How Childhood Experiences in Nature Might Influence Adulthood Participation in Nature-Based Recreation

How Childhood Experiences in Nature Might Influence Adulthood Participation in Nature-Based Recreation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article How Childhood Experiences in Nature Might Influence Adulthood Participation in Nature-Based Recreation Nurul Farahiyyah Binti Azhar, Shinya Numata, Kang Min Ngo, Tetsuro Hosaka This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5215541/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Participation in activities that occur in natural settings during childhood tends to influence the frequency with which an individual engages in nature-based recreation during adulthood, along with their perceptions of the natural environment in adulthood. This study examined how childhood nature experience (CNE) might affect nature-based recreational behavior among adults residing in urban settings. We conducted a questionnaire survey of 1,004 urban residents in the Singapore city-state and found that urban parks were among the most frequently visited outdoor spaces, whereas more natural green spaces were less frequently visited. We found that CNE had a significant and robust positive effect on nature-based activities (NBA); this effect was followed by the effects of gender and income. Our findings to reveal the most frequently visited outdoor space among Singaporean and the correlation between the frequencies of CNE and sociodemographic have different effect on NBA adulthood. Thus, our findings suggest that CNE is strongly linked to adult NBA and is common among adults, particularly in the Asian region. Our findings may be utilized to inform the design and management of outdoor areas for younger generations, with the aim of encouraging the development of early childhood outdoor exposure. Childhood experience adulthood recreation nature-based Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction Cities are dominated by man-made infrastructure, and it is unsurprising that urban residents typically spend most of their time in built-up areas. This apparent “disconnect” from nature has led to concern that children in urban areas are less active in natural areas and spend less time outdoors interacting with nature, relative to previous generations (Clements, 2004 ; Soga & Gaston, 2016 ; Soga, Gaston, & Kubo, 2018 ). This phenomenon may also result in an “extinction of experience,” which refers to the widespread estrangement of humans from nature. There is evidence of a positive link between childhood nature experience (CNE) and engagement in pro-environmental behavior during adulthood. For example, people who spent more time outdoors as children reportedly engage more with the natural world as adults, compared with people who spent less time outdoors as children (Chawla, 2020 ; Cheng & Munro, 2012; Gill, 2014 ; Rosa et al., 2018 ; Wells & Lekies, 2006 ; Windhorst & Williams, 2015 ). As described above, childhood experiences can modify adult behaviors and may influence adult nature connectedness. Bixler, Floyd, and Hammitt ( 2002 ) proposed the childhood play hypothesis, whereby individuals who frequently engage in play in natural settings tend to develop more positive attitudes toward natural environments and outdoor recreational activities. A previous study demonstrated that CNE affects nature-related behavior during adulthood (Hosaka, T., Numata, S., & Sugimoto, K., 2018 ). Moreover, people who spend more time in nature are likely to feel more connected to nature (Nisbet et al., 2009 ; Soga M, Gaston KJ, 2016). Multiple studies have demonstrated that the availability of and exposure to natural environments—particularly environments that include greenery—can improve overall well-being among individuals residing in urban settings. A previous study showed that regular engagement with green spaces could provide older adults with physical and mental health advantages, as well as opportunities for social interaction (Bell, Phoenix, Lovell, & Wheeler, 2014 ; Ward Thompson & Aspinall, 2011 ; Sugiyama & Ward Thompson, 2007 ). Direct interactions with nature also offer children multiple health and well-being benefits, including positive mental and emotional health, as well as reduced incidences of respiratory diseases and various other maladies (Rook, G.A., 2013 ; Gill, 2014 ; Lynch et al., 2014 ; Sandifer et al 2015 ; Chawla, 2015 ). Consequently, urban nature and semi-natural outdoor spaces, such as parks, gardens, and vestigial forested areas or other natural ecosystems, are important refuges that facilitate human-nature interactions within cities. A previous study (Kong et al., 1999 ) examined how CNE influenced young Singaporeans’ motivation to engage with nature and found that their interest was limited, likely because of their surrounding urban environment in which contact with nature is limited but numerous other options for recreation and entertainment are available. In this paper, we focus on an urban context in Asia as a case study. Our investigation centered on Singapore, and we conducted a detailed analysis of individuals residing in a densely populated urban environment. Singapore was selected after considering the existence of comparable studies from Japan that involve similar urban contexts (Hosaka et al., 2018 ). Our research investigates the factors that contribute to Singaporean adults’ limited engagement with natural environments by examining their CNE. This study also contributes an Asian perspective concerning a global issue. To our knowledge, no previous study has explored this particular topic in Singapore. 1.1 Aim of the study The aim of this study was to investigate how CNE affects adult participation in nature-based activities (NBA) based on a sample of urban residents in Singapore. We hypothesized that people who participated in NBA during childhood would be more likely to engage in nature-based recreational activities as adults. To collect data and test this hypothesis, we conducted a questionnaire survey among urban residents in Singapore, which gathered information about their childhood nature play (CNP) and their participation in NBA as adults. 2. Method 2.1 Study Area Singapore is a highly urbanized island city-state with a population of 5.63 million (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2022). In February 2021, the Singaporean government introduced the Singapore Green Plan 2030 (also known simply as the “Green Plan”), which aimed to promote sustainable development as a key component of the nation’s broader agenda. The objective of this initiative was to adopt a multi-pronged approach to the city’s pursuit of greater sustainability and livability through policies and innovations in the public sector, private sector, and households (Singapore Green Plan, 2030). 2.2 Questionnaire design For the response variable, we asked respondents to rate the frequency with which they had engaged in CNP in four types of green space (urban parks, forests, farmlands, and rivers/beaches), using a 5-point scale that ranged from 1 (“no experience”) to 5 (“every day”). We inquired how often people participated in the five types of NBA—birdwatching, fishing, insect catching, gardening, and hiking—as adults, using a 5-point scale that ranged from 1 (“no experience”) to 5 (“every day”). We also asked respondents about the amount of time they had spent participating in nature-based tourism, both domestically and internationally (i.e., visiting nature-rich tourist destinations) during the previous 2 years, with the following possible responses: 1 indicating “never,” 2 indicating “less than once a year,” 3 indicating “once a year,” 4 indicating “a few times a year,” 5 indicating “once every few months,” and 6 indicating “once a month or more.” Additionally, we collected sociodemographic information about the respondents, including age, gender, and family income, as explanatory variables. To evaluate their exposure, we inquired about the frequency with which they had played in urban parks, forests, farmlands, and rivers beaches during their childhood (up to age 12). 2.3 Participants and Sampling The sample comprised 502 male respondents and 502 female respondents, making the total number of respondents equal across both genders. There were also equivalent numbers of respondents across age groups: 63 aged 18–19 years, 214 aged 20–29 years, 202 aged 30–39 years, 261 aged 40–49 years, 185 aged 50–59 years, and 79 aged 60–69 years. The survey was conducted online, and the responses were tabulated and analyzed separately according to respondent gender and age until the desired number of responses had been achieved for each age and gender combination. This approach ensured that the sample was representative of all age and gender demographics. A possible limitation of this approach was that the sample could be biased toward people with greater internet proficiency (Hosaka et al., 2017 ). All analyses were performed using anonymized data to preserve privacy. 2.4 Data analysis We utilized the frequency of each activity (1–5 or 1–6) as the response variable and the mean score of CNP as the value of CNE, with Cronbach’s α = 0.78. We included age, gender, and household income as explanatory variables to examine the relative significance of CNP in relation to sociodemographic factors that have known effects on preferences regarding NBA. We performed statistical analyses with R 4.1.3 and the ordinal package (Christensen, 2018 ) to investigate the connection between NBA in adulthood and CNE. We used cumulative link models with a proportional odds logit link function (also known as proportional odds models). Cumulative link models represent a powerful model class for such data because observations are correctly treated as categorical, the ordered nature is exploited, and standardized regression coefficients (Coef) permit in-depth analyses (Christensen, 2018 ). 3. Results 3.1 Sociodemographic profile Table 1 Sociodemographic profiles of the respondents (n = 1004) Sociodemographic N % Gender Male 502 50.00 Female 502 50.00 Age 79 7.86 Ethnicity Chinese 842 83.90 Malay 52 5.20 Indian 75 7.50 Others 35 3.50 Did you live in Singapore during your childhood (up to age 12)? Yes 821 81.80 No 183 18.20 Income level S $ 14,999 or less 70 7.00 S $ 15,000–19,999 22 2.20 S $ 20,000–29,999 36 3.60 S $ 30,000–39,999 84 8.40 S $ 40,000–49,999 57 5.70 S $ 50,000–59,999 77 7.70 S $ 60,000–69,999 84 8.40 S $ 70,000–79,999 73 7.30 S $ 80,000–89,999 76 7.60 S $ 90,000–99,999 74 7.40 S $ 100,000–124,999 122 12.20 S $ 125,000–149,999 57 5.70 S $ 150,000–199,999 64 6.40 S $ 200,000 or more 45 4.50 I don’t know/I don’t want to answer 63 6.30 3.2 CNP and participation in NBA in adulthood 3.2 CNP and participation in NBA in adulthood Figure 2 . (a) shows the level of participation during adulthood in five nature-based activities (NBA) (hiking, gardening, birdwatching, insect or plant observation, and fishing); (b) shows the level of participation in nature-based tourism during adulthood (domestic and international). The CNP results indicate that 44.4% of respondents played in urban parks every day or once per week during childhood, whereas 22% frequently played at rivers or beaches. Additionally, only 13.6–14.3% of respondents frequently played in farmlands or plantations and forests (Fig. 1 ). The NBA findings show the respondents’ level of participation during adulthood; most respondents (22.7%) engaged frequently—every day or once per week—in gardening, followed by insect catching (13.6%) and birdwatching (12.1%), but few engaged in fishing and hiking (7–9.4%) (Fig. 2 (a)). Most of the respondents had participated in domestic and international nature-based tourism at least once within in a few years prior to the survey (82–85%; Fig. 2 (b)). Table 2 Standardized regression coefficients (Coef) with standard errors (SEs) estimated using cumulative link models for seven nature-based activities (NBA). NBA CNE Gender Age Income R² Coef SE Coef SE Coef SE Coef SE Fishing 1.059 0.078*** -0.734 0.124*** -0.007 0.044 -0.011 0.015 0.25 Insects catching 1.207 0.077*** -0.182 0.120 -0.011 0.043 -0.003 0.014 0.26 Bird watching 1.207 0.077*** -0.178 0.120 0.044 0.043 0.006 0.015 0.23 Gardening 1.094 0.074*** 0.266 0.118* -0.125 0.042** -0.026 0.014 0.22 Hiking 1.111 0.078*** -0.353 0.122** 0.062 0.044 -0.006 0.015 0.24 Domestic tourism 0.940 0.069*** -0.359 0.114** 0.001 0.040 -0.017 0.014 0.19 International tourism 0.914 0.070*** -0.282 0.115* -0.019 0.041 -0.049 0.014*** 0.19 The standardized regression coefficient for CNE was greater than the sociodemographic variable for all activities (Table 1 ). Consistent with our hypothesis, the results indicated a positive correlation between the frequencies of CNE and NBA in adulthood. After CNE, gender was a significant factor in five of the seven activities; men were more likely than women to engage in fishing, hiking, gardening, domestic nature-based tourism, and international nature-based tourism. Income was a significant factor for international tourism, whereby people with higher income were more involved in international nature-based tourism, relative to people with lower income. Age was also significantly positively correlated with gardening; older people were more engaged in this pursuit. 4. Discussion Our results revealed that urban parks were the most common destination for CNP among Singapore’s residents. This is likely because the presence of parks, green spaces, or exercise facilities in close proximity to residential areas has the potential to result in increased levels of recreational physical activity (Kaczynski & Henderson, 2007 ). This result is similar to findings by Hosaka et al. ( 2018 ), who demonstrated that most of Tokyo’s urban residents had frequently played in urban parks as children. The results of the present study suggest that urban residents are more likely to utilize urban natural areas, such as neighborhood parks, park connectors, and open spaces, because they are more accessible. Accordingly, parks in Singapore exhibit considerable diversity in terms of scale, location, content, theme, and variety of recreational equipment and activities available to users. Such parks tend to focus on promoting health and fitness, and they are easily accessed (National Parks Board, 2022). The results presented in Table 1 indicate a robust correlation between the frequency of CNE in green spaces and the frequency of NBA among Singapore’s residents. The correlation of CNE was stronger than the correlation of the sociodemographic profile, indicating a strong link between childhood experience and adult behavior with respect to nature activities. This finding is consistent with past research (Hosaka et al., 2018 ; Restall & Conrad, 2015 ; Windhorst & Williams, 2015 ), which identified a significant positive correlation between the frequency of CNE in green spaces and the frequency of NBA among adult urban residents. Thus, we infer that a robust connection to nature in early life encourages individuals to spend time outdoors during adulthood in Singapore, Tokyo, and elsewhere, including the United Kingdom (Ward Thompson et al., 2007) and United States (Asah et al., 2012 ; Asah et al., 2018). A lack of childhood experience with green spaces may discourage adults from visiting natural spaces, whereas contact with nature during crucial stages in a child’s development conceivably plays a significant psychological role in their adult life by helping to improve factors such as vitality and life satisfaction (Capaldi et al., 2014). This study also demonstrated that gender had a significant effect on sociodemographic characteristics. Men were more actively involved than women in fishing, hiking, gardening, domestic nature-based tourism, and international nature-based tourism. These tendencies are also present in other countries, such as Scotland, where male gender is a significant predictor of the frequency with which individuals engage in outdoor recreation and physical activity (Thompson et al., 2008 ). However, we observed some differences relative to previous studies, which showed that men were more active than women in terms of fishing and insect catching, and that the effect of income was stronger than the effect of gender (Hosaka et al., 2018 ). In America, men tend to exhibit greater willingness to take risks, which may explain why men are more physically active outdoors than women (Zuckerman, 2009). Participation in NBA may sometimes be challenging, particularly when it requires a high degree of physical exertion. Therefore, gender-based differences in outdoor recreation patterns might influence outdoor recreational behavior. We also found that older people were more active in gardening and that income was significantly correlated with international tourism, suggesting that people with higher incomes have a greater likelihood of participating in nature-based tourism, particularly outside Singapore. Empirical studies by Jang (2004) showed that spending on travel expenses is determined by the traveler’s income; there was a positive correlation between income level and the likelihood of being able to afford international travel. Previous research has also demonstrated that affluent individuals are more likely to visit diverse outdoor spaces and participate in various nature-related activities (Richards et al, 2020 ; Hosaka et al, 2018 ; Ezebilo, 2016 ). Greater wealth may provide additional satisfaction in this context by allowing individuals to fund their travel or purchase expensive equipment. 5. Conclusion We found that CNE and NBA during adulthood are strongly correlated—beyond the effects of gender, age, and income—in a southeast Asian country. Our findings indicate that urban parks are the most frequented outdoor space by Singaporeans, and that the correlation between CNE frequencies and sociodemographic variables has varying effects on NBA adulthood. This findings also consistent with previous reports in Japan that found CNE is more influential than sociodemographic factors, as suggested by Hosaka et al. ( 2018 ). Therefore, our findings emphasize the relevance of CNE to adulthood, particularly in the Asian region. Accordingly, the promotion of outdoor activity-based nature play for children may encourage adult engagement with nature, thereby enhancing environmentalism. The study’s findings may be incorporated into recommendations for the promotion, design, and management of outdoor spaces for younger generations, thus supporting the development of early childhood outdoor environments. This study had some limitations. First, the questionnaire survey was conducted prior to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and changes may have occurred in nature-related behavior among individuals during and after the pandemic. Second, it was not possible to obtain real-time data concerning childhood variables; therefore, such data may include memory-based response bias that led to measurement error (Sharif et al., 2021). Declarations Funding Declaration The research presented in this paper was funded by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Author Contribution SN and TH conceptualized and design the methodology. NFA analyzed the data, wrote the main manuscript, and led the discussion. 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For a certificate, please see. http://www.textcheck.com/certificate/Y5bzp3 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5215541","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":365430581,"identity":"e8241e1c-c774-40d4-85d7-2a8abcac3e41","order_by":0,"name":"Nurul Farahiyyah Binti Azhar","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABCElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gYGBmYGAyBLgvn4jw8VQAYzcwNeLTwH4FrYEiRnnAFpYSRGCwhI8BhI87aBWIS0sJ99+Lmg4HBi/+wGA2PeebXR/O1ALT8qtuHWwpNuLD3D4HDijDsHEhLnbjueO+MwYwNjz5nbOLXYM6QxSPMAtTTcSDhw4O22Y7kNQC3MjG24tfDwP2P+DdIy/0ZiYwPvnGO58wlqkUhjA9uy4UYyMyNvQ03uBsJanrFZ8xikG2+8kcbGOOPYgdyNQC0H8fmFhz+N+TbPH2vZeTfyvzF8qKnLnXf+8MEHPypwa4GCZscGCOMwmDxASD0Q1NnDGEQoHgWjYBSMgpEGANE9XzNeTrnFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Tokyo Metropolitan University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nurul","middleName":"Farahiyyah Binti","lastName":"Azhar","suffix":""},{"id":365430582,"identity":"26ead717-d612-45cf-adac-91138ab731d2","order_by":1,"name":"Shinya Numata","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tokyo Metropolitan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shinya","middleName":"","lastName":"Numata","suffix":""},{"id":365430583,"identity":"3f2a381e-cba1-4c6a-b0f9-b6cfdf5097b2","order_by":2,"name":"Kang Min Ngo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tokyo Metropolitan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kang","middleName":"Min","lastName":"Ngo","suffix":""},{"id":365430584,"identity":"169ef6c5-aa8d-409f-960d-34d01b8be74d","order_by":3,"name":"Tetsuro Hosaka","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hiroshima University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tetsuro","middleName":"","lastName":"Hosaka","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-07 05:38:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5215541/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5215541/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":66582566,"identity":"fd55bb9c-3d1e-49b3-bab8-8518703f8518","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-14 13:52:47","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24118,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the level of childhood nature play (CNP) in terms of participation in four types of green space (urban parks, forests, farmlands, and rivers/beaches).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5215541/v1/a27d46674ecd8ea56cb06801.jpg"},{"id":66582568,"identity":"47d6f8dc-a9a3-4521-b225-0352d53bb2a8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-14 13:52:47","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":137500,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) shows the level of participation during adulthood in five nature-based activities (NBA) (hiking, gardening, birdwatching, insect or plant observation, and fishing); (b) shows the level of participation in nature-based tourism during adulthood (domestic and international).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5215541/v1/bb122a2319890aa211fa4aa4.jpg"},{"id":71414996,"identity":"debf1266-74eb-4b08-9ce9-4b67d15bd19b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-14 14:53:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":657670,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5215541/v1/8ef73872-a898-4b4a-aec0-693738d8a686.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"How Childhood Experiences in Nature Might Influence Adulthood Participation in Nature-Based Recreation","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCities are dominated by man-made infrastructure, and it is unsurprising that urban residents typically spend most of their time in built-up areas. This apparent \u0026ldquo;disconnect\u0026rdquo; from nature has led to concern that children in urban areas are less active in natural areas and spend less time outdoors interacting with nature, relative to previous generations (Clements, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Soga \u0026amp; Gaston, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Soga, Gaston, \u0026amp; Kubo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This phenomenon may also result in an \u0026ldquo;extinction of experience,\u0026rdquo; which refers to the widespread estrangement of humans from nature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is evidence of a positive link between childhood nature experience (CNE) and engagement in pro-environmental behavior during adulthood. For example, people who spent more time outdoors as children reportedly engage more with the natural world as adults, compared with people who spent less time outdoors as children (Chawla, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cheng \u0026amp; Munro, 2012; Gill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Rosa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wells \u0026amp; Lekies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Windhorst \u0026amp; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). As described above, childhood experiences can modify adult behaviors and may influence adult nature connectedness. Bixler, Floyd, and Hammitt (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) proposed the childhood play hypothesis, whereby individuals who frequently engage in play in natural settings tend to develop more positive attitudes toward natural environments and outdoor recreational activities. A previous study demonstrated that CNE affects nature-related behavior during adulthood (Hosaka, T., Numata, S., \u0026amp; Sugimoto, K., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, people who spend more time in nature are likely to feel more connected to nature (Nisbet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Soga M, Gaston KJ, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple studies have demonstrated that the availability of and exposure to natural environments\u0026mdash;particularly environments that include greenery\u0026mdash;can improve overall well-being among individuals residing in urban settings. A previous study showed that regular engagement with green spaces could provide older adults with physical and mental health advantages, as well as opportunities for social interaction (Bell, Phoenix, Lovell, \u0026amp; Wheeler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ward Thompson \u0026amp; Aspinall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sugiyama \u0026amp; Ward Thompson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Direct interactions with nature also offer children multiple health and well-being benefits, including positive mental and emotional health, as well as reduced incidences of respiratory diseases and various other maladies (Rook, G.A., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Gill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Lynch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Sandifer et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Chawla, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, urban nature and semi-natural outdoor spaces, such as parks, gardens, and vestigial forested areas or other natural ecosystems, are important refuges that facilitate human-nature interactions within cities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA previous study (Kong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) examined how CNE influenced young Singaporeans\u0026rsquo; motivation to engage with nature and found that their interest was limited, likely because of their surrounding urban environment in which contact with nature is limited but numerous other options for recreation and entertainment are available. In this paper, we focus on an urban context in Asia as a case study. Our investigation centered on Singapore, and we conducted a detailed analysis of individuals residing in a densely populated urban environment. Singapore was selected after considering the existence of comparable studies from Japan that involve similar urban contexts (Hosaka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Our research investigates the factors that contribute to Singaporean adults\u0026rsquo; limited engagement with natural environments by examining their CNE. This study also contributes an Asian perspective concerning a global issue. To our knowledge, no previous study has explored this particular topic in Singapore.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Aim of the study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to investigate how CNE affects adult participation in nature-based activities (NBA) based on a sample of urban residents in Singapore. We hypothesized that people who participated in NBA during childhood would be more likely to engage in nature-based recreational activities as adults. To collect data and test this hypothesis, we conducted a questionnaire survey among urban residents in Singapore, which gathered information about their childhood nature play (CNP) and their participation in NBA as adults.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingapore is a highly urbanized island city-state with a population of 5.63\u0026nbsp;million (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2022). In February 2021, the Singaporean government introduced the Singapore Green Plan 2030 (also known simply as the \u0026ldquo;Green Plan\u0026rdquo;), which aimed to promote sustainable development as a key component of the nation\u0026rsquo;s broader agenda. The objective of this initiative was to adopt a multi-pronged approach to the city\u0026rsquo;s pursuit of greater sustainability and livability through policies and innovations in the public sector, private sector, and households (Singapore Green Plan, 2030).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Questionnaire design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the response variable, we asked respondents to rate the frequency with which they had engaged in CNP in four types of green space (urban parks, forests, farmlands, and rivers/beaches), using a 5-point scale that ranged from 1 (\u0026ldquo;no experience\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;every day\u0026rdquo;). We inquired how often people participated in the five types of NBA\u0026mdash;birdwatching, fishing, insect catching, gardening, and hiking\u0026mdash;as adults, using a 5-point scale that ranged from 1 (\u0026ldquo;no experience\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;every day\u0026rdquo;). We also asked respondents about the amount of time they had spent participating in nature-based tourism, both domestically and internationally (i.e., visiting nature-rich tourist destinations) during the previous 2 years, with the following possible responses: 1 indicating \u0026ldquo;never,\u0026rdquo; 2 indicating \u0026ldquo;less than once a year,\u0026rdquo; 3 indicating \u0026ldquo;once a year,\u0026rdquo; 4 indicating \u0026ldquo;a few times a year,\u0026rdquo; 5 indicating \u0026ldquo;once every few months,\u0026rdquo; and 6 indicating \u0026ldquo;once a month or more.\u0026rdquo; Additionally, we collected sociodemographic information about the respondents, including age, gender, and family income, as explanatory variables. To evaluate their exposure, we inquired about the frequency with which they had played in urban parks, forests, farmlands, and rivers beaches during their childhood (up to age 12).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Participants and Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample comprised 502 male respondents and 502 female respondents, making the total number of respondents equal across both genders. There were also equivalent numbers of respondents across age groups: 63 aged 18\u0026ndash;19 years, 214 aged 20\u0026ndash;29 years, 202 aged 30\u0026ndash;39 years, 261 aged 40\u0026ndash;49 years, 185 aged 50\u0026ndash;59 years, and 79 aged 60\u0026ndash;69 years. The survey was conducted online, and the responses were tabulated and analyzed separately according to respondent gender and age until the desired number of responses had been achieved for each age and gender combination. This approach ensured that the sample was representative of all age and gender demographics. A possible limitation of this approach was that the sample could be biased toward people with greater internet proficiency (Hosaka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). All analyses were performed using anonymized data to preserve privacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe utilized the frequency of each activity (1\u0026ndash;5 or 1\u0026ndash;6) as the response variable and the mean score of CNP as the value of CNE, with Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78. We included age, gender, and household income as explanatory variables to examine the relative significance of CNP in relation to sociodemographic factors that have known effects on preferences regarding NBA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe performed statistical analyses with R 4.1.3 and the ordinal package (Christensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) to investigate the connection between NBA in adulthood and CNE. We used cumulative link models with a proportional odds logit link function (also known as proportional odds models). Cumulative link models represent a powerful model class for such data because observations are correctly treated as categorical, the ordered nature is exploited, and standardized regression coefficients (Coef) permit in-depth analyses (Christensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Sociodemographic profile\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic profiles of the respondents (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e502\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e502\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChinese\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e842\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDid you live in Singapore during your childhood (up to age 12)?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIncome level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 14,999 or less\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 15,000\u0026ndash;19,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 20,000\u0026ndash;29,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 30,000\u0026ndash;39,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 40,000\u0026ndash;49,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 50,000\u0026ndash;59,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 60,000\u0026ndash;69,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 70,000\u0026ndash;79,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 80,000\u0026ndash;89,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 90,000\u0026ndash;99,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 100,000\u0026ndash;124,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 125,000\u0026ndash;149,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 150,000\u0026ndash;199,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 200,000 or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI don\u0026rsquo;t know/I don\u0026rsquo;t want to answer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2 CNP and participation in NBA in adulthood\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e3.2 CNP and participation in NBA in adulthood\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. (a) shows the level of participation during adulthood in five nature-based activities (NBA) (hiking, gardening, birdwatching, insect or plant observation, and fishing); (b) shows the level of participation in nature-based tourism during adulthood (domestic and international).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CNP results indicate that 44.4% of respondents played in urban parks every day or once per week during childhood, whereas 22% frequently played at rivers or beaches. Additionally, only 13.6\u0026ndash;14.3% of respondents frequently played in farmlands or plantations and forests (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The NBA findings show the respondents\u0026rsquo; level of participation during adulthood; most respondents (22.7%) engaged frequently\u0026mdash;every day or once per week\u0026mdash;in gardening, followed by insect catching (13.6%) and birdwatching (12.1%), but few engaged in fishing and hiking (7\u0026ndash;9.4%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(a)). Most of the respondents had participated in domestic and international nature-based tourism at least once within in a few years prior to the survey (82\u0026ndash;85%; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(b)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandardized regression coefficients (Coef) with standard errors (SEs) estimated using cumulative link models for seven nature-based activities (NBA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncome\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCoef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCoef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCoef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCoef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFishing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.078***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.734\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.124***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsects catching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.077***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBird watching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.077***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGardening\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.094\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.074***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.118*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHiking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.078***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.122**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic tourism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.069***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.359\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.114**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational tourism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.070***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.282\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.115*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe standardized regression coefficient for CNE was greater than the sociodemographic variable for all activities (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Consistent with our hypothesis, the results indicated a positive correlation between the frequencies of CNE and NBA in adulthood. After CNE, gender was a significant factor in five of the seven activities; men were more likely than women to engage in fishing, hiking, gardening, domestic nature-based tourism, and international nature-based tourism. Income was a significant factor for international tourism, whereby people with higher income were more involved in international nature-based tourism, relative to people with lower income. Age was also significantly positively correlated with gardening; older people were more engaged in this pursuit.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur results revealed that urban parks were the most common destination for CNP among Singapore\u0026rsquo;s residents. This is likely because the presence of parks, green spaces, or exercise facilities in close proximity to residential areas has the potential to result in increased levels of recreational physical activity (Kaczynski \u0026amp; Henderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). This result is similar to findings by Hosaka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), who demonstrated that most of Tokyo\u0026rsquo;s urban residents had frequently played in urban parks as children. The results of the present study suggest that urban residents are more likely to utilize urban natural areas, such as neighborhood parks, park connectors, and open spaces, because they are more accessible. Accordingly, parks in Singapore exhibit considerable diversity in terms of scale, location, content, theme, and variety of recreational equipment and activities available to users. Such parks tend to focus on promoting health and fitness, and they are easily accessed (National Parks Board, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e indicate a robust correlation between the frequency of CNE in green spaces and the frequency of NBA among Singapore\u0026rsquo;s residents. The correlation of CNE was stronger than the correlation of the sociodemographic profile, indicating a strong link between childhood experience and adult behavior with respect to nature activities. This finding is consistent with past research (Hosaka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Restall \u0026amp; Conrad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Windhorst \u0026amp; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), which identified a significant positive correlation between the frequency of CNE in green spaces and the frequency of NBA among adult urban residents. Thus, we infer that a robust connection to nature in early life encourages individuals to spend time outdoors during adulthood in Singapore, Tokyo, and elsewhere, including the United Kingdom (Ward Thompson et al., 2007) and United States (Asah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Asah et al., 2018). A lack of childhood experience with green spaces may discourage adults from visiting natural spaces, whereas contact with nature during crucial stages in a child\u0026rsquo;s development conceivably plays a significant psychological role in their adult life by helping to improve factors such as vitality and life satisfaction (Capaldi et al., 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also demonstrated that gender had a significant effect on sociodemographic characteristics. Men were more actively involved than women in fishing, hiking, gardening, domestic nature-based tourism, and international nature-based tourism. These tendencies are also present in other countries, such as Scotland, where male gender is a significant predictor of the frequency with which individuals engage in outdoor recreation and physical activity (Thompson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, we observed some differences relative to previous studies, which showed that men were more active than women in terms of fishing and insect catching, and that the effect of income was stronger than the effect of gender (Hosaka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In America, men tend to exhibit greater willingness to take risks, which may explain why men are more physically active outdoors than women (Zuckerman, 2009). Participation in NBA may sometimes be challenging, particularly when it requires a high degree of physical exertion. Therefore, gender-based differences in outdoor recreation patterns might influence outdoor recreational behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also found that older people were more active in gardening and that income was significantly correlated with international tourism, suggesting that people with higher incomes have a greater likelihood of participating in nature-based tourism, particularly outside Singapore. Empirical studies by Jang (2004) showed that spending on travel expenses is determined by the traveler\u0026rsquo;s income; there was a positive correlation between income level and the likelihood of being able to afford international travel. Previous research has also demonstrated that affluent individuals are more likely to visit diverse outdoor spaces and participate in various nature-related activities (Richards et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hosaka et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ezebilo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Greater wealth may provide additional satisfaction in this context by allowing individuals to fund their travel or purchase expensive equipment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe found that CNE and NBA during adulthood are strongly correlated\u0026mdash;beyond the effects of gender, age, and income\u0026mdash;in a southeast Asian country. Our findings indicate that urban parks are the most frequented outdoor space by Singaporeans, and that the correlation between CNE frequencies and sociodemographic variables has varying effects on NBA adulthood. This findings also consistent with previous reports in Japan that found CNE is more influential than sociodemographic factors, as suggested by Hosaka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, our findings emphasize the relevance of CNE to adulthood, particularly in the Asian region. Accordingly, the promotion of outdoor activity-based nature play for children may encourage adult engagement with nature, thereby enhancing environmentalism. The study\u0026rsquo;s findings may be incorporated into recommendations for the promotion, design, and management of outdoor spaces for younger generations, thus supporting the development of early childhood outdoor environments. This study had some limitations. First, the questionnaire survey was conducted prior to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and changes may have occurred in nature-related behavior among individuals during and after the pandemic. Second, it was not possible to obtain real-time data concerning childhood variables; therefore, such data may include memory-based response bias that led to measurement error (Sharif et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research presented in this paper was funded by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSN and TH conceptualized and design the methodology. NFA analyzed the data, wrote the main manuscript, and led the discussion. KMN critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have reviewed and given their approval for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAsah, S. T., Bengston, D. N., \u0026amp; Westphal, L. M. (2012). The influence of childhood: operational pathways to adulthood participation in nature-based activities. \u003cem\u003eEnviron Behav\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e, 545\u0026ndash;569.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBell, S. L., Phoenix, C., Lovell, R., \u0026amp; Wheeler, B. W. (2014). Green space, health and wellbeing: Making space for individual agency. \u003cem\u003eHealth \u0026amp; Place\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e, 287\u0026ndash;292.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBixler, R. D., Floyd, M. 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Growing up, naturally: The mental health legacy of early nature affiliation. \u003cem\u003eEcopsychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e, 115\u0026ndash;125.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThe English in this document has been checked by at least two professional editors, both native speakers of English. For a certificate, please see.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.textcheck.com/certificate/Y5bzp3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.textcheck.com/certificate/Y5bzp3\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Childhood experience, adulthood, recreation, nature-based","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5215541/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5215541/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eParticipation in activities that occur in natural settings during childhood tends to influence the frequency with which an individual engages in nature-based recreation during adulthood, along with their perceptions of the natural environment in adulthood. This study examined how childhood nature experience (CNE) might affect nature-based recreational behavior among adults residing in urban settings. We conducted a questionnaire survey of 1,004 urban residents in the Singapore city-state and found that urban parks were among the most frequently visited outdoor spaces, whereas more natural green spaces were less frequently visited. We found that CNE had a significant and robust positive effect on nature-based activities (NBA); this effect was followed by the effects of gender and income. Our findings to reveal the most frequently visited outdoor space among Singaporean and the correlation between the frequencies of CNE and sociodemographic have different effect on NBA adulthood. Thus, our findings suggest that CNE is strongly linked to adult NBA and is common among adults, particularly in the Asian region. Our findings may be utilized to inform the design and management of outdoor areas for younger generations, with the aim of encouraging the development of early childhood outdoor exposure.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"How Childhood Experiences in Nature Might Influence Adulthood Participation in Nature-Based Recreation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-10-14 13:52:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5215541/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"537219ac-2031-441f-a471-4b112ef41038","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 14th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-14T14:53:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-10-14 13:52:42","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5215541","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5215541","identity":"rs-5215541","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}