec Task Force on whiplash-associated disorders: Redefining \u0026quot;whiplash\u0026quot; and its management. Spine, 20(8 Suppl), 1S\u0026ndash;73S.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKullgren, A., Krafft, M., Tingvall, C., \u0026amp; Lie, A. (2003). Combining collision recorder and paired comparison technique: Injury risk functions in frontal and rear impacts with special reference to neck injuries. 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Y., ... \u0026amp; Park, K. S. (2004). Standardized terminology for body measurement. Korean Agency for Technology and Standards.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLee, C. M., Sung, H. K., Kim, J. Y., You, J. W., Nam, Y. J., Kim, K. J., ... \u0026amp; Jung, E. S. (2004). Technical report for Korean anthropometric survey. Korean Agency for Technology and Standards.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVette, A. H., Yoshida, T., Thrasher, T. A., Masani, K., \u0026amp; Popovic, M. R. (2012). A comprehensive three-dimensional dynamic model of the human head and trunk for estimating lumbar and cervical joint torques and forces from upper body kinematics. Medical Engineering \u0026amp; Physics, 34(5), 640\u0026ndash;649.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNorton, T. C., Oakley, P. A., \u0026amp; Harrison, D. E. (2023). Re-establishing the cervical lordosis after whiplash: A Chiropractic Biophysics\u0026reg; spinal corrective care methods pre-auto injury and post-auto injury case report with follow-up. 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The long-term impact of whiplash injuries on patient symptoms and the associated degenerative changes detected using MRI: A prospective 20-year follow-up study comparing patients with whiplash-associated disorders with asymptomatic subjects. Spine, 46(11), 710\u0026ndash;716.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUlbrich, E. J., Eigenheer, S., Boesch, C., Hodler, J., Busato, A., Schraner, C., ... \u0026amp; Sturzenegger, M. (2011). Alterations of the transverse ligament: An MRI study comparing patients with acute whiplash and matched control subjects. American Journal of Roentgenology, 197(4), 961\u0026ndash;967.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVetti, N., Kr\u0026aring;kenes, J., Damsgaard, E., R\u0026oslash;rvik, J., Gilhus, N. E., \u0026amp; Espeland, A. (2011). Magnetic resonance imaging of the alar and transverse ligaments in acute whiplash-associated disorders 1 and 2: A cross-sectional controlled study. Spine, 36(6), E434\u0026ndash;E440.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHell, W., Langwieder, K., Walz, F., Muser, M., Kramer, M., \u0026amp; Hartwig, E. (1999, September). Consequences for seat design due to rear end accident analysis, sled tests and possible test criteria for reducing cervical spine injuries after rear-end collision. In Proceedings of the 1999 IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact (pp. 243\u0026ndash;259). Barcelona, Spain.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBrault, J. R., Siegmund, G. P., \u0026amp; Wheeler, J. B. (2000). Cervical muscle response during whiplash: Evidence of a lengthening muscle contraction. Clinical Biomechanics, 15(6), 426\u0026ndash;435.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLim, N., Shim, S., \u0026amp; Jung, H. (2016). Whiplash injury case studies through low speed rear-end crash tests. Transactions of the Korean Society of Automotive Engineers, 24(4), 432\u0026ndash;438.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStemper, B. D., \u0026amp; Pintar, F. A. (2014). Biomechanics of concussion. Progress in Neurological Surgery, 28, 14\u0026ndash;27.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBostr\u0026ouml;m, O., Svensson, M. Y., Aldman, B., Hansson, H. A., H\u0026aring;land, Y., L\u0026ouml;vsund, P., ... \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;rtengren, T. (1997). A new neck injury criterion candidate-based on injury findings in the cervical spinal ganglia after experimental neck extension trauma. In Proceedings of the 1996 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact (pp. 173\u0026ndash;186). Dublin, Ireland.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCroft, A. C., Herring, P., Freeman, M. D., \u0026amp; Haneline, M. T. (2002). The neck injury criterion: Future considerations. Accident Analysis \u0026amp; Prevention, 34(2), 247\u0026ndash;255.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIvancic, P. C., \u0026amp; Sha, D. (2010). Comparison of the whiplash injury criteria. Accident Analysis \u0026amp; Prevention, 42(1), 56\u0026ndash;63.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Low-speed motor vehicle collisions, Driving in reverse, Neck injury, MRI, Electromyogram (EMG), Nerve conduction velocity (NCV), Kinematics","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7304442/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7304442/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch question/objective:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eLow-speed motor vehicle collisions (MVCs), especially in reverse driving scenarios, frequently lead to neck pain complaints despite the absence of radiological evidence of injury. This raises concerns about ex-post moral hazard and overtreatment. To evaluate the clinical, neurophysiological, and biomechanical responses to low-speed reverse MVCs in healthy adults, and assess the potential for cervical spine injury.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethodology:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e This prospective experimental study involved 12 healthy adults who participated in controlled low-speed rear-end collisions while driving in reverse. Six vehicle combinations were used with alternating full and offset frontal impacts. Pre- and post-collision assessments included cervical spine X-rays, MRI, electromyography (EMG), and nerve conduction velocity (NCV) tests. Head-neck-trunk motions were captured via markerless 3D motion analysis, and biomechanical parameters such as torque, impulse, and Neck Injury Criterion (NIC) were calculated. Pain levels were self-reported using a numeric rating scale. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used for statistical analysis.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e No participant exhibited clinically significant radiologic or neurophysiological abnormalities. Post-collision MRI revealed cervical lordosis straightening in 75% of subjects, with no evidence of structural damage. EMG/NCV changes were statistically significant but within physiological norms. Pain reports decreased from 58.3% immediately post-collision to 25.0% after one week. Torque exceeded 30 N·m in 50% of participants, but all NIC values remained well below the 15 m²/s² injury threshold.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Low-speed reverse collisions generate transient biomechanical loads and symptoms but do not result in clinically significant cervical spine injuries. Multimodal assessments, including high-resolution MRI, neurophysiological testing (EMG/NCS), pain scales, and kinematic indicators such as NIC and torque thresholds, highlight the need for objective evaluation to distinguish benign responses from true injury, aiding both clinical and medicolegal decisions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Clinical and Kinematic Responses to Neck Injuries in Low-Speed Reverse Motor Vehicle Collision Tests: A Human Volunteer Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-12 14:44:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7304442/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b35bbeae-04ef-4ec4-bba3-11ed40e5bc33","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":54588896,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":54588897,"name":"Health sciences/Medical research"},{"id":54588898,"name":"Health sciences/Neurology"},{"id":54588899,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-17T13:53:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-12 14:44:29","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7304442","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7304442","identity":"rs-7304442","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}