Design and Performance Evaluation of Micro Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters

Design and Performance Evaluation of Micro Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Design and Performance Evaluation of Micro Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters Abdul Qadeer, Mariya Azam, Basit Abdul, Abdul Rab Asary This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7198727/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The development of Micro-electro-magnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters (MEMVEHs) plays a crucial role in advancing self-powered nanophotonic, nanoelectronic, and nanosensor systems. As energy autonomy becomes critical for miniaturized devices, MEMVEHs offer a sustainable power source for low-power nanodevices operating in wireless sensor networks, wearable electronics, and biomedical implants. This study provides a comparative assessment of MEMVEH technologies and evaluates their integration potential within next-generation nanoscale systems, enabling enhanced performance, longevity, and energy efficiency of emerging nanotechnologies. Electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters (EMEHs) based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology are promising solutions for powering small-scale, autonomous electronic devices. In this study, two electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters based on microelectromechanical (MEMS) technology are presented. Two models with distinct vibration structures were designed and fabricated . A permanent magnet is connected to a silicon vibration structure (resonator) and a tiny wire-wound coil as part of the energy harvester. The coil has a total volume of roughly 0.8 cm 3 . Two energy harvesters with various resonators are tested and compared. Model A's maximum load voltage is 195 mV, whereas Model B's is 440 mV. A maximum load power of 91.56 μW was produced by Model A at 327 Hz a. At 338 Hz, Model B produced a maximum load power of 182.78 μW while accelerating by 0.4 g. Model B features a larger working bandwidth and a higher output voltage than Model A. Model B performs better than Model A in comparable experimental settings. Simple study revealed that Model B's electromagnetic energy harvesting produced superior outcomes. Additionally, it indicates that a non-linear spring may be able to raise the output voltage and widen the frequency bandwidth. Electromagnetic Energy Harvester MEMS Model Load Resonators Voltage Frequency Bandwidth Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Energy harvesters, also known as micro power generators, have grown in importance in recent years as a means of enabling tiny sensors and actuators to be self-powered and avoid the need for frequent power replacement. The availability of sources including outside light, human motion, mechanical vibration, thermal energy, etc. has drawn a lot of attention to the topic of environmental energy harvesting. It has been demonstrated that mechanical vibrations are a viable environmental energy source with a wide range of uses [ 1 – 5 ]. Thus, vibration energy harvesters have gained popularity in the field of self-sustaining electricity. Electrostatic, piezoelectric, and electromagnetic methods are typically used to convert kinetic energy into electrical energy. Due to its low internal impedance, electromagnetic energy conversion offers the advantage of generating a high output current without the need for an external voltage source [ 6 – 9 ]. Since a stronger induction electromotive force may be produced at higher frequencies, several of the earliest devices that were documented operated at frequencies of several kHz [ 10 – 15 ]. As an example, Santosh Kulkarni et al. [ 4 ] designed a micro-scale energy harvester consisting of four magnets connected to a moving coil mounted on a cantilever beam [ 16 – 20 ]. This compact device, with a total volume of 106 mm³, is capable of producing 148 nW of power when subjected to an excitation of 3.9 ms⁻² at 8.08 kHz. However, most ambient vibration sources are classified as "low-level" vibrations, typically characterized by low frequencies (< 500 Hz), minimal displacements (a few micrometers), and low accelerations (< 2g) [ 21 ]. Numerous research teams have continued to focus on the vibration energy harvester's nonlinear properties in an effort to enhance its performance in recent years [ 22 ]. The design and construction of two electromagnet-ic vibration energy harvesters with distinct vibrating structures and operating frequencies of roughly 300 Hz are the main topics of this research. The output voltage and power of the electromagnetic vibration energy harvester varied significantly due to the various geometries of the vibrating structure. Using MEMS technology, two planar springs with distinct beam structures were created. Two prototypes were put together using a wire-wound coil and a separate vibrating spring. We evaluated two vibration energy harvesters, and the comparative analysis of the test results reveals that, under identical experimental conditions, the electromagnetic harvester equipped with the nonlinear vibrating spring B produced higher output voltage and power. 2. Energy Harvestor Design and Simulation Two MEMS-based resonator structures were created in order to implement energy harvesting through environmental vibration. A and B, respectively, were the names of the two resonators discussed in this study. Shapes A and B share a central platform and four folded beams. Figure 1 depicts their intricate shapes. Different structures of resonators A and B with centre plate diameters of 7×7 mm 2 are depicted in Figs. 1(a) and (b). In order to reduce the mechanical resonance frequency and increase the vibratory amplitude, folded beams were used. The res-onator chip measures 11 x 11 mm 2 in total. The fixed magnet's centre spring platform, encircled by folding beams. The folded beams' varying diameters and shapes are the primary distinction between A and B. For resonator A, U-shaped beams were used, and for resonator B, S-shaped beams. Table 1 displays the characteristics for the folded beams of two resonators. The resonant frequencies and associated vibration modes of resonators were simulated using the COMSOL program. Table 1 Principal resonant spring parameters Parameters Model A Model B Small Beam Length (µm) 500 500 Small Beam Width (µm) 200 200 Long Beam (µm) 6000 3000/6000 Long Beam Width (µm) 300 250 Thickness (µm) 200 200 Young’s modulus of the spring 120Gpa 120Gpa Poisson’s ration of the spring 0.31 0.31 Density of the spring 3.14 g/cm 3 3.14 g/cm 3 Magnet size 5×5×4.84mm 3 5×5×4.84mm 3 Young’s modulus of the magnet 170 Gpa 170 Gpa Density of the magnet 7.66g/cm 3 7.66g/cm 3 A resonant spring and a permanent magnet made of neodymium iron bo-ron (NdFeB35) make up the vibration picking system of energy harvesters. The results of the mode simulation indicate: Resonators A and B move primarily in a direction perpendicular to the spring plane. The resonator B's first mode frequency is 279.52 Hz, while the vibration picking system's first mode frequency with structure A is 299.16 Hz. Resonator A's first mode frequency changes to 327 Hz when the resonant structure is bonded to an 80-thickness SU-8 layer, while resonator B's first mode frequency changes to 338 Hz. COMSOL software was also used to calculate the resonant springs' deflections under various loading conditions. The "Large Displacement Static" and "Small Displacement Static" modes yielded the nonlinear and linear findings, respectively. The curve of the resonant springs' centre deflections vs loading condition is shown in Fig. 2. According to Fig. 2(a), there is very little difference between the linear and non-linear deflections, indicating that resonator A's nonlinearity is minimal. However, spring B exhibits clear nonlinear features because its deflection is greater than spring A's at the same stress. 2. Fabrication Figure 3 depicts the schematic resonant morphologies of two distinct resonators that were directly constructed using Si substrate. The microstructure of the resonators (resonant planar spring) was fabricated using standard micromachining. The selection of materials streamlined the fabrication process and reduced production costs. Figure 4 depicts the resonant springs' fabrication scheme. A 4-inch silicon wafer, 500 um thick, served as the starting point for the suspension microstructure's construction (Fig. 3 (a)). The silicon substrate was first covered with a wet thermal oxide layer that was 0.3 µm thick on both sides. Deposition of a 0.20µm-thick Si 3 N 4 layer is the second step (Fig. 3 (b)). Photolithography was used to pattern the Si 3 N 4 and the backside oxide layer, which RIE was then used to remove (Fig. 3 (c)). The KOH solution was then used to etch the silicon's exposed areas. After almost three and a half hours, the etched depth was 300um at a temperature of 80°C and a KOH concentration of 33%. (Fig. 3 (d)). To define the geometry of the cantilever, photolithography was used to spin and pattern the 80 µm thick photo resist SU-8 (Fig. 3 (e) and Fig. 3 (f)). Finally, as illustrated in Fig. 3 (g), the microstructure was released using inductively coupled plasma (ICP). COMSOL simulations indicated that the presence of the photoresist (SU-8) reduced static beam deformation and had a minimal impact on the resonant frequency. Specifically, the simulation showed that attaching the SU-8 led to an increase in resonance frequency of less than 5%. Therefore, the SU-8 layer was retained on the spring structure. 4. Results The prototype undergoes forced vibration when a sinusoidal signal from the waveform generator drives the vibrator, resulting in voltage induction in the coil. This induced voltage across the load resistance is measured using an oscilloscope. Figure 4 displays the voltage measurements at resonance for prototypes A and B. The input vibration acceleration in these studies is 0.5g (g = 9.8m/s2). Figure 4 shows the prototype energy harvesters' voltage variation with frequency, and the load power may be computed. Prototype A's load voltage was measured at 327 Hz frequency with a 405 Ω load resistance, as seen in Fig. 4 (a). The maximum voltage value was 195 mV at 307 Hz resonant frequency and 0.5 g (g = 9.8 m/s2) acceleration. The highest possible power was 90.56 µW. The output power and voltage variation of prototype B as a function of frequency is displayed in Fig. 4 (b). Prototype B exhibited a resonance frequency of 338 Hz. Under identical acceleration and load resistance conditions, it achieved a maximum load voltage of 440 mV and an output power of 182.78 µW. 5. Conclusion The design, construction, and experimental outcomes of two tiny electromagnetic energy harvesters are presented in this study. The energy harvesters have a volume of 0.9 cm³. Dynamic characteristics of different designs were simulated using COMSOL software, and the finite element analysis (FEA) results were used to guide experimental validation. Under an acceleration of 0.5g, Prototype A achieved a maximum load power of 91.56 µW across a 405 Ω load at 327 Hz, while Prototype B delivered a higher maximum load power of 182.78 µW at 338 Hz. Prototype B demonstrates a wider operational bandwidth and higher output voltage compared to Prototype A under similar experimental conditions. These results indicate that the damping ratio and resonance frequency significantly influence the output voltage of electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters. By leveraging the nonlinear characteristics of vibrating elements—such as vibratory springs—it is possible to extend the working frequency range and improve the overall efficiency of the energy harvester. Optimizing the design of these vibratory structures can lead to enhanced voltage output and superior performance. The advancement of the electromagnetic vibration energy harvester was supported by experimental data derived from micro-MEMS technology. Declarations Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.A., A.Q. and M.A.; methodology, A. Q,, B.A.; software, B.A, M.A; validation, B.A., A. Q., M.A. and AR.S; formal analysis, AR.S.; investigation, B.A.A.Q.,; resources, B.A; data curation, B.A. A. Q., and AR.S; writing—original draft preparation, B.A.; writing—review and editing, B.A., A.Q., M.A and AR.S; visualization, M.A.; supervision, B.A.; project administration, B.A A.Q.,.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: “This research received no external funding.” Institutional Review Board Statement: “Not applicable”. Informed Consent Statement: “Not applicable.” “Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable.” “Consent to Participate declaration: Not applicable.” “Ethics declaration: Not applicable.” We confirm that this study is not a clinical trial , and therefore, trial registration details are not applicable . Data Availability Statement: “The data presented in this study are available within the article and there is presented in every graph. There is no more data apart from the presented.” Conflicts of Interest: “The authors declare no conflict of interest.” References S.P. Beeby, M.J. Tudor, N.M. White, Energy harvesting vibration sources for microsystems applications, Meas. Sci. Technol. 17 (2006) R175–R195. S.P. Beeby, R.N. Torah, M.J. Tudor, P. Glynne-Jones, T. O’Donnell, C.R.Saha, S. Roy, Micro electromganetic generator for vibration energy harvesting, J. Micromech. Microeng. 17 (7) (2007) 1257–1265. S. Roundy, P. K. Wright, and J. Rabaey, A study of low level vibrations as a power source for wireless sensor nodes, Comput. Commun, vol. 26, pp. 1130-1144, 2003. S. Roundy, On the effectiveness of vibration-based energy harvesting, Journal of intelligent material systems and structures, vol. 16, pp. 809-823, 2005. C.T. Pan, Y.J. Chen et. al. Application of low temperature co-fire ceramics on in-plane micro-generator [J], Sensors and Actuators A, 2008 144:144–153. E. Arroyo, A. Badel, F. Formosa, Y. Wu, J. Qiu, Comparison of electromagnetic and piezoelectric vibration energy harvesters: Model and experiments,[J]. Sensors and Actuators A 183(2012) 148-156. B. Yang, C. Lee, W. Xiang, J. Xie, J.H. He, R.K. Kotlanka, S.P. Low, H. Feng, Electromagnetic energy harvesting from vibrations of multiple frequencies [J]. Micromechanics and Microengineeting, 2009, 035001(19):8pp. Edwar Romero-Ramirez, Energy harvesting from Body motion using rotational micro-generation, 2010, 33-34. R. Torah, P. Glynne-Jones, M. Tudor, T. O’Donnell, S. Roy, S. Beeby, Self-powered autonomous wireless sensor node using vibration energy harvesting[J], Measurement Science and Technology, 2008,19(12),125202. Emmanuel Bouendeu. Printed Circuit Board-Based Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters [D]. Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg im Breisgau. June 2010. Tom J. Kazmierski, Steve Beeby, Energy harvesting systerms pinciples, modeling and applications. S. Kulkarni, E. Koukharenko, R. Torah, J. Tudor, S. Beeby, T.O’Donnell, and S. Roy, Design, fabrication and test of integrated microscale vibration-based electromagnetic generator, Sensors and Actuators A, vol. 145-146, pp. 336-342, July-August, 2008. D. Spreemann, D. Hoffmann, B. Folkmer, Y. Manoli. Numerical optimization approach for resonant electromagnetic vibration transducer designed for random vibration [J]. Micromechanics and Microengineering, 2008, 104001(8):46-57. E. Koukharenko, S. P. Beeby, M. J. Tudor, N. M. white, T. O’Donnell, C. R. Saha, S. Kulkarni, and S. Roy, Microelectromechanical systems vibration powered electromagnetic generator for wireless sensorapplications, Microsystem Technologies, vol. 12, no. 10-11, pp. 1071-1077, 2006. S. P. Beeby, R. N. Torah, M. J, Tudor, P. Glynne-Jones, T. O’Donnell, C. R. Saha, and S. Roy, A micro electromagnetic generator for vibration energy harvesting, Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, vol. 17, pp. 1257-1265, 2007. B. Abdul et al., “Design, fabrication and characterization of piezoelectric cantilever MEMS for underwater application,” Micro Nano Eng., vol. 7, no. March, p. 100050, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.mne.2020.100050. B. Abdul et al., “Sensitivity and directivity analysis of piezoelectric ultrasonic cantilever-based mems hydrophone for underwater applications,” J. Mar. Sci. Eng., vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 1–15, 2020, doi: 10.3390/jmse8100784. B. Abdul, S. Abdul, A. R. Asary; Biomimetic Cilia-based MEMS Sensors for Underwater Applications - A Review; North American Academic Research, 4(12) 11-21 December 2021, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5768208 Abdul, B.; Shibly, M.A.H.; Asary, A.R. Combining COMSOL Modeling with Different Piezoelectric Materials to Design MEMS Cantilevers for Marine Sensing Robotics. Eng. Proc. 2023, 37, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/ECP2023-14641 Abdul, B.; Shibly, M.A.H.; Asary, A.R.; Ruma, N.J. Design and Modelling of MEMS Resonators for an Artificial Basilar Membrane. Eng. Proc. 2023, 48, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/CSAC2023-14896 Santosh Kulkarni, Elena Koukharenko, Russell Torah, John Tudor, Steve Beeby, Terence O’Dnnell and Saibal Roy, Design, fabrication and test of integrated micro-scale vibrtion-based electromagnetic generator [J]. Sensors and Actuators A 145-146 (2008) 336-342. Byung-Chul Lee, Md Ataur Rahman, Seung-Ho Hyun and Gwiy-Sang Chung, Low frequency driven electromagnetic harvester for self-power system [J]. Smart Mater. Struct. 21 (2012) 125024(7pp). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7198727","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":492880394,"identity":"8c007c2e-64af-4af9-bcc6-586311fc0ad6","order_by":0,"name":"Abdul Qadeer","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Lahore","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdul","middleName":"","lastName":"Qadeer","suffix":""},{"id":492880396,"identity":"2bb52a9e-e26b-4713-a416-51716a14c288","order_by":1,"name":"Mariya Azam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Lahore","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mariya","middleName":"","lastName":"Azam","suffix":""},{"id":492880397,"identity":"9373373c-9c9a-4fcb-a5b3-7e2f8c3db737","order_by":2,"name":"Basit Abdul","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Interdisciplinary Institute for Technological Innovation Université de Sherbrooke","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Basit","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdul","suffix":""},{"id":492880398,"identity":"b634b716-f5ba-4b79-ac90-f3469faaee82","order_by":3,"name":"Abdul Rab Asary","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology Paris","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdul","middleName":"Rab","lastName":"Asary","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-23 17:08:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7198727/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7198727/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88018690,"identity":"5f1770d8-9965-44ad-ae9a-62f829a1afdc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-31 13:37:14","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19431,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResonant structure schematics A and B are shown in (a) and (b) respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7198727/v1/18fc88729beb69ba102b5240.png"},{"id":88018691,"identity":"3cc9eb77-41fa-4e48-ab60-43e5ca8361d3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-31 13:37:14","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":106380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Resonant spring A's linear and nonlinear deflection under load was simulated. (b) Spring B's linear and nonlinear deflection under load was simulated.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7198727/v1/8513627d07c33da247122bd9.png"},{"id":88020854,"identity":"b53f2d36-1103-4c50-aba7-8c0eee9bb136","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-31 13:53:15","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33880,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProcedures used to fabricate the suspension microstructure. (a) A 4-inch \u0026lt;100\u0026gt; silicon wafer; (b) Si3N4 and SiO2 are deposited on both sides of the silicon wafer; (c) the backside is patterned; (d) wet etching; (e) the front side is spun with SU-8 photoresist; (f) the front side is patterned; (g) the device is released by dry etching on the front side.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7198727/v1/46eaacb2b0b5963271541927.png"},{"id":88018692,"identity":"bb82766a-2a93-4191-931f-b3a0ea3bacea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-31 13:37:15","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":94592,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrototype A's load voltage and maximum power variation with frequency (a) and prototype B's load voltage and maximum power variation with frequency (b).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7198727/v1/6f9aa4bd187d70f445a057ed.png"},{"id":92720742,"identity":"0d5918ba-be5e-4931-8e75-319e17793783","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-03 13:32:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":659819,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7198727/v1/07817932-6132-4a51-89b0-4acfc2a9fcca.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Design and Performance Evaluation of Micro Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy harvesters, also known as micro power generators, have grown in importance in recent years as a means of enabling tiny sensors and actuators to be self-powered and avoid the need for frequent power replacement. The availability of sources including outside light, human motion, mechanical vibration, thermal energy, etc. has drawn a lot of attention to the topic of environmental energy harvesting. It has been demonstrated that mechanical vibrations are a viable environmental energy source with a wide range of uses [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, vibration energy harvesters have gained popularity in the field of self-sustaining electricity. Electrostatic, piezoelectric, and electromagnetic methods are typically used to convert kinetic energy into electrical energy. Due to its low internal impedance, electromagnetic energy conversion offers the advantage of generating a high output current without the need for an external voltage source [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Since a stronger induction electromotive force may be produced at higher frequencies, several of the earliest devices that were documented operated at frequencies of several kHz [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11 CR12 CR13 CR14\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. As an example, Santosh Kulkarni et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] designed a micro-scale energy harvester consisting of four magnets connected to a moving coil mounted on a cantilever beam [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. This compact device, with a total volume of 106 mm\u0026sup3;, is capable of producing 148 nW of power when subjected to an excitation of 3.9 ms⁻\u0026sup2; at 8.08 kHz. However, most ambient vibration sources are classified as \"low-level\" vibrations, typically characterized by low frequencies (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;500 Hz), minimal displacements (a few micrometers), and low accelerations (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2g) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Numerous research teams have continued to focus on the vibration energy harvester's nonlinear properties in an effort to enhance its performance in recent years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe design and construction of two electromagnet-ic vibration energy harvesters with distinct vibrating structures and operating frequencies of roughly 300 Hz are the main topics of this research. The output voltage and power of the electromagnetic vibration energy harvester varied significantly due to the various geometries of the vibrating structure. Using MEMS technology, two planar springs with distinct beam structures were created. Two prototypes were put together using a wire-wound coil and a separate vibrating spring. We evaluated two vibration energy harvesters, and the comparative analysis of the test results reveals that, under identical experimental conditions, the electromagnetic harvester equipped with the nonlinear vibrating spring B produced higher output voltage and power.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Energy Harvestor Design and Simulation","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTwo MEMS-based resonator structures were created in order to implement energy harvesting through environmental vibration. A and B, respectively, were the names of the two resonators discussed in this study. Shapes A and B share a central platform and four folded beams. Figure 1 depicts their intricate shapes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifferent structures of resonators A and B with centre plate diameters of 7\u0026times;7 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e are depicted in Figs. 1(a) and (b). In order to reduce the mechanical resonance frequency and increase the vibratory amplitude, folded beams were used. The res-onator chip measures 11 x 11 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in total. The fixed magnet\u0026apos;s centre spring platform, encircled by folding beams. The folded beams\u0026apos; varying diameters and shapes are the primary distinction between A and B. For resonator A, U-shaped beams were used, and for resonator B, S-shaped beams. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e displays the characteristics for the folded beams of two resonators. The resonant frequencies and associated vibration modes of resonators were simulated using the COMSOL program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrincipal resonant spring parameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmall Beam Length (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmall Beam Width (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLong Beam (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3000/6000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLong Beam Width (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThickness (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYoung\u0026rsquo;s modulus of the spring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120Gpa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120Gpa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoisson\u0026rsquo;s ration of the spring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDensity of the spring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.14 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.14 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMagnet size\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026times;5\u0026times;4.84mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026times;5\u0026times;4.84mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYoung\u0026rsquo;s modulus of the magnet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170 Gpa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170 Gpa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDensity of the magnet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.66g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.66g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA resonant spring and a permanent magnet made of neodymium iron bo-ron (NdFeB35) make up the vibration picking system of energy harvesters. The results of the mode simulation indicate: Resonators A and B move primarily in a direction perpendicular to the spring plane. The resonator B\u0026apos;s first mode frequency is 279.52 Hz, while the vibration picking system\u0026apos;s first mode frequency with structure A is 299.16 Hz. Resonator A\u0026apos;s first mode frequency changes to 327 Hz when the resonant structure is bonded to an 80-thickness SU-8 layer, while resonator B\u0026apos;s first mode frequency changes to 338 Hz.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCOMSOL software was also used to calculate the resonant springs\u0026apos; deflections under various loading conditions. The \u0026quot;Large Displacement Static\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;Small Displacement Static\u0026quot; modes yielded the nonlinear and linear findings, respectively. The curve of the resonant springs\u0026apos; centre deflections vs loading condition is shown in Fig. 2. According to Fig. 2(a), there is very little difference between the linear and non-linear deflections, indicating that resonator A\u0026apos;s nonlinearity is minimal. However, spring B exhibits clear nonlinear features because its deflection is greater than spring A\u0026apos;s at the same stress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Fabrication","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e depicts the schematic resonant morphologies of two distinct resonators that were directly constructed using Si substrate. The microstructure of the resonators (resonant planar spring) was fabricated using standard micromachining. The selection of materials streamlined the fabrication process and reduced production costs. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e depicts the resonant springs' fabrication scheme.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA 4-inch\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;100\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;silicon wafer, 500 um thick, served as the starting point for the suspension microstructure's construction (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(a)). The silicon substrate was first covered with a wet thermal oxide layer that was 0.3 \u0026micro;m thick on both sides. Deposition of a 0.20\u0026micro;m-thick Si\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e layer is the second step (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b)). Photolithography was used to pattern the Si\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and the backside oxide layer, which RIE was then used to remove (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(c)). The KOH solution was then used to etch the silicon's exposed areas. After almost three and a half hours, the etched depth was 300um at a temperature of 80\u0026deg;C and a KOH concentration of 33%. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(d)). To define the geometry of the cantilever, photolithography was used to spin and pattern the 80 \u0026micro;m thick photo resist SU-8 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(e) and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(f)). Finally, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(g), the microstructure was released using inductively coupled plasma (ICP). COMSOL simulations indicated that the presence of the photoresist (SU-8) reduced static beam deformation and had a minimal impact on the resonant frequency. Specifically, the simulation showed that attaching the SU-8 led to an increase in resonance frequency of less than 5%. Therefore, the SU-8 layer was retained on the spring structure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe prototype undergoes forced vibration when a sinusoidal signal from the waveform generator drives the vibrator, resulting in voltage induction in the coil. This induced voltage across the load resistance is measured using an oscilloscope. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays the voltage measurements at resonance for prototypes A and B. The input vibration acceleration in these studies is 0.5g (g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.8m/s2). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the prototype energy harvesters' voltage variation with frequency, and the load power may be computed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrototype A's load voltage was measured at 327 Hz frequency with a 405 Ω load resistance, as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(a). The maximum voltage value was 195 mV at 307 Hz resonant frequency and 0.5 g (g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.8 m/s2) acceleration. The highest possible power was 90.56 \u0026micro;W. The output power and voltage variation of prototype B as a function of frequency is displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(b). Prototype B exhibited a resonance frequency of 338 Hz. Under identical acceleration and load resistance conditions, it achieved a maximum load voltage of 440 mV and an output power of 182.78 \u0026micro;W.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe design, construction, and experimental outcomes of two tiny electromagnetic energy harvesters are presented in this study. The energy harvesters have a volume of 0.9 cm\u0026sup3;. Dynamic characteristics of different designs were simulated using COMSOL software, and the finite element analysis (FEA) results were used to guide experimental validation. Under an acceleration of 0.5g, Prototype A achieved a maximum load power of 91.56 \u0026micro;W across a 405 Ω load at 327 Hz, while Prototype B delivered a higher maximum load power of 182.78 \u0026micro;W at 338 Hz. Prototype B demonstrates a wider operational bandwidth and higher output voltage compared to Prototype A under similar experimental conditions. These results indicate that the damping ratio and resonance frequency significantly influence the output voltage of electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters. By leveraging the nonlinear characteristics of vibrating elements\u0026mdash;such as vibratory springs\u0026mdash;it is possible to extend the working frequency range and improve the overall efficiency of the energy harvester. Optimizing the design of these vibratory structures can lead to enhanced voltage output and superior performance. The advancement of the electromagnetic vibration energy harvester was supported by experimental data derived from micro-MEMS technology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, B.A., A.Q. and M.A.; methodology, A. Q,, B.A.; software, B.A, M.A; validation, B.A., A. Q., M.A. and AR.S; formal analysis, AR.S.; investigation, B.A.A.Q.,; resources, B.A; data curation, B.A. A. Q., and AR.S; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, B.A.; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, B.A., A.Q., M.A and AR.S; visualization, M.A.; supervision, B.A.; project administration, B.A A.Q.,.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026ldquo;This research received no external funding.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitutional Review Board Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Not applicable\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Not applicable.\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Consent to Participate declaration: Not applicable.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Ethics declaration: Not applicable.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe confirm that this study is \u003cstrong\u003enot a clinical trial\u003c/strong\u003e, and therefore, trial registration details are \u003cstrong\u003enot applicable\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026ldquo;The data presented in this study are available within the article and there is presented in every graph. There is no more data apart from the presented.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026ldquo;The authors declare no conflict of interest.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eS.P. Beeby, M.J. Tudor, N.M. White, Energy harvesting vibration sources for microsystems applications, Meas. Sci. Technol. 17 (2006) R175\u0026ndash;R195.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eS.P. Beeby, R.N. Torah, M.J. Tudor, P. Glynne-Jones, T. O\u0026rsquo;Donnell, C.R.Saha, S. Roy, Micro electromganetic generator for vibration energy harvesting, J. Micromech. Microeng. 17 (7) (2007) 1257\u0026ndash;1265.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eS. Roundy, P. K. Wright, and J. Rabaey, A study of low level vibrations as a power source for wireless sensor nodes, Comput. Commun, vol. 26, pp. 1130-1144, 2003.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eS. 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March, p. 100050, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.mne.2020.100050.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eB. Abdul et al., \u0026ldquo;Sensitivity and directivity analysis of piezoelectric ultrasonic cantilever-based mems hydrophone for underwater applications,\u0026rdquo; J. Mar. Sci. Eng., vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 1\u0026ndash;15, 2020, doi: 10.3390/jmse8100784.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eB. Abdul, S. Abdul, A. R. Asary; Biomimetic Cilia-based MEMS Sensors for Underwater Applications - A Review; North American Academic Research, 4(12) 11-21 December 2021, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5768208\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbdul, B.; Shibly, M.A.H.; Asary, A.R. Combining COMSOL Modeling with Different Piezoelectric Materials to Design MEMS Cantilevers for Marine Sensing Robotics. Eng. Proc. 2023, 37, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/ECP2023-14641\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbdul, B.; Shibly, M.A.H.; Asary, A.R.; Ruma, N.J. Design and Modelling of MEMS Resonators for an Artificial Basilar Membrane. Eng. Proc. 2023, 48, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/CSAC2023-14896\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSantosh Kulkarni, Elena Koukharenko, Russell Torah, John Tudor, Steve Beeby, Terence O\u0026rsquo;Dnnell and Saibal Roy, Design, fabrication and test of integrated micro-scale vibrtion-based electromagnetic generator [J]. Sensors and Actuators A 145-146 (2008) 336-342.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eByung-Chul Lee, Md Ataur Rahman, Seung-Ho Hyun and Gwiy-Sang Chung, Low frequency driven electromagnetic harvester for self-power system [J]. Smart Mater. Struct. 21 (2012) 125024(7pp).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Electromagnetic, Energy, Harvester, MEMS, Model, Load, Resonators, Voltage, Frequency, Bandwidth","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7198727/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7198727/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe development of Micro-electro-magnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters (MEMVEHs) plays a crucial role in advancing self-powered nanophotonic, nanoelectronic, and nanosensor systems. As energy autonomy becomes critical for miniaturized devices, MEMVEHs offer a sustainable power source for low-power nanodevices operating in wireless sensor networks, wearable electronics, and biomedical implants. This study provides a comparative assessment of MEMVEH technologies and evaluates their integration potential within next-generation nanoscale systems, enabling enhanced performance, longevity, and energy efficiency of emerging nanotechnologies.\u003cbr\u003e\nElectromagnetic vibration energy harvesters (EMEHs) based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology are promising solutions for powering small-scale, autonomous electronic devices. In this study, two electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters based on microelectromechanical (MEMS) technology are presented. Two models with distinct vibration structures were designed and fabricated . A permanent magnet is connected to a silicon vibration structure (resonator) and a tiny wire-wound coil as part of the energy harvester. The coil has a total volume of roughly 0.8 cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Two energy harvesters with various resonators are tested and compared.\u003cbr\u003e\nModel A's maximum load voltage is 195 mV, whereas Model B's is 440 mV. A maximum load power of 91.56 μW was produced by Model A at 327 Hz a. At 338 Hz, Model B produced a maximum load power of 182.78 μW while accelerating by 0.4 g. Model B features a larger working bandwidth and a higher output voltage than Model A. Model B performs better than Model A in comparable experimental settings. Simple study revealed that Model B's electromagnetic energy harvesting produced superior outcomes. Additionally, it indicates that a non-linear spring may be able to raise the output voltage and widen the frequency bandwidth.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Design and Performance Evaluation of Micro Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-31 13:37:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7198727/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d862c4e7-fb1d-4bd5-a0b5-a61aa1278d66","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-03T13:24:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-31 13:37:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7198727","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7198727","identity":"rs-7198727","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}