The impact of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on physical activity and psychological characteristics of the Iranian people

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Methods In this cross-sectional study, 335 participants were included (155 males, mean age = 30.06 ± 14.58 years). The eligibility criteria for this study were as follows; 1- Having at least 10 years of age. 2- Having a minimum literacy rate 3- Ability to work with networks of smart communication devices such as smartphones and computers 4- Living in Iran for the past 5 years. Participants were selected through the convenience sampling and filled out an online questionnaire measuring physical activity behaviours (The International Physical Activity Questionnaire; IPAQ; Short Form) and two mental health indicators – self-esteem (Rosenberg self-esteem scale) and social physical anxiety ( 7 - items social physique anxiety scale ). Results The results of Wilcoxon test showed that participants reported significant differences from before to during the pandemic in all three variables of physical activity (significant decreases), self-esteem (significant decreases), and social physical anxiety (significant increases). This difference was found, regardless of participants’ gender. The results of Spearman correlation test between changes in physical activity and changes in mental health indicators showed that COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted self-esteem and social physical anxiety. However, we have not found any significant association of physical activity’s change with social physical anxiety or self-esteem’s changes before and during the pandemic. Conclusions In sum, the findings of the present study indicate a detrimental effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the physical activity and mental health among Iranian’s people. Public policies aiming to buffer the negative impact on COVID-19 Iranians’ health are urgently needed. COVID-19 physical activity self-esteem social physical anxiety Iran Figures Figure 1 Background Coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious disease caused by acute respiratory syndrome [ 1 ]. The disease was first observed in mid-December 2019 in Wuhan, China. Since the outbreak of the virus, the number of reported cases has increased rapidly and has affected the whole world. On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) affirmed the disease as "an international public health emergency" [ 2 ]. By the end of July 2021, more than 192 million people worldwide has been infected by the disease, of which more than 4 million people have died (World Health Organization, 2021) [ 3 ]. During this period, the WHO advised people to maintain social distance, use masks, to avoid public places such as restaurants, sports clubs, shops and stores, etc., and to cooperate with the WHO and local governments to avoid escalation of this disease [ 3 ]. As the coronavirus intensified, people were instructed to leave their home for very limited purposes, such as shopping for food or seeking medical attention. As a result, most sports venues and clubs were closed [ 4 ]. In other words, the reduction of physical interaction, known as social or physical distance, has been considered as the first line of defence against this pandemic [ 5 ]. However, such social distances, or even temporary quarantines, can themselves have adverse effects on other facets of individuals' lives: such as their physical activity (PA) and mental health [ 6 ]. Iran is also one of the countries deeply affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the WHO, by the end of July 2021, about 3,623,840 (4.37% of the whole Iranian population) cases have been affected by coronavirus and 88,066 (0.10%) persons have died in Iran [ 3 ]. Despite this situation, by the end of July 2021, just over 2,268,826 (2.73%) people had been vaccinated [ 7 ]. By this severe spread of the virus in Iran and low pace of vaccination in this country, as well as social and physical restrictions and temporary quarantines, it seems that this country has been severely faced with the subsequent physical and psychological consequences of this pandemic [ 3 ]. Undoubtedly, the COVID-19 pandemic has had several effects on individuals’ behaviours [ 8 ]. According to reports and researches, critical situations and pandemics may affect differently the PA and mental health of people at different levels of society such as patients, health care workers, families, children, students, and even athletes [ 2 , 5 , 9 , 10 ]. For example, when a negative event occurs in life, states of anxiety and stress perception are exacerbated by a lack of relationship with others due to social distance [ 11 ]. In other words, the current emergency situation that combines both the stress due to COVID-19 with social isolation may have an important emotional and physical impact [ 12 , 13 ]. The positive effects of regular PA on many health outcomes have been well established [ 14 ], and studies have observed this link during the COVID-19 [ 9 ]. In addition, exercising regularly and maintaining a lifestyle during quarantine is crucial to prevent future chronic illnesses due to sedentary habits [ 5 ]. However, research has shown that engagement in PA may have decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 6 , 15 ]. For example, Amini et al. [ 15 ] reported that the physical activity level of Iranian people decreased before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, concerning emotional factors, researchers have also shown that quarantine and isolation can also lead to anxiety [ 16 – 18 ]. One of these types of anxiety variables is social physical anxiety. Social physical anxiety is a social psychological variable that is influenced by theories of self-expression and management and it assesses a person's perceived anxiety about presenting his body and figure when they are in front of others [ 19 ]. Social physical anxiety is mainly associated with some of the prominent psychological and behavioural factors associated with health. For example, social physical anxiety is associated with variables such as physical self-esteem [ 20 ], body image [ 21 ] and levels of PA [ 22 ]. Social physical anxiety like other types of anxieties appears to increase during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 23 , 24 ]. In addition to this variable, self-esteem as another psychological variable can be affected in this situation [ 25 ]. Self-esteem can be defined as person's self- assessment [ 26 ]. This variable is important for a successful and satisfying life and is an essential aspect of psychological well-being. Research has shown a positive relationship between PA and individual’s self-esteem [ 27 ]. In the present study, we tried to pay attention to these physical and psychological variables and evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on them. To date, however, much research has been conducted worldwide on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on levels of PA and mental health [ 6 , 28 – 30 ]. Also, there is little information about this, especially for Iran [ 31 ]. Therefore, this study is designed to achieve the following two goals. First, this study aimed to compare the level of physical activity and other psychological indicators such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety before (i.e., retrospectively assessed) and during the COVID-19 pandemic. This procedure will give us a better understanding of the adverse effects of pandemics on PA and psychological states in Iran. In the second step, this study aimed to examine how changes in PA are associated with mental health indicators such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Materials And Methods Study design and setting The present study was a cross-sectional web-based study and was performed on a cohort group of Iranian citizen in the spring of 2021. In this study, participants answered the web-based questionnaires of physical activity, self-esteem and social physique anxiety. In these electronic questionnaires, individuals were asked to answer questions in two time periods before and during the pandemic. Participants Participants were 335 Iranian citizen (155 males with a mean age of 33.70 ± 14.72 years and 180 females with a mean age of 26.92 ± 13.74 years) with a mean age of 30.06 ± 14.58 years. They were selected through available sampling for this study and filled out an online questionnaire after expressing their consent to participate and they had the option to withdraw from the study at any time. They were from different parts of Iran. The eligibility criteria for this study were as follows; 1- Having at least 10 years of age. 2- Having a minimum literacy rate 3- Ability to work with networks of smart communication devices such as smartphones and computers 4- Living in Iran for the past 5 years. Scales The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ; Short Form) The IPAQ was used to measure participants' physical activity [ 32 ]. This questionnaire is designed to be used among adults aged 18 to 65 years [ 33 ]. The way of scoring is that activities such as aerobics, high-speed cycling, mountaineering and basketball, which require more than 6 calories per minutes of energy, are classified as intense activities. Activities such as volleyball, badminton, and room cleaning, which require 3 to 6 calories per minute, are classified as moderate activities. Any activity that is less than ten minute is not considered [ 32 ]. Scores for sitting time during the week are calculated separately and are not included in the final score estimate. Each Metabolic Equivalent Task (MET) minutes per week represents the amount of energy consumed for physical activities per week. To obtain the continuous variable score of the IPAQ, it is sufficient to multiply the number of days in the time related to physical activity, as well as the number of METs per week to calculate the amount of energy consumed for physical activity. Since this tool measures physical activity in three categories: low activity level, moderate activity level and intense activity level, each of the mentioned activity intensities will have a different weight. For example, the weight of walking will be 3.3, the weight of moderate activity will be 4 and the weight of intense activity will be 6. The final score of PA is the sum of scores related to the three categories of low activity level, moderate activity level, and intense activity level [ 34 ]. Self-esteem scale The Rosenberg self-esteem scale (1965) measures a person's overall self-esteem [ 35 ]. This scale includes 10 general terms that measures the level of life satisfaction and a good feeling about oneself; for example, the first question was as follows: "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself". Participants had to answer this question using the 4-point Likert scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. This tool is a common and valid tool for measuring self-esteem in all over of the world. This scale has a higher correlation than the Coopersmith self-esteem questionnaire and has a higher validity in measuring self-esteem levels [ 36 ]. In another study, the internal consistency of this scale was reported to be appropriate and about 0.74 [ 27 ]. Cronbach's alpha was observed 0.86 in the current sample. Social physical anxiety scale The social physical anxiety scale [ 37 ] consists of seven items, for example: "I sometimes get upset because I think others judge my weight or fitness negatively. In response to each question, participants use the 5-point Likert scale as: 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate higher levels of social physical anxiety. However, question number 5: I feel empowered about how others evaluate my body; it is scored in reverse [ 38 ]. Sáenz-Alvarez et al. [ 38 ] reported the validity and reliability of this tool as appropriate. The researchers reported that the internal consistency of the instrument was about 0.85 via Cronbach's alpha. Cronbach's alpha was observed 0.81 in the current sample. Procedure After approving the research plan in the ethics committee in the research of the department of motor behaviour and sports psychology of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz (16032021), the researchers designed an electronic questionnaire in the form of Google Form online survey. The time to complete the questionnaire was about 10 minutes. The online questionnaire consisted of four parts. In the first part, demographic information such as age, gender, level of education, marital status and employment status were asked. In the second part, there were questions related to the IPAQ. In the third part, questions about the participants' self-esteem were asked, and at the end, there were questions related to the social physique anxiety scale. The questionnaire was provided to the participants in the spring of 2021 for 15 days and they were asked to answer the mentioned questions in two periods before the outbreak of coronavirus (early winter 2020) and the period during the outbreak of coronavirus (spring 2021). Finally, 335 questionnaires were accepted among the answered and complete questionnaires and entered the final analysis. Data analysis Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software version 26. To analyse the data collected through questionnaires, first, preliminary analyses were conducted, such as testing for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and then descriptive statistics were used to describe the data extracted from the questionnaires. According to the purpose of the study, initially the collected data were compared in the two time periods before and during the outbreak of coronavirus. This comparison was performed in both gender of men and women in general. Considering that another purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between changes in PA and mental health indicators from before the pandemic to the during of it, the residualized change scores were obtained by regressing scored variables during pandemic (e.g., PA during the pandemic) on their respective variables before pandemic (e.g., PA before the pandemic) [ 39 ]. Results The results of descriptive statistics showed that, most of participants were single (200 participants, 59.07%) and the rest were married (135 people, 40.03%). Almost most of them (211 participants, 63%) had a university degree. The rest of the participants (124 participants, 37%) had a high school diploma. One hundred twelve (33.4%) of the respondents were students, 132 (39.4%) were employees, and the rest of the participants were employed in freelance and private jobs (91 participants, 27.1%). Preliminary findings also revealed that the extracted data from the questionnaires did not follow a normal distribution; therefore, the researchers used non-parametric statistics to analyse the data. Wilcoxon test was first used to compare the groups in the two time periods before and during the pandemic. The results of this test showed that the participants of the present study reported a significantly lower overall level of PA and self-esteem from before to during the COVID-19. These differences were consistent in both genders (Table 1 ). The results of Spearman correlation test indicated a significant negative relationship between self-esteem and social physical anxiety changes from before to during of COVID-19 pandemic. This significant negative relationship was observed in both genders. However, the results did not show any significant association between changes in PA and in social physical anxiety as well as with changes in self-esteem, from before and during coronavirus (Table 2 and Fig. 1 ). Table 1 Wilcoxon test results for comparison of research variables in two time periods before and during coronavirus pandemic. Variables Gender Statistics Intense PA (min/week) Moderate PA(min/week) Walking (min/week) Sitting (min/week) Overal PA Self-esteem Physical-social anxiety Female Z -4.29 -5.05 -4.25 -7 -5.51 -6.47 -6.14 Significance 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * effect size (r) 0.23 0.27 0.23 0.38 0.30 0.35 0.33 Male Z -6.05 -5.67 -4.87 -7.62 -6.67 -3.47 -8.11 Significance 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * effect size (r) 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.41 0.36 0.18 0.44 Total Z -7.33 -7.57 -6.41 -10.35 -6.41 -7.28 -9.98 Significance 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * 0.0001 * effect size (r) 0.40 0.41 0.35 0.56 0.35 0.39 0.54 * Notes: p < 0.05 Table 2 Results of Spearman rank correlation test to investigate the relationship between changes in variables, based on residualized scores. Gender Research variables Over-all PA (day*min*MET) Self-esteem Changes scores (residualized scores) before and during the pandemic. Females Over-all PA (day*min*MET) - - Self-esteem -0.055[95%CI: -0.16;0.05 ] - Physical-social anxiety 0.107[95%CI: -0.01; 0.21] -0.369 ** [95%CI: -0.46; -0.27] Males Over-all PA (day*min*MET) - - Self-esteem -0.149[95%CI: -0.25; -0.04] - Physical-social anxiety 0.019[95%CI: -0.09; 0.13] -0.285 ** [95%CI: -0.38; -0.18] Total Over-all PA (day*min*MET) - - Self-esteem -0.095[95%CI: -0.02; 0.01] - Physical-social anxiety 0.083[95%CI: -0.02; 0.19] -0.337 ** [95%CI: -0.43; -0.24] ** Notes: p < 0.01 Discussion This study is one of the first studies in Iran that not only examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the level of PA, but also examines other psychological variables such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, this study had two objectives. First, it aims of to compare PA levels, self-esteem and social physical anxiety of the participants from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, it aims to investigate the relationship between changes in these variables, from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic. As predicted, the results showed that all the measured indices were different before and during the pandemic, lower levels of PA and self-esteem and higher levels of social anxiety from before to during the COVID-19. Contrary to our hypothesis, we only found one significant negative association between self-esteem of individuals and their physical social anxiety (higher self-esteem was associated with lower physical social anxiety) both on the changes scores from before to during the COVID-19. However, PA changes were associated neither with self-esteem nor with physical social anxiety changes. The findings indicating detrimental effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the levels of PA and of psychological indicators are in line with previous studies [ 6 , 28 – 30 ]. For example, Di Franco et al. [ 10 ] in their study examined the effects of social distance on mental status and PA during the COVID-19 pandemic. In their study of 1,132 Italian athletes, the researchers concluded that the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative effect on perceived stress as well as psycho-biological and social conditions. Amini et al. [ 15 ], in their research, show that the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected the level of PA of Iranian individuals. Therefore, the findings of the present study, in line with the findings of Amini et al. [ 15 ], show that the level of PA of the Iranian people has decreased significantly compared to the time before the pandemic. The results of this study also showed that the level of sedentary behaviours (the amount of time people spend sitting) has increased significantly. These changes are seen in both genders. Amini et al. [ 15 ] also observed the negative effects of pandemics in both genders. However, others have shown that the pandemic has mainly affected the intensity of PA and not its frequency in Iran [ 31 ]. In another study, Cheval et al. [ 9 ] examined the association between PA change, sedentary behaviour, and mental health during the coronavirus pandemic in France and Switzerland. In their study, participants also answered online questionnaires that measured PA, mental and physical health, anxiety and depressive symptoms. Their findings show that the COVID-19 pandemic, although leading to a decrease in vigorous activity as well as an increase in sedentary behaviour among the population, the amount of moderate PA or walking among individuals have also increased. In the present study, PA in all its indicators such as moderate and vigorous PA, walking and over-all PA score decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic period compared to before. The findings of the present study are consistent with the findings reported by Cheval et al. [ 9 ] regarding vigorous PA, but the results are in contrast with their findings on other indicators such as moderate PA and walking. These differences can be explained considering the culture of sports and PA among the participants. We can speculate that people in developed countries such as France and Switzerland are more likely than people in countries like Iran to employ benefits of PA to improve their own physical and psychological health. Another possible reason for the decrease in PA of the participants of the present study after the pandemic is the type of occupation of individuals. As reported in the results and participants sections, the majority of those who participated in the present study were either students and university students or government employees. Universities and schools were closed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Virtual and distance education were implemented to replace traditional teaching strategies. In addition, for employees, telecommuting has replaced attendance at work. Overall, it seems that these frequent and long stays at home, as well as the available stress and fear of leaving home, all led to increased sedentary behaviours and less presence in sports places. Although the results of the present study did not show any significant relationship between PA changes and other psychological indicators such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety changes, they indicated a significant and negative relationship between self-esteem and social physical anxiety. To explain this finding, it can be said that high self-esteem has probably reduced concerns about weight and appearance of people in social situations and therefore has reduced the level of social physical anxiety [ 20 ]. This relationship has been established in this study. In the present study, decreased self-esteem and increased post-pandemic social physique anxiety were reported. Research has shown that with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, people's use of social networks such as Instagram has increased dramatically [ 40 ]. On the other hand, it has been found that there is a relationship between the use of social networks and increased body dissatisfaction and reduced self-esteem [ 40 ]. Therefore, the reported decrease in self-esteem, as well as the increase in levels of social physique anxiety among the sample studied in the present study, can be attributed to the possible increase in people's use of social networks, especially Instagram. In the present study, the use of social networks has not been measured. It is suggested that future research measures the use of social networks during the pandemic and compares it with before the pandemic, to examine the impact of the pandemic address the level of PA and indicators of mental health such as self-esteem and social physique anxiety. PA is an essential part of a healthy lifestyle that can prevent or manage chronic diseases, facilitate daily life activities, and also maintain physical function in people, especially the elderly [ 9 ]. In other words, PA can be associated with a myriad of positive physical and mental health consequences [ 9 ]. However, since the results of the present study could not show a relationship between the level of PA and other psychological variables, it is suggested that the findings of this study should be applied more cautiously. Therefore, governments especially the government of Iran, with the help of experts in the field of sports and health should create conditions allowing individuals to participate in sports and PA with more motivation and facilities. They could also aim to prevent the accumulation of sedentary behaviours, which are associated with detrimental mental and physical problems. This study is one of the first studies in an Iranian sample which investigates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the level of PA and on some psychological variables. However, the results of the present study have several potential limitations. First, the study results are limited by the traditional limitations of cross-sectional study designs. For example, one of the limitations of the present study was the retrospective assessment of variables in reference of the before-lockdown period. In this study, participants were asked to report their level of physical activity and psychological indicators in the two time periods before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although post-pandemic questions coincided with research implementation, pre-pandemic questions were retrospective and past-related. The next limitation of the present study can be attributed to the geographical scope of the respondents who completed the web-based questionnaire. This dispersion may not be the same throughout the country in different regions and may be more specific to a particular part of the country (In the present study, participants were from different cities of Iran, but most of them were from Khuzestan, Tehran, Alborz and Kurdistan provinces). Another limitation of the present study was that it was a web-based one. Mainly, some people could not participate in this study due to lack of Internet access, absence in cyberspace or lack of knowledge to complete the questionnaires of this study. Therefore, the findings of the present study should be used with more caution. Due to the above-mentioned limitations, it is suggested to conduct other researches, which may tackle those limitations. Conclusions The findings of this study showed that the pandemic was associated with lower the levels of PA among the Iranian people, and with lower self-esteem and higher physical social anxiety. However, unlike previous studies, we did not observe a significant association of PA with self-esteem and social physical anxiety. Future large-scale studies and with a more heterogeneous sample of Iranian people should be conducted to further examine the expected protective role of physical activity on mental health outcomes. Meanwhile, public policies aiming to buffer the negative impact on COVID-19 Iranians’ health are urgently needed. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Before the start of this web base study, informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee at the department of motor behavior and sports psychology of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz (16032021). All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Consent for publication No individual or indemnifiable data is being published as part of this manuscript. Availability of data and materials The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions, however, they are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that the present study was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Funding This research received no external funding. Authors' contributions Conceptualization, E.S.; H.G and S.A.; methodology, E.S.; A.P; software, F.I.; validation, G.B., F.M.C. and W.R.G.; formal analysis, H.G; investigation, E.S.; resources, G.B; H.N; data curation, A.P.; F.I; S.A; writing—original draft preparation, E.S.; writing—review and editing, G.B. and A.F.S. visualization, E.S.; G.B; H.G; A.P; F.I; F.M.C; H.N.; A.F.S.; S.A; supervision, G.B; project administration, E.S; funding acquisition, H.N. 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Does physical activity matter for the mental health of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic?. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020 Nov;9(11):3494. Smith L, Jacob L, Butler L, Schuch F, Barnett Y, Grabovac I, Veronese N, Caperchione C, Lopez-Sanchez GF, Meyer J, Abufaraj M. Prevalence and correlates of physical activity in a sample of UK adults observing social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine. 2020 Jul 1;6(1):e000850. Aghababa A, Sani SH, Rohani H, Nabilpour M, Badicu G, Fathirezaie Z, Brand S. No evidence of systematic change of physical activity patterns before and during the Covid-19 pandemic and related mood states among Iranian adults attending team sports activities. Frontiers in psychology. 2021;12. Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjöström M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund UL, Yngve A, Sallis JF, Oja P. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Medicine & science in sports & exercise. 2003 Aug 1;35(8):1381-95. Hagströmer M. Assessment of health-enhancing physical activity at population level. Biovetenskaper och näringslära/Biosciences and Nutrition; 2007 Sep 28. Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Whitt MC, Irwin ML, Swartz AM, Strath SJ, O Brien WL, Bassett DR, Schmitz KH, Emplaincourt PO, Jacobs DR. Compendium of physical activities: an update of activity codes and MET intensities. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2000 Sep 1;32(9; SUPP/1):S498-504. Rosenberg, M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1965. Goldsmith RE. Dimensionality of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Journal of social Behavior and Personality. 1986 Apr 1;1(2):253–264. Motl RW, Conroy DE. The Social Physique Anxiety Scale: Cross validation, factorial invariance, and latent mean structure. Measurement in physical education and exercise science. 2001 Jun 1;5(2):81–95. Sáenz-Alvarez P, Sicilia Á, González-Cutre D, Ferriz R. Psychometric Properties of the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS–7) in Spanish Adolescents. The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 2013;16:1–9. Zumbo BD. The simple difference score as an inherently poor measure of change: Some reality, much mythology. Advances in social science methodology. 1999;5(1):269–304. Vall-Roqué H, Andrés A, Saldaña C. The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on social network sites use, body image disturbances and self-esteem among adolescent and young women. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2021 Aug 30;110:110293. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 2 posted Editorial decision: Major revision 26 Sep, 2022 Reviews received at journal 22 Jun, 2022 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Jun, 2022 Reviewers invited by journal 26 Mar, 2022 Editor assigned by journal 25 Mar, 2022 Editor invited by journal 22 Mar, 2022 Submission checks completed at journal 22 Mar, 2022 First submitted to journal 07 Mar, 2022 You are reading this latest preprint version Show more versions Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1192981","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-01-03 22:36:59","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":95960545,"identity":"45a50c07-59df-403a-8c19-257379bebc47","order_by":0,"name":"Esmaeel Saemi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Esmaeel","middleName":"","lastName":"Saemi","suffix":""},{"id":95960546,"identity":"2b0fd6cf-cce1-40ba-a92d-27d339247ec4","order_by":1,"name":"Hadi Nobari","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA60lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyA6AKQTGBgYGw58ALLY2EnQ0nhwBkgLMxFaGCBaGJgP84CYhLSYsx/eeIBxh00e/+zDDYdtfm2T52NmYPzwMQe3FsuetIIDjGfSiiXOJTYczu27bdjGzMAsOXMbHocdyDE4wNh2OLHhDCNQS89tRqAWNmZefFrOv4FomQ/SYtlz256wlhtQWzaAtDD8uJ1IhJZnBQcS29KKDYFaDvY23E5uY2Zsxu+X88mbP3xss8mTO8P++MOPP7dt57c3H/zwEY8WMEiAMRjbwGQDAfUo4A8pikfBKBgFo2CkAADHZ1rX1H5wOAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Isfahan","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hadi","middleName":"","lastName":"Nobari","suffix":""},{"id":95960547,"identity":"bf024df9-cede-417b-a418-4ae1d19dc76b","order_by":2,"name":"Georgian Badicu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Transylvania University of Brașov","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Georgian","middleName":"","lastName":"Badicu","suffix":""},{"id":95960548,"identity":"ad2fd720-8144-4f04-a9ec-d63a872cbe42","order_by":3,"name":"Habibollah Ghazizadeh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Habibollah","middleName":"","lastName":"Ghazizadeh","suffix":""},{"id":95960549,"identity":"f50fcf36-19ab-4fb9-bf3d-beaf30c79486","order_by":4,"name":"Ali Pashabadi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kharazmi University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Pashabadi","suffix":""},{"id":95960550,"identity":"d3791e22-bb80-4edf-a6a0-160ece016159","order_by":5,"name":"Fatemeh Imani","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahid Beheshti University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatemeh","middleName":"","lastName":"Imani","suffix":""},{"id":95960551,"identity":"7eab921a-c9cb-4e29-98e9-a941b66e9d2c","order_by":6,"name":"Filipe Manuel Clemente","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Filipe","middleName":"Manuel","lastName":"Clemente","suffix":""},{"id":95960552,"identity":"21762189-d6ab-4a3d-96f7-3fbb1a19cabc","order_by":7,"name":"Ana Filipa Silva","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ana","middleName":"Filipa","lastName":"Silva","suffix":""},{"id":95960553,"identity":"d4e43dfe-fc2b-47c4-90da-7732576ae25c","order_by":8,"name":"Sana Afrash","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sana","middleName":"","lastName":"Afrash","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2021-12-21 16:14:13","currentVersionCode":2,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1192981/v2","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1192981/v2","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":19986484,"identity":"d796aae3-8c65-42ed-b46b-765cf472b84b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-04-05 17:28:07","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68832,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) PA indicators such as intense physical activity (IPA; min/week), medium PA (MPA; min/week), waking (W; min/week), and also sedentary indicator means sitting (S; min/week), (b) overall PA (OPA; MET minutes per week), (c) mental health indicators such as self-esteem (SE) and social physique anxiety (SPA). Error bars represent standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1192981/v2/4d03a20f832550f1b18f276d.jpg"},{"id":19986485,"identity":"5f99e3c7-df06-42fc-97ef-ba16fa5fc4ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-04-05 17:28:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":362281,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1192981/v2/554a1613-b6e0-4cb5-9407-b8e0cf571f56.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The impact of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on physical activity and psychological characteristics of the Iranian people","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eCoronavirus-19 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious disease caused by acute respiratory syndrome [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The disease was first observed in mid-December 2019 in Wuhan, China. Since the outbreak of the virus, the number of reported cases has increased rapidly and has affected the whole world. On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) affirmed the disease as \"an international public health emergency\" [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. By the end of July 2021, more than 192\u0026nbsp;million people worldwide has been infected by the disease, of which more than 4\u0026nbsp;million people have died (World Health Organization, 2021) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. During this period, the WHO advised people to maintain social distance, use masks, to avoid public places such as restaurants, sports clubs, shops and stores, etc., and to cooperate with the WHO and local governments to avoid escalation of this disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. As the coronavirus intensified, people were instructed to leave their home for very limited purposes, such as shopping for food or seeking medical attention. As a result, most sports venues and clubs were closed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In other words, the reduction of physical interaction, known as social or physical distance, has been considered as the first line of defence against this pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. However, such social distances, or even temporary quarantines, can themselves have adverse effects on other facets of individuals' lives: such as their physical activity (PA) and mental health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIran is also one of the countries deeply affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the WHO, by the end of July 2021, about 3,623,840 (4.37% of the whole Iranian population) cases have been affected by coronavirus and 88,066 (0.10%) persons have died in Iran [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite this situation, by the end of July 2021, just over 2,268,826 (2.73%) people had been vaccinated [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. By this severe spread of the virus in Iran and low pace of vaccination in this country, as well as social and physical restrictions and temporary quarantines, it seems that this country has been severely faced with the subsequent physical and psychological consequences of this pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Undoubtedly, the COVID-19 pandemic has had several effects on individuals\u0026rsquo; behaviours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to reports and researches, critical situations and pandemics may affect differently the PA and mental health of people at different levels of society such as patients, health care workers, families, children, students, and even athletes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, when a negative event occurs in life, states of anxiety and stress perception are exacerbated by a lack of relationship with others due to social distance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In other words, the current emergency situation that combines both the stress due to COVID-19 with social isolation may have an important emotional and physical impact [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe positive effects of regular PA on many health outcomes have been well established [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], and studies have observed this link during the COVID-19 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, exercising regularly and maintaining a lifestyle during quarantine is crucial to prevent future chronic illnesses due to sedentary habits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. However, research has shown that engagement in PA may have decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, Amini et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] reported that the physical activity level of Iranian people decreased before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, concerning emotional factors, researchers have also shown that quarantine and isolation can also lead to anxiety [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. One of these types of anxiety variables is social physical anxiety. Social physical anxiety is a social psychological variable that is influenced by theories of self-expression and management and it assesses a person's perceived anxiety about presenting his body and figure when they are in front of others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Social physical anxiety is mainly associated with some of the prominent psychological and behavioural factors associated with health. For example, social physical anxiety is associated with variables such as physical self-esteem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], body image [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and levels of PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Social physical anxiety like other types of anxieties appears to increase during the COVID-19 pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition to this variable, self-esteem as another psychological variable can be affected in this situation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Self-esteem can be defined as person's self- assessment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. This variable is important for a successful and satisfying life and is an essential aspect of psychological well-being. Research has shown a positive relationship between PA and individual\u0026rsquo;s self-esteem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present study, we tried to pay attention to these physical and psychological variables and evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on them. To date, however, much research has been conducted worldwide on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on levels of PA and mental health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29\" citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, there is little information about this, especially for Iran [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, this study is designed to achieve the following two goals. First, this study aimed to compare the level of physical activity and other psychological indicators such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety before (i.e., retrospectively assessed) and during the COVID-19 pandemic. This procedure will give us a better understanding of the adverse effects of pandemics on PA and psychological states in Iran. In the second step, this study aimed to examine how changes in PA are associated with mental health indicators such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003ch2\u003eStudy design and setting\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study was a cross-sectional web-based study and was performed on a cohort group of Iranian citizen in the spring of 2021. In this study, participants answered the web-based questionnaires of physical activity, self-esteem and social physique anxiety. In these electronic questionnaires, individuals were asked to answer questions in two time periods before and during the pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were 335 Iranian citizen (155 males with a mean age of 33.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.72 years and 180 females with a mean age of 26.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.74 years) with a mean age of 30.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.58 years. They were selected through available sampling for this study and filled out an online questionnaire after expressing their consent to participate and they had the option to withdraw from the study at any time. They were from different parts of Iran. The eligibility criteria for this study were as follows; 1- Having at least 10 years of age. 2- Having a minimum literacy rate 3- Ability to work with networks of smart communication devices such as smartphones and computers 4- Living in Iran for the past 5 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eScales\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ; Short Form)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe IPAQ was used to measure participants\u0026apos; physical activity [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. This questionnaire is designed to be used among adults aged 18 to 65 years [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The way of scoring is that activities such as aerobics, high-speed cycling, mountaineering and basketball, which require more than 6 calories per minutes of energy, are classified as intense activities. Activities such as volleyball, badminton, and room cleaning, which require 3 to 6 calories per minute, are classified as moderate activities. Any activity that is less than ten minute is not considered [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Scores for sitting time during the week are calculated separately and are not included in the final score estimate. Each Metabolic Equivalent Task (MET) minutes per week represents the amount of energy consumed for physical activities per week. To obtain the continuous variable score of the IPAQ, it is sufficient to multiply the number of days in the time related to physical activity, as well as the number of METs per week to calculate the amount of energy consumed for physical activity. Since this tool measures physical activity in three categories: low activity level, moderate activity level and intense activity level, each of the mentioned activity intensities will have a different weight. For example, the weight of walking will be 3.3, the weight of moderate activity will be 4 and the weight of intense activity will be 6. The final score of PA is the sum of scores related to the three categories of low activity level, moderate activity level, and intense activity level [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSelf-esteem scale\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Rosenberg self-esteem scale (1965) measures a person\u0026apos;s overall self-esteem [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. This scale includes 10 general terms that measures the level of life satisfaction and a good feeling about oneself; for example, the first question was as follows: \u0026quot;On the whole, I am satisfied with myself\u0026quot;. Participants had to answer this question using the 4-point Likert scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. This tool is a common and valid tool for measuring self-esteem in all over of the world. This scale has a higher correlation than the Coopersmith self-esteem questionnaire and has a higher validity in measuring self-esteem levels [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. In another study, the internal consistency of this scale was reported to be appropriate and about 0.74 [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha was observed 0.86 in the current sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSocial physical anxiety scale\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe social physical anxiety scale [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] consists of seven items, for example: \u0026quot;I sometimes get upset because I think others judge my weight or fitness negatively. In response to each question, participants use the 5-point Likert scale as: 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate higher levels of social physical anxiety. However, question number 5: I feel empowered about how others evaluate my body; it is scored in reverse [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. S\u0026aacute;enz-Alvarez et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] reported the validity and reliability of this tool as appropriate. The researchers reported that the internal consistency of the instrument was about 0.85 via Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha. Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha was observed 0.81 in the current sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter approving the research plan in the ethics committee in the research of the department of motor behaviour and sports psychology of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz (16032021), the researchers designed an electronic questionnaire in the form of Google Form online survey. The time to complete the questionnaire was about 10 minutes. The online questionnaire consisted of four parts. In the first part, demographic information such as age, gender, level of education, marital status and employment status were asked. In the second part, there were questions related to the IPAQ. In the third part, questions about the participants\u0026apos; self-esteem were asked, and at the end, there were questions related to the social physique anxiety scale. The questionnaire was provided to the participants in the spring of 2021 for 15 days and they were asked to answer the mentioned questions in two periods before the outbreak of coronavirus (early winter 2020) and the period during the outbreak of coronavirus (spring 2021). Finally, 335 questionnaires were accepted among the answered and complete questionnaires and entered the final analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was performed using SPSS software version 26. To analyse the data collected through questionnaires, first, preliminary analyses were conducted, such as testing for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and then descriptive statistics were used to describe the data extracted from the questionnaires. According to the purpose of the study, initially the collected data were compared in the two time periods before and during the outbreak of coronavirus. This comparison was performed in both gender of men and women in general. Considering that another purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between changes in PA and mental health indicators from before the pandemic to the during of it, the residualized change scores were obtained by regressing scored variables during pandemic (e.g., PA during the pandemic) on their respective variables before pandemic (e.g., PA before the pandemic) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of descriptive statistics showed that, most of participants were single (200 participants, 59.07%) and the rest were married (135 people, 40.03%). Almost most of them (211 participants, 63%) had a university degree. The rest of the participants (124 participants, 37%) had a high school diploma. One hundred twelve (33.4%) of the respondents were students, 132 (39.4%) were employees, and the rest of the participants were employed in freelance and private jobs (91 participants, 27.1%). Preliminary findings also revealed that the extracted data from the questionnaires did not follow a normal distribution; therefore, the researchers used non-parametric statistics to analyse the data. Wilcoxon test was first used to compare the groups in the two time periods before and during the pandemic. The results of this test showed that the participants of the present study reported a significantly lower overall level of PA and self-esteem from before to during the COVID-19. These differences were consistent in both genders (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The results of Spearman correlation test indicated a significant negative relationship between self-esteem and social physical anxiety changes from before to during of COVID-19 pandemic. This significant negative relationship was observed in both genders. However, the results did not show any significant association between changes in PA and in social physical anxiety as well as with changes in self-esteem, from before and during coronavirus (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" id=\"Tab1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWilcoxon test results for comparison of research variables in two time periods before and during coronavirus pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatistics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntense PA (min/week)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate PA(min/week)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWalking (min/week)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSitting (min/week)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOveral PA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical-social anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeffect size (r)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-8.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeffect size (r)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-10.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-9.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeffect size (r)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e* Notes: p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" id=\"Tab2\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResults of Spearman rank correlation test to investigate the relationship between changes in variables, based on residualized scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOver-all PA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(day*min*MET)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChanges scores\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(residualized scores)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebefore and during\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ethe pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemales\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOver-all PA (day*min*MET)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.055[95%CI: -0.16;0.05 ]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical-social anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.107[95%CI: -0.01; 0.21]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.369\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e[95%CI: -0.46; -0.27]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMales\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOver-all PA (day*min*MET)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.149[95%CI: -0.25; -0.04]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical-social anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.019[95%CI: -0.09; 0.13]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.285\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e[95%CI: -0.38; -0.18]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOver-all PA (day*min*MET)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.095[95%CI: -0.02; 0.01]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical-social anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.083[95%CI: -0.02; 0.19]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.337\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e[95%CI: -0.43; -0.24]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e Notes: p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is one of the first studies in Iran that not only examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the level of PA, but also examines other psychological variables such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, this study had two objectives. First, it aims of to compare PA levels, self-esteem and social physical anxiety of the participants from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, it aims to investigate the relationship between changes in these variables, from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs predicted, the results showed that all the measured indices were different before and during the pandemic, lower levels of PA and self-esteem and higher levels of social anxiety from before to during the COVID-19. Contrary to our hypothesis, we only found one significant negative association between self-esteem of individuals and their physical social anxiety (higher self-esteem was associated with lower physical social anxiety) both on the changes scores from before to during the COVID-19. However, PA changes were associated neither with self-esteem nor with physical social anxiety changes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings indicating detrimental effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the levels of PA and of psychological indicators are in line with previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29\" citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, Di Franco et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] in their study examined the effects of social distance on mental status and PA during the COVID-19 pandemic. In their study of 1,132 Italian athletes, the researchers concluded that the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative effect on perceived stress as well as psycho-biological and social conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmini et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], in their research, show that the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected the level of PA of Iranian individuals. Therefore, the findings of the present study, in line with the findings of Amini et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], show that the level of PA of the Iranian people has decreased significantly compared to the time before the pandemic. The results of this study also showed that the level of sedentary behaviours (the amount of time people spend sitting) has increased significantly. These changes are seen in both genders. Amini et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] also observed the negative effects of pandemics in both genders. However, others have shown that the pandemic has mainly affected the intensity of PA and not its frequency in Iran [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn another study, Cheval et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] examined the association between PA change, sedentary behaviour, and mental health during the coronavirus pandemic in France and Switzerland. In their study, participants also answered online questionnaires that measured PA, mental and physical health, anxiety and depressive symptoms. Their findings show that the COVID-19 pandemic, although leading to a decrease in vigorous activity as well as an increase in sedentary behaviour among the population, the amount of moderate PA or walking among individuals have also increased. In the present study, PA in all its indicators such as moderate and vigorous PA, walking and over-all PA score decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic period compared to before. The findings of the present study are consistent with the findings reported by Cheval et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] regarding vigorous PA, but the results are in contrast with their findings on other indicators such as moderate PA and walking. These differences can be explained considering the culture of sports and PA among the participants. We can speculate that people in developed countries such as France and Switzerland are more likely than people in countries like Iran to employ benefits of PA to improve their own physical and psychological health. Another possible reason for the decrease in PA of the participants of the present study after the pandemic is the type of occupation of individuals. As reported in the results and participants sections, the majority of those who participated in the present study were either students and university students or government employees. Universities and schools were closed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Virtual and distance education were implemented to replace traditional teaching strategies. In addition, for employees, telecommuting has replaced attendance at work. Overall, it seems that these frequent and long stays at home, as well as the available stress and fear of leaving home, all led to increased sedentary behaviours and less presence in sports places.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the results of the present study did not show any significant relationship between PA changes and other psychological indicators such as self-esteem and social physical anxiety changes, they indicated a significant and negative relationship between self-esteem and social physical anxiety. To explain this finding, it can be said that high self-esteem has probably reduced concerns about weight and appearance of people in social situations and therefore has reduced the level of social physical anxiety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. This relationship has been established in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study, decreased self-esteem and increased post-pandemic social physique anxiety were reported. Research has shown that with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, people's use of social networks such as Instagram has increased dramatically [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, it has been found that there is a relationship between the use of social networks and increased body dissatisfaction and reduced self-esteem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the reported decrease in self-esteem, as well as the increase in levels of social physique anxiety among the sample studied in the present study, can be attributed to the possible increase in people's use of social networks, especially Instagram. In the present study, the use of social networks has not been measured. It is suggested that future research measures the use of social networks during the pandemic and compares it with before the pandemic, to examine the impact of the pandemic address the level of PA and indicators of mental health such as self-esteem and social physique anxiety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePA is an essential part of a healthy lifestyle that can prevent or manage chronic diseases, facilitate daily life activities, and also maintain physical function in people, especially the elderly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In other words, PA can be associated with a myriad of positive physical and mental health consequences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. However, since the results of the present study could not show a relationship between the level of PA and other psychological variables, it is suggested that the findings of this study should be applied more cautiously. Therefore, governments especially the government of Iran, with the help of experts in the field of sports and health should create conditions allowing individuals to participate in sports and PA with more motivation and facilities. They could also aim to prevent the accumulation of sedentary behaviours, which are associated with detrimental mental and physical problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is one of the first studies in an Iranian sample which investigates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the level of PA and on some psychological variables. However, the results of the present study have several potential limitations. First, the study results are limited by the traditional limitations of cross-sectional study designs. For example, one of the limitations of the present study was the retrospective assessment of variables in reference of the before-lockdown period. In this study, participants were asked to report their level of physical activity and psychological indicators in the two time periods before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although post-pandemic questions coincided with research implementation, pre-pandemic questions were retrospective and past-related. The next limitation of the present study can be attributed to the geographical scope of the respondents who completed the web-based questionnaire. This dispersion may not be the same throughout the country in different regions and may be more specific to a particular part of the country (In the present study, participants were from different cities of Iran, but most of them were from Khuzestan, Tehran, Alborz and Kurdistan provinces). Another limitation of the present study was that it was a web-based one. Mainly, some people could not participate in this study due to lack of Internet access, absence in cyberspace or lack of knowledge to complete the questionnaires of this study. Therefore, the findings of the present study should be used with more caution. Due to the above-mentioned limitations, it is suggested to conduct other researches, which may tackle those limitations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study showed that the pandemic was associated with lower the levels of PA among the Iranian people, and with lower self-esteem and higher physical social anxiety. However, unlike previous studies, we did not observe a significant association of PA with self-esteem and social physical anxiety. Future large-scale studies and with a more heterogeneous sample of Iranian people should be conducted to further examine the expected protective role of physical activity on mental health outcomes. Meanwhile, public policies aiming to buffer the negative impact on COVID-19 Iranians\u0026rsquo; health are urgently needed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore the start of this web base study, informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee at the department of motor behavior and sports psychology of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz (16032021). All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo individual or indemnifiable data is being published as part of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions, however, they are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the present study was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, E.S.; H.G and S.A.; methodology, E.S.; A.P; software, F.I.; validation, G.B., F.M.C. and W.R.G.; formal analysis, H.G; investigation, E.S.; resources, G.B; H.N; data curation, A.P.; F.I; S.A; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, E.S.; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, G.B. and A.F.S. visualization, E.S.; G.B; H.G; A.P; F.I; F.M.C; H.N.; A.F.S.; S.A; supervision, G.B; project administration, E.S; funding acquisition, H.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank all participants for their participation in this study. We would also like to express our gratitude to Dr. Boris Cheval and Dr. Maltagliati Silvio for their valuable advice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDousari AS, Moghadam MT, Satarzadeh N. COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease 2019): a new coronavirus disease. Infection and drug resistance. 2020;13:2819.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaddad C, Zakhour M, Haddad R, Al Hachach M, Sacre H, Salameh P. Association between eating behavior and quarantine/confinement stressors during the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. 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No evidence of systematic change of physical activity patterns before and during the Covid-19 pandemic and related mood states among Iranian adults attending team sports activities. Frontiers in psychology. 2021;12.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCraig CL, Marshall AL, Sj\u0026ouml;str\u0026ouml;m M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund UL, Yngve A, Sallis JF, Oja P. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Medicine \u0026amp; science in sports \u0026amp; exercise. 2003 Aug 1;35(8):1381-95.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHagstr\u0026ouml;mer M. Assessment of health-enhancing physical activity at population level. Biovetenskaper och n\u0026auml;ringsl\u0026auml;ra/Biosciences and Nutrition; 2007 Sep 28.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAinsworth BE, Haskell WL, Whitt MC, Irwin ML, Swartz AM, Strath SJ, O Brien WL, Bassett DR, Schmitz KH, Emplaincourt PO, Jacobs DR. Compendium of physical activities: an update of activity codes and MET intensities. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2000 Sep 1;32(9; SUPP/1):S498-504.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRosenberg, M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1965.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoldsmith RE. Dimensionality of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Journal of social Behavior and Personality. 1986 Apr 1;1(2):253\u0026ndash;264.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMotl RW, Conroy DE. 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The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on social network sites use, body image disturbances and self-esteem among adolescent and young women. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2021 Aug 30;110:110293.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"COVID-19, physical activity, self-esteem, social physical anxiety, Iran","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1192981/v2","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1192981/v2","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on physical activity behaviours, as well as on mental health indicators among Iranian people.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this cross-sectional study, 335 participants were included (155 males, mean age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.58 years). The eligibility criteria for this study were as follows; 1- Having at least 10 years of age. 2- Having a minimum literacy rate 3- Ability to work with networks of smart communication devices such as smartphones and computers 4- Living in Iran for the past 5 years. Participants were selected through the convenience sampling and filled out an online questionnaire measuring physical activity behaviours (The International Physical Activity Questionnaire; IPAQ; Short Form) and two mental health indicators \u0026ndash; self-esteem (Rosenberg self-esteem scale) and social physical anxiety (\u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e-\u003cem\u003eitems social\u003c/em\u003e physique \u003cem\u003eanxiety scale\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of Wilcoxon test showed that participants reported significant differences from before to during the pandemic in all three variables of physical activity (significant decreases), self-esteem (significant decreases), and social physical anxiety (significant increases). This difference was found, regardless of participants\u0026rsquo; gender. The results of Spearman correlation test between changes in physical activity and changes in mental health indicators showed that COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted self-esteem and social physical anxiety. However, we have not found any significant association of physical activity\u0026rsquo;s change with social physical anxiety or self-esteem\u0026rsquo;s changes before and during the pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn sum, the findings of the present study indicate a detrimental effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the physical activity and mental health among Iranian\u0026rsquo;s people. Public policies aiming to buffer the negative impact on COVID-19 Iranians\u0026rsquo; health are urgently needed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The impact of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on physical activity and psychological characteristics of the Iranian people","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":2,"date":"2022-04-05 17:28:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1192981/v2","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2022-09-26T08:05:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2022-06-22T10:25:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"79e1d397-2171-4117-84fa-99485ba28cdb","date":"2022-06-17T17:45:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2022-03-26T19:37:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2022-03-25T14:40:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2022-03-22T10:36:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2022-03-22T10:07:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","date":"2022-03-07T08:32:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"453dfbd6-0524-4725-a8e0-27d04c51de83","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 5th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-10-21T16:59:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-04-05 17:28:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v2","identity":"rs-1192981","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1192981","identity":"rs-1192981","version":["v2"]},"buildId":"ApUGefWb6u5IBVtyqm6d5","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}