Addressing dry-season feed gaps with vegetable crop residues in Sub-Saharan Africa crop-livestock systems

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One promising strategy to mitigate these shortages is the use of vegetable crop residues (VCR) as supplementary fodder, particularly in areas with intensive vegetable production. This study aimed to characterize the practices of VCR utilization in the vegetable-growing region of Hauts-Bassins, in western Burkina Faso. A survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire among 243 farmers in the locality. Principal Component Analysis followed by hierarchical clustering was used to classify farmers based on their agricultural and livestock practices. This analysis revealed three distinct groups: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers. VCR were widely used across all groups as animal feed, with green bean leaves (GBL: 100%) and sweet potato haulms (100%) being preferred by nearly all producers. Cucumber residues were also commonly used, particularly by market gardeners (p < 0.05). Most VCR were offered through open grazing, while GBL and cabbage leaves were more frequently stored and fed in barns, especially by agro-pastoralists. Sweet potato haulms were often sold and transported to Bobo-Dioulasso for use in urban livestock systems. VCR were primarily allocated to weak animals, lactating cows, draft animals, and calves, underscoring their functional importance in smallholder systems. These findings highlight the potential of VCR recycling as a means to alleviate dry-season fodder shortages and to support integrated crop-livestock management. Further laboratory analyses are recommended to determine the chemical composition and nutritional value of these residues, which would inform better feeding strategies, improve animal productivity, and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of livestock product. animal feeding fodder recycling vegetable crop residues Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Livestock farming is a significant sector in the economies of West African countries, particularly Sahelian countries like Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali. With a 44% contribution to the regional agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP), livestock plays a crucial role in poverty alleviation (ECOWAS, 2009). In Burkina Faso, over 80% of households (92% being rural) engage in livestock farming, deriving all or part of their income from it (FAO, 2019 ). Livestock farming significantly contributes to the national economy, accounting for 20% of the GDP and over 30% of export revenues (FAO, 2019 ). Livestock feed primarily relies on fodder from natural rangelands and crop residues (Hiernaux et Assouma, 2020). The utilization of crop residues as animal feed has been well-established in the literature, with comprehensive documentation of feeding strategies, nutritional values, and management practices across diverse cropping systems (Ouattara et al., 2024 ). Additionally, crop residues recycling in animal feed and organic manure is a major factor in the agroecological transition of agro-silvo-pastoral systems (Vall et al., 2023 ). Every year, livestock faces a forage resource deficit, especially during the dry season when natural pastures are reduced and lack substantial nutritional value for livestock (Koutou et al., 2016 ; Millogo et al., 2019 ; Zampaligre et al., 2019 ; Tensaba et al., 2022 ). Consequently, animal performance during this season remains low due to the for the poor digestibility of the forages (Gbenou et al., 2024a ). Improving such a production system requires effective management of feeding practices, which are a crucial factor in successful livestock farming (Dimon et al., 2018 ). In this context, utilizing vegetable crop residues as livestock feed could partially address the forage deficit during this period (Fall et al., 2006 ; Arbouche and Arbouche, 2007 ; Gbenou at al., 2024b). In Burkina Faso, particularly in the Hauts-Bassins region, vegetable farming is increasingly prevalent, with crops such as onions, cabbage, tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, green beans, lettuce, and potatoes (Drabo, 2016 ; Sebego, 2016 ; Ouédraogo et al., 2019 ). Vegetable farming is thus a key element in the food security of growing cities and a regulator of endemic unemployment exacerbated by rural exodus. In addition to producing fruits, vegetables, and leaves for human consumption, these crops generate residues (straw, haulms, leaves, etc.) that are used as animal feed particularly during the dry season. Using vegetable by-products in animal feed offers an innovative solution for diversifying livestock feeding practices, reducing dependence on pasture resources, and lowering feed costs (El Otmani et al., 2022 ; Sib et al., 2018 ). While the broader context of crop-livestock integration and crop residue utilization is well-documented, significant knowledge gaps persist regarding the specific utilization patterns of vegetable crop residues (VCR) within mixed farming systems. In Senegal, for example, onion leaves are collected by producers for feeding sheep (Fall et al., 2006 ). In Burkina Faso, studies by Sib et al. ( 2018 ) and Millogo et al. ( 2019 ) highlighted the use of cabbage leaves, sweet potato haulms, and zucchini residues in feeding dairy cows in the Hauts-Bassins region. Additionally, Bindelle and Buldgen ( 2004 ) reported that sweet potato haulms could be incorporated into the rations of cattle, pigs, and poultry. Studies in Colombia reported a significant increase in voluntary consumption of taro leaves by pigs (Leterme et al., 2005 ). According to El Otmani et al. ( 2022 ), vegetable crop residues offer a solution for diversifying livestock feed and addressing the forage shortage during the dry season. Despite this existing research on crop-livestock systems and alternative feed sources, critical research gaps remain in understanding how different farm types within mixed vegetable-livestock systems utilize VCR. Specifically, there is insufficient documentation of the management practices, utilization patterns, and farmer perceptions regarding VCR across different farm types within intensively cultivated mixed systems. Furthermore, the spatial and temporal dimensions of VCR availability and utilization patterns require systematic documentation to inform targeted extension strategies and policy interventions. The motivation for this study stems from the need to address these specific knowledge gaps within the well-documented broader context of crop-livestock integration. While general principles of crop residue utilization are established, the heterogeneity in farming systems necessitates farm-specific understanding of VCR management practices. This is particularly important given the increasing intensification of vegetable production systems and the growing recognition of VCR as valuable feed resources that require optimized management strategies. Therefore, this study was initiated to provide specific references on the utilization of vegetable crop residues across different farm types in mixed vegetable-livestock systems of the Houet province, Burkina Faso. The general objective of this study is to characterize farm typologies and document their specific management practices related to vegetable crop residue utilization, thereby contributing targeted knowledge to inform extension recommendations and sustainable intensification strategies within these mixed farming systems. Material and methods Location and biophysical characteristics of the study area The study was conducted in the municipality of Bama, a peri-urban area located 25 km northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso on National Road No. 9 in the Hauts-Bassins region of western Burkina Faso (Fig. 1 ). This region falls within the southern Sudanese climate zone, characterized by two distinct seasons: a rainy season from mid-May to October, during which humid monsoon winds prevail; and a dry season (approximately 7 months) from November to mid-May, which includes a cold dry period (mid-November to February) and a hot dry period (March to mid-May) (M’Bodj, 2009 ). Hydrologically, the commune lies within the Kou watershed, which is significant due to its role in supplying potable water to the city. The municipality of Bama boasts one of Burkina Faso's largest freshwater reserves, the Kou Basin. This basin is crucial for various economic activities, including irrigated agriculture, vegetable farming, livestock farming, and fishing. It originates in the Péni area south of Bobo-Dioulasso. The commune also hosts one of the country's largest dams, the Samandéni Dam, with a capacity of 1.5 billion cubic meters of water per year. The region's vegetation reflects the less arid climatic conditions characteristic of the southern Sudanese sector. It is home to diverse savanna types varying in size, density, and species composition. The area features shrub savannas, tree savannas, wooded savannas, open forests, gallery forests, and rupicolous formations (Fontès and Guinko, 1995 ). Sampling and survey method For the surveys, from an exhaustive list of vegetable farming sites within a 50 km radius around the city of Bobo-Dioulasso, where the primary vocation is vegetable farming, eight vegetable production sites within the commune of Bama were selected for this study. The selection of the commune of Bama was guided by the following criteria: its proximity to the city of Bobo-Dioulasso for security purpose, its status as a high vegetable production area due to its favorable hydrological conditions (Drabo, 2016 ; Ouédraogo et al., 2019 ) and the presence of settled Fulani pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Zampaligre et al., 2019 ). The villages where vegetable farming is widespread within the commune of Bama were considered for data collection. The sample size for the study survey was determined using the formula of Dagnelie ( 1998 ): $$\:n=\frac{(\text{U}1-\:{\alpha\:}/2)^2\times\:\:\text{p}(1-\text{p})}{\text{d}^2}$$ n = 26 Where: n is the sample size per village; U 1- α/2 = 1,96 is the value of the standard normal variable for a probability α = 0.05; d = 0.03 is the margin of error, fixed considering the desired precision; p = 5.1% (RGA, 2011 ) is the proportion of vegetable farmers in the commune of Bama Referring to the methodology adopted by Dahouda et al. ( 2019 ), a range of representative samples was estimated by multiplying the minimum sample size by 2, then adding 3% of this value to account for unforeseen circumstances. The number N = 2n + 3%(2n) obtained is the adjusted sample size. N = 54. Therefore, any sample chosen between the minimum size of 26 farmers and the adjusted size (54) per village will yield significant results. A sample of 243 agro-pastoral vegetable farmers was interviewed across the eight villages: 29 in Badara, 28 in Bama, 33 in Banakeledaga, 27 in Banaorodougou, 32 in Diaradougou, 30 in Natema, 29 in Samandeni, and 35 in Sangoulema. The target population was exclusively active vegetable producers and livestock farmers. Data collection Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from vegetable producers and livestock farmers using a smartphone. The digital questionnaire, previously deployed on the Kobotoolbox platform via the KoboCollect tool (Nampa et al., 2020 , Chrysostome et al., 2024 ), was used for data collection. The questionnaire was designed to characterize the structure, operation, and performance of the farms over a complete agricultural cycle (2022 was the reference year). It included the following sections : Vegetable production: For each type of crop, the cultivated area in 2022, and the estimated proportion of the crop that was self-consumed and sold. Animal production: For each type of animal (breeding cattle, draft cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, pigs, poultry), the number of births, sales, deaths, self-consumed animals, purchase of feed cake, and health expenses during the past year. Organic fertilizer production: For each production method (pit manure, pen manure), the location, type of biomass, and production. The surveys were conducted individually during the day, depending on the availability of the producers. Data analysis The collected data were extracted from the Kobotoolbox platform and used to create a database in Microsoft Excel 2016. After cleaning and coding, the database was imported into the R 4.2.3 software environment (R Core Team, 2023 ) for statistical analysis. A typology of the farms was developed by performing a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using the FactoMineR package (Lê et al., 2008 ) after identifying 16 variables of interest (Table 1). These variables were used to identify three types of farmers: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers. The structural variables included the areas of vegetable, food, and total crops on the farm, and the number of cattle, small ruminants, and other animals expressed in Tropical Livestock Units (TLU). For the operational variables, they comprised agroecological and non-agroecological agricultural equipment, the quantity of organic fertilizer used, the quantity of vegetable crop residues (VCR) stored (green bean leaves, cabbage leaves), and crop residues (CR) (cowpea haulms and maize straw). The performance variables included milk production across the three seasons of the year. A Hierarchical Ascendant Classification (HAC) was performed using the coordinates of the individuals on the first two factorial axes of the PCA, allowing us to characterize homogeneous groups of farms. The means of the quantitative parameters were compared through an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the Kruskal-Wallis test at the 5% threshold. Results Typology of mixed vegetable-livestock farms Among the 16 variables of interest selected for analysis, the area of food crops on the farms explained the data distribution the best, followed by the total cultivated area, non-agroecological and agroecological agricultural equipment, dairy production, and the number of cattle (Fig. 2 a). The proximity of these variables to the axes indicated that agroecological and non-agroecological agricultural equipment and the number of cattle are linked to Axis 1 (Fig. 2 b). The total cultivated area and the area of food crops are associated with Axis 2. The quantity of stored green bean leaves (GBL) and dairy production during the cold dry season are parameters more correlated with Axis 3. The quantity of milk produced is greatly influenced by the number of cattle and the quantity of stored vegetable crop residues. The strong negative correlation of non-agroecological equipment with Axis 1 shows that farms with a large number of such equipment have fewer animals and do not produce much milk. The typology of farms revealed three types: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers (Fig. 3 ). The Hierarchical Ascendant Classification (HAC), by projecting the coordinates of the individuals onto the two main axes, allowed us to distinguish three (3) types of farms (market gardeners oriented, crop-livestock oriented, and livestock oriented), as shown in Fig. 3 . The characteristics of the different types of farmers were as follows (Table 2 ): Table 2 Characteristics of the three producer types Variables Unit Average Market gardeners Agro-pastoralists Livestock farmers p -value n = 97 n = 116 n = 30 Total exploited area ha 6.75 4.43 ± 2.7 a 9.47 ± 9.88 b 3.73 ± 2.19 a < 0.001 *** Area of food crops ha 3.59 2.81 ± 1.77 a 4.41 ± 2.88 b 2.92 ± 1.29 a < 0.001 *** Area of market gardening ha 1.07 1.24 ± 0.92 b 0.95 ± 0.66 ab 0.79 ± 0.4 a < 0.01 ** Number of cattle TLU 7.17 4.41 ± 2.91 a 5.37 ± 5.15 a 16.01 ± 11.20 b < 0.001 *** Number of small ruminants TLU 2.94 1.63 ± 1.04 a 3.22 ± 3.02 b 3.66 ± 2.75 b < 0.001 *** Number of other animals TLU 0.73 0.33 ± 0.30 a 1.058 ± 2.24 b 0.51 ± 0.43 ab < 0.001 *** Agro-ecological equipment % 67.58 52.09 ± 13.47 a 77.20 ± 10.07 b 79.47 ± 11.31 b < 0.001 *** Non-agro ecological equipment % 34.68 48.98 ± 15.26 b 24.71 ± 7.88 a 22.80 ± 9.41 a < 0.001 *** Quantity of organic manure used kg 10368.07 11360.92 ± 11773.68 9674.84 ± 6896.97 9842.23 ± 6895.18 0.524 Quantity of maize stalks stored kg 810.47 439.41 ± 195.48 868.78 ± 827.27 803.73 ± 474.91 0.073 ​ Quantity of cowpea tops stored kg 318.57 343.27 ± 257.04 324.14 ± 397.06 242.55 ± 157.02 0.432 Quantity of green bean leaves stored kg 613.53 645.02 ± 581.14 467.36 ± 360.55 920.75 ± 537.74 0.063 ​ Amount of stored cabbage leaves kg 885.33 1074.54 ± 1048.26 ab 515.78 ± 490.78 a 1600 ± 1083.2 b 0.034 * Quantity of milk per cow milked per day in rainy season L/c/d 1.19 1.24 ± 0.92 0.95 ± 0.66 1.39 ± 0.4 0.461 Quantity of milk per cow milked per day in cold dry season L/c/d 1.02 1 0.75 ± 0.2 1.33 ± 0.8 0.261 Quantity of milk per cow milked per day in hot dry season L/c/d 0.95 1 0.6 1.25 ± 0.96 0.313 ​ n : number of respondents; (a, b): on the same line, values marked with different letters are significantly different; *: significant (p < 0.05); **: highly significant (p < 0.01); ***: very highly significant (p < 0.001); ha: hectare; TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit = one bovine weighing 250kg live weight. L/c/d: liter of milk/cow/day; kg: kilogram; %: percentage Type 1: Market gardeners Type 1 comprises 39.91% of the surveyed individuals (Table 2 ). These farms are characterized by small total land areas (4.43 ± 2.7 ha) with large areas dedicated to market gardening (p < 0.001). They maintain a small bovine herd (4.41 ± 2.91 TLU) and a modest number of small ruminants (1.63 ± 1.04 TLU). They store few crop residues and vegetable crop residues. Additionally, they use fewer agroecological equipment (52.09 ± 13.47%) compared to other types. However, they utilize the highest amount of non-agroecological equipment (48.98 ± 15.26%) without significant difference (p > 0.05). They also use the highest amount of organic manure (11360.92 ± 11773.68 kg). Market gardeners store 1074.54 kg of cabbage leave residues. Type 2: Agro-pastoralists Individuals in this group represent 47.77% of the surveyed population and are characterized by operating on large total land areas (9.47 ± 9.88 ha), including significant areas for staple crops (4.41 ± 2.88 ha) (Table 2 ). They have average areas of market gardening (0.95 ± 0.66 ha) and maintain an average of 3.22 ± 3.02 TLU of small ruminants and 1.058 ± 2.24 TLU of other animals. Their bovine herd averages 5.37 ± 5.15 TLU, mostly draft cattle. They use more agroecological agricultural equipment (77.20%) compared to other farm types (p < 0.001). Agro-pastoralist farmers store 515.78 kg of cabbage leave residues. Type 3: Livestock farmers Livestock farmers represent only 12% of the surveyed population and have a large herd of small ruminants (3.66 ± 2.75 TLU) and cattle (16.015 ± 11.20 TLU) (Table 2 ). They cultivate small areas of market gardening (0.79 ± 0.4 ha) and staple crops (2.92 ± 1.29 ha), mainly for family subsistence. Livestock farmers are the group with the highest use of agroecological agricultural equipment (79.47%; p < 0.001). Moreover, they store more residues of cabbage leaves (1600 kg; p < 0.05). Becoming of vegetable crop residues Green bean leaves (GBL), and sweet potato haulms were exclusively used as fodder by farm managers in all three groups (Fig. 4 d). Market gardeners predominantly recycled cucumber residues significantly (p < 0.05; Fig. 4 a). Additionally, cabbage and onion leaves, along with residues from zucchini and tomatoes, were recycled by both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Eggplant, pepper, and chili stalks left after animal grazing are cut and burned before planting another crop. Types and uses of vegetable crop residues Eggplant stalks are primarily used in their raw state (56.5%) by the market gardeners (Fig. 5 a). Green bean leaves are dried before being fed to animals by both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Other vegetable crop residues were utilized in their raw (fresh) state by all groups. Practices for distributing vegetable crop residues Onion leaves, cucumber residues, tomato residues, and zucchini residues are distributed in the barn by some market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Cabbage leaves are used as feed on grazing and also distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists (Fig. 6 a and 6 b). Green bean leaves were most commonly distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Sweet potato haulms were exclusively distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. The livestock farmers only distributed cabbage leaves and green bean haulms in the barn. The remaining VCR were grazed directly by the animals (Fig. 6 c). Peasant perceptions on the practice of managing vegetable crop residues in animal feeding VCR were more valued as fodder by agro-pastoralists (50%; p < 0.05). Both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists used VCR, when stored, to feed draft cattle and weakened animals. In contrast, livestock farmers fed lactating cows, calves, and heifers with stored VCR (Table 3 ). The collected, transported, and stored VCR were preferably distributed in the morning (65.9%) before grazing and in the evening (61.6%) upon return from grazing by agro-pastoralists (p < 0.001). According to them, this allows the animals to cope with poor grazing paths. When served in the evening, the reasons were as follows: to facilitate the animals' quick return from grazing, to supplement poor grazing during the dry season in both quantity and quality of fodder, and finally, to allow the animals to ruminate better at night. Market gardeners and agro-pastoralists primarily used VCR for the maintenance of their draft animals in preparation for the following rainy season. Table 3 Practices of distributing vegetable crop residues to animals Practices Market gardeners (%) Agro-pastoralists (%) Livestock farmers (%) p-value Livestock receiving VCR VCR as fodder 38.9 50 11.1 0.03 Weakened livestock 31.7 47.2 21.1 < 0.001 *** Suckling cows 30.7 34.7 34.7 < 0.001 *** Draft cattle 30.1 54.5 15.4 < 0.001 *** Calves/calves 20.6 34.5 80.0 < 0.001 *** Other livestock 25.3 53.2 21.5 < 0.001 *** Distribution period Morning 25.6 65.9 8.5 < 0.001 *** Evening 21.9 61.6 16.4 < 0.001 *** At any time 28.2 53.8 17.9 0.29 Appreciation of vegetable crop residues Vegetable crop residues such as GBL, cabbage leaves, and sweet potato haulms have garnered significant attention among the majority of respondents. More than 50% of respondents, particularly market gardeners and agro-pastoralists, consider these residues to be of very good quality (Fig. 7 a and 7 b). Sweet potato haulms are highly regarded by market gardeners and livestock farmers (Fig. 7 a and 7 c). Cucumber residues are well appreciated by market gardeners (Fig. 7 a). Cabbage leaves and GBL are highly valued by agro-pastoralists and livestock farmers, especially for enhancing milk production in cows. Additionally, agro-pastoralists have a favorable view of onion leaves, particularly for poultry and ruminant feeding. Discussion Market gardening-livestock farmer types in the peri-urban areas The selected variables for the typology revealed three groups of producers. The market gardeners have more land dedicated to vegetable crops and little livestock, while the agro-pastoralists are characterized by average sizes of both crop areas and livestock. As for the livestock farmers, they own large herds of livestock and small crop areas. Regardless of the type of producer considered, the integration of market gardening and livestock farming offers multiple advantages. It allows for the diversification of income sources, efficient use of resources, and rational waste management. This combination can be seen as a strategy to minimize economic losses in an environment marked by economic uncertainties (such as the volatility of agricultural prices) and significant climatic risks. Primarily, it serves as a strategy to mitigate risks and offset losses in one activity through gains or savings (especially in the form of livestock) generated from another production line. The typology observed in this study remains similar to that of Orounladji et al. ( 2024 ), with the only difference being that their study on the cross-examination of agroecology and viability in agro-silvo-pastoral systems considered farmers in general instead of focusing on market gardeners. Feeding strategies in the peri-urban farms The availability and utilization of VCR in market gardening-livestock production systems offer potential benefits, such as reduced animal feeding costs, agricultural waste management, and adaptation to seasonal constraints. Thus, harvested and stored VCR are selectively distributed to certain animal categories (milk-producing, fattening, draft, or weakened animals), with distribution times carefully chosen. In the Bama municipality, the level of VCR utilization in animal feed depends on crop type and farming type. Crops like eggplant, bell pepper, and chili stems are grazed directly in the fields. Indeed, Bangala Mada et al. ( 2015 ) emphasized the importance of understanding the vegetative cycle to determine when specific crops are likely to produce residues, typically towards the end of the vegetative cycle, during harvest. According to the interviewed farmers, the vegetative cycle of eggplants, peppers, and chili peppers ranges from six months to over a year, provided they are adequately watered and fertilized. Therefore, scarcity of water prompts these crops to be left for direct grazing by animals, explaining the low proportion of fiber-rich VCR used as fodder among livestock farmers. Cabbage emerges as the most cultivated crop in the study area, a finding corroborated by Ouédraogo et al. ( 2019 ) across urban, semi-urban, and rural settings in the Hauts Bassins region. This suggests that cabbage residues generated at harvest may be quantitatively significant. Hence, cabbage leaves are predominantly used as fodder in the study area, consistent with findings by Sib et al. ( 2018 ), who highlighted the use of cabbage leaves as high-quality fodder in dairy cattle feeding among dairy farmers around Bobo-Dioulasso. Millogo et al. ( 2019 ) further revealed that cabbage leaves are highly valued by animals due to their high nitrogen content and good nutritional quality, forming a common component of all rations. Green bean leaves, on the other hand, are primarily used to feed animals. In Senegal, they are entirely recovered and constitute a national market commodity. Furthermore, Fall et al. ( 2006 ) indicated that green bean leaves quantities produced in the Senegal River Valley are transported to Dakar for urban livestock feeding. According to various farmer perceptions, VCR are either valued as animal feed or recycled into soil for parcel fertilization. Green bean leaves were highly regarded due to their high nitrogen content and popularity among animals. In the study area, few market gardening residues were stored. The quantity of stored VCR depended on their valuation rather than the number of animals. Similar results were reported by Erenstein et al. ( 2011 ) in India, who found that the quantity of cereal straws used by farmers depended on their preferences, household labor, crop production levels, access to alternative biomass resources, livestock management practices, and biomass demand. In this study, appreciation also conditioned the quantity of certain VCR stored. Notably, the most appreciated VCR (GBL) was the most stored by farm managers across different classes without significant differences. This was due to a lack of time or resources needed to collect all VCR. Farms harvested a portion and left the rest in the fields for grazing. When household animals were entrusted to Fulani herders, these VCR were used for pasture by the herders. Regarding sweet potato haulms, the quantities produced were sold and transported to Bobo-Dioulasso for urban livestock feeding. Feeding constraints and coping strategies Although the availability and utilization of VCR in market gardening-livestock production systems offer potential benefits, it requires proper planning, efficient management, and technical knowledge to maximize benefits and overcome associated challenges. The use of non-agroecological equipment can be justified by the need to ensure irrigation and maintenance of large cultivated plots and transportation of highly perishable market garden products due to inadequate storage facilities. The significant storage of green bean leaves and cabbage leaves may be explained by the fact that these producers stockpile fewer VCR. Additionally, the harvest period for VCR may coincide with the establishment of market garden plots, leading to a shortage of labor and time needed to manage both activities. Agro-pastoralists predominantly own small ruminants and other animals (poultry, pigs, donkeys) in addition to cattle. They often sell animals to finance seed expenses for market gardening and the establishment of market garden plots. Small ruminants, which multiply rapidly, are easily sold to meet such expenses. Studies by Vall et al. ( 2011 ) and Koutou et al. ( 2016 ) confirm this finding, indicating that livestock serves as a standing savings and provides draft animals among agro-pastoralists. Furthermore, animal manure's role as an organic fertilizer is increasingly prominent due to rising chemical fertilizer prices. Livestock farmers, with smaller areas of both staple and market gardening, utilize minimal animal fodder and rely on manure sales. They do not own land and lack the workforce to manage both livestock and market gardening activities. However, they possess a large number of cattle and small ruminants, utilizing all VCR for animal feed. Studies by Koutou et al. ( 2017 ) have revealed that the number of animals determines their social status among livestock farmers, providing milk for both market and household consumption. However, some market gardeners and agro-pastoralists believe that cabbage leaves are unsuitable for animals. They argue that cabbage cultivation requires substantial fertilizer and pesticide use, rendering cabbage leaves unfit for animal consumption. Studies by Son et al. ( 2017 ) and Soro et al. (2018) have highlighted low levels of farmer education resulting in misunderstanding of pesticide usage instructions on packaging, leading to excessive and sometimes inappropriate use of phytosanitary products. Conversely, others have noted that fresh green bean leaves and cabbage leaves caused diarrhea in animals. Conclusion This study highlights a clear typology of mixed market gardening-livestock farms in the Bama municipality, revealing three distinct profiles: (i) market gardeners with extensive vegetable plots and few animals, (ii) agro-pastoralists combining diverse livestock with staple and vegetable crop production, and (iii) livestock farmers with large herds but minimal crop cultivation. Across all farm types, vegetable crop residues (VCR) were systematically used as fodder, though their modes of utilization varied. Green bean leaves emerged as the most valued and widely used residue across all systems, particularly in barn feeding. Sweet potato haulms were also highly appreciated, especially by market gardeners and livestock farmers. Eggplant stems were typically grazed fresh in the field. Cabbage leaves and green bean leaves were the most frequently stored residues and were notably used to support lactating cows. The findings underscore the significant role of VCR in alleviating dry-season fodder shortages and improving nutrient cycling in mixed farming systems. They also reveal strong complementarities between vegetable production and livestock feeding strategies. Understanding these dynamics opens new opportunities for promoting circular resource use and enhancing the resilience and productivity of crop-livestock systems in West Africa. Further research on the nutritional value of these residues would help optimize their use in livestock diets while contributing to climate-smart agriculture. Declarations Ethics approval The manuscript does not contain clinical studies or patient data. Consent to participate Verbal informed consent was obtained prior to the interview of the farmers involved in this study. Consent for publication The interviewed farmers have consented to the submission of the results of this study to the journal. Conflict of interest The authors reported no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. Funding This project has received funding from the European Union (European DeSIRA programme, under grant agreement No. [FOOD/2019/410 − 169]). Authors' contributions BMO: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Acknowledgements The authors say the data collectors and participating farmers deserve recognition. This study was made possible through the support of the “Carbon Sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions in (agro) Sylvopastoral Ecosystems in the sahelian CILSS States” (CaSSECS) regional project funded by the European Union. Data availability statement The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Arbouche H, Arbouche HS (2007) Valorisation des résidus de la récolte du melon “jaune canari” pour l’alimentation du bétail: Influence de la zone de culture. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 19(10):7. Bangala Mada D-B, Kanyanga Mpoy P, Kabamba Ngombe N, Masimango Ndyanabo T (2015) Nécessité d’une gestion des résidus agricoles et agro-industriels à Kinshasa. 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Dimon E, Idrissou Y, Soulé AH, Assani A, Assogba BCG, Toukourou Y, Attakpa EY, Traore IA, Mensah GA (2018) Synthèse des connaissances sur la valorisation des légumineuses fourragères dans l’alimentation des ruminants au Bénin. Bulletin de la Recherche Agronomique du Bénin (BRAB) 84:42–51. Drabo AR (2016) Culture maraichère urbaine et périurbaine de la ville de Bobo-Dioulasso: Introduction et promotion des variétés hybrides performantes de Tomate : Lycopersican esculentum Mill. (Var. Assila F1), de concombre: Cucumis sativus Linné. (Var. Darina F1) et Courgette: Cucurbita pepa Linné. (Var. Clarita F1). Mémoire de fin de cycle en Ingéniorat. Université polytechnique de Bobo-dioulasso (UPB). Institut de Développement Rural (IDR), 71p. El Otmani S, Boulaich H, Chentouf M, Chebli Y (2022) Evaluation of the chemical composition of agricultural by-products in the Northern Morocco: Case of strawberries, raspberries, beans, chickpeas, and faba beans by-products. 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Gbenou GX, Assouma MH, Bastianelli D, Kiendrebeogo T, Bonnal L, Zampaligre N, Bois B, Sanogo S, Sib O, Martin C, Dossa LH (2024a) Enteric methane emissions from zebu cattle are influenced by seasonal variations in rangeland fodder quality and intake. animal 18(10):101320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2024.101320 Gbenou GX, Assouma MH, Bastianelli D, Kiendrebeogo T, Bonnal L, Zampaligre N, Bois B, Sanogo S, Sib O, Martin C, Dossa LH (2024b) Supplementing zebu cattle with crop co-products helps to reduce enteric emissions in West Africa. Archives of Animal Nutrition, 78(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1745039X.2024.2356326 Hiernaux P, Assouma MH (2020) Adapting pastoral breeding to global changes in West and Central tropical Africa: Review of ecological views. Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 73(3):149–159. Jahnke HE, Tacher G, Kiel P, Rojat D (1988) Livestock production in tropical Africa, with special reference to the tsetse-affected zone. Livestock production in tsetse-affected areas of Africa. Proceedings of a meeting held in Nairobi, 23–27 November 1987. Nairobi, ILCA/ International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD). pp 3–21. Koutou M, Sangaré M, Havard M, Toillier A, Sanogo L, Thombiano T, Vodouhe DS (2016) Sources de revenus et besoins d’accompagnement des exploitations agricoles familiales en zone cotonnière ouest du Burkina Faso. BASE, 42–56. https://doi.org/10.25518/1780-4507.12648 Koutou M, Sangaré M, Havard M, Toillier A, Sanogo L, Thombiano T, Vodouhe DS, Vall E (2017) Sources de revenus et besoins d’accompagnement des exploitations agricoles familiales en zone cotonnière ouest du Burkina Faso. Agronomie Africaine, 28(2):13–24. Lê S, Josse J, Husson F (2008) FactoMineR: An R Package for Multivariate Analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v025.i01 . Le Houerou HN, Hoste CH (1977) Rangeland production and annual rainfall relations in the Mediterranean Basin and in the African Sahelo Sudanian zone. Rangel. Ecol. Manag. /J. Range Manag. Arch. 30, 181–189. Leterme P, Londoño AM, Estrada F, Souffrant WB, Buldgen A (2005) Chemical composition, nutritive value and voluntary intake of tropical tree foliage and cocoyam in pigs. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85(10):1725–1732. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2177 M’Bodj M (2009) Décentralisation et gestion des ressources en eau: Cas de la commune de Bama. Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (2IE). 121p. Millogo V, Sissao M, Sidibe-Anago AG, Amoussou TO, Ouedraogo GA (2019) Effet d’une complémentation valorisant les ressources localement disponibles sur les performances de production laitière des vaches en vue de réduire l’intervalle vêlage-vêlage en zone périurbaine de Bobo-Dioulasso au Burkina Faso. Journal of Applied Biosciences 142:14529–14539. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jab.v142i1.11 Nampa IW, Mudita IW, Riwu Kaho NPLB, Widinugraheni S, Lasarus Natonis R (2020) The KoboCollect for Research Data Collection and Management (An experience in Researching the Socio-Economic Impact of Blood Disease in Banana). SOCA: Jurnal Sosial, Ekonomi Pertanian, 14(3) :545. https://doi.org/10.24843/SOCA.2020.v14.i03.p15 Orounladji BM, Sib O, Berre D, Assouma MH, Dabiré D, Sanogo S, Vall E (2024) Cross-examination of agroecology and viability in agro-sylvo-pastoral systems in Western Burkina Faso, Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems. 48 (4):581–609. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2024.2307902 Ouattara SD, Orounladji BM, Sanogo S, Dabiré D, Diomandé D, Sib O, Assouma MH (2024) Valorisation des résidus de cultures pour l’alimentation du bétail au Burkina Faso: perception des agropasteurs et pratiques d’utilisation. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop., 77 : 37012, doi: 10.19182/remvt.37012 Ouédraogo RA, Kambiré FC, Kestemont M-P, Bielders CL (2019) Caractériser la diversité des exploitations maraîchères de la région de Bobo-Dioulasso au Burkina Faso pour faciliter leur transition agroécologique. Cahiers Agricultures 28:20. https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2019021 R Core Team (2023) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/ RGA (2011) Rapport général du module maraîchage. Bureau Central du Recensement General de l’Agriculture Phase 2: RGA 2006–2010, 318p. Sebego RCI (2016) Etude des stratégies d’adaptation des maJ’akhersface aux changements climatiques au Burkina Faso: cas de Bobo Dioulasso, Ouagadougou.et Ouahigouya. Université polytechnique de Bobo Dioulasso (UPB). 82p. Sekaran U, Lai L, Ussiri DA, Kumar S, Clay S (2021) Role of integrated crop-livestock systems in improving agriculture production and addressing food security – A review. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 5, 100190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100190 Sib O, Bougouma-Yameogo VMC, Blanchard M, Gonzalez-Garcia E, Vall E (2018) Production laitière à l’Ouest du Burkina Faso dans un contexte d’émergence de laiteries: Diversité des pratiques d’élevage et propositions d’amélioration. Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux, 70(3):81–91. https://doi.org/10.19182/remvt.31521 Son D, Somda I, Legreve A, Schiffers B (2017) Pratiques phytosanitaires des producteurs de tomates du Burkina Faso et risques pour la santé et l’environnement. Cahiers Agricultures, 26(2):25005. https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2017010 Tensaba RS, Kiema A, Zongo M (2022) Evaluation d’une démarche participative d’insertion des cultures fourragères dans deux villages sites de la Région du Centre-Nord du Burkina Faso. Afrique SCIENCE, 3(20):41–54. Vall E, Koutou M, Blanchard M, Coulibaly K A, Diallo M, Andrieu N (2011) Intégration agriculture-élevage et intensification écologique dans les systèmes agrosylvopastoraux de l’Ouest du Burkina Faso, province du Tuy. Partenariat, modélisation, expérimentations: quelles leçons pour la conception de l’innovation et l’intensification écologique ? 12 p. https://hal.science/hal-00718613 Vall E, Orounladji BM, Berre D, Assouma MH, Dabiré D, Sanogo S, Sib O (2023) Croplivestock synergies and byproducts recycling: major factors for agroecology in West African agrosylvopastoral systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 43:70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-023-00908-6 Zampaligre N, Savadogo I, Sangare M (2019) Analyses des paramètres démographiques et zootechniques du cheptel bovin des élevages péri-urbains laitiers de la ville de Bobo-Dioulasso à l’Ouest du Burkina Faso. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 13(1):441. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i1.35 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7396470","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":509848645,"identity":"ac52e746-b62e-4206-bf40-46dea6b10b41","order_by":0,"name":"Boko Michel Orounladji","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CIRDES: Centre International de Recherche-Developpement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Boko","middleName":"Michel","lastName":"Orounladji","suffix":""},{"id":509848646,"identity":"d9f0334c-2ad5-4456-8db6-adb2b8299370","order_by":1,"name":"Songdah Désiré 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in the principal component analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/c08b65183204d581f69e7b5d.png"},{"id":91024190,"identity":"a4efb9b4-a5e5-4e2f-8f8c-f6ea00a7fca3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 19:30:14","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1902765,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of individuals on the factorial Plans of PCA\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/2ea3d9dc00a63a545277a4a8.png"},{"id":91023407,"identity":"e50e15c8-0f31-45da-9f9d-fd14e7c6b88a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 19:14:14","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":939477,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBecoming of vegetable crop residues\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCab_lea: Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea: Green bean leaves; Oni_lea: Onion leaves; Zuc_res: Zucchini residues; Cuc_res: Cucumber residues; Tom_res: Tomato residues; Pep_ste: Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste: Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste: Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin: Sweet potato haulms; Egg_ste: Eggplant stems\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/1fe907c7f0a0bdfba029c518.png"},{"id":91023404,"identity":"7588306f-dc31-4d0c-ae93-b0cc5fb38b9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 19:14:14","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":947369,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePractices of using vegetable crop residues as fodder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCab_lea: Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea: Green bean leaves; Oni_lea: Onion leaves; Zuc_res: Zucchini residues; Cuc_res: Cucumber residues; Tom_res: Tomato residues; Pep_ste: Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste: Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste: Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin: Sweet potato haulms; Egg_ste: Eggplant stems\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/1ed6613f3b0a57ad3071282b.png"},{"id":91023395,"identity":"2029fc70-8f38-4a9e-bb82-32d2faa84d8b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 19:14:14","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":898525,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eForms of utilization of vegetable crop residues in animal feeding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCab_lea: Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea: Green bean leaves; Oni_lea: Onion leaves; Zuc_res: Zucchini residues; Cuc_res: Cucumber residues; Tom_res: Tomato residues; Pep_ste: Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste: Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste: Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin: Sweet potato haulms; Egg_ste: Eggplant stems\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/20ebb5f31f5f77062812d268.png"},{"id":91023710,"identity":"0392d845-a632-443f-9499-ab447462c13e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 19:22:14","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1073934,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAppreciation of vegetable crop residues\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCab_lea: Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea: Green bean leaves; Oni_lea: Onion leaves; Zuc_res: Zucchini residues; Cuc_res: Cucumber residues; Tom_res: Tomato residues; Pep_ste: Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste: Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste: Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin: Sweet potato haulms; Egg_ste: Eggplant stems\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/11fbf43549303404cf757b46.png"},{"id":91184411,"identity":"3a37b2a0-9f81-4a3c-8293-4bcc2c700cea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 13:38:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":8566891,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7396470/v1/77cbf31f-1ebb-4436-a243-1074a1d63ff8.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Addressing dry-season feed gaps with vegetable crop residues in Sub-Saharan Africa crop-livestock systems","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLivestock farming is a significant sector in the economies of West African countries, particularly Sahelian countries like Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali. With a 44% contribution to the regional agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP), livestock plays a crucial role in poverty alleviation (ECOWAS, 2009). In Burkina Faso, over 80% of households (92% being rural) engage in livestock farming, deriving all or part of their income from it (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Livestock farming significantly contributes to the national economy, accounting for 20% of the GDP and over 30% of export revenues (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivestock feed primarily relies on fodder from natural rangelands and crop residues (Hiernaux et Assouma, 2020). The utilization of crop residues as animal feed has been well-established in the literature, with comprehensive documentation of feeding strategies, nutritional values, and management practices across diverse cropping systems (Ouattara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, crop residues recycling in animal feed and organic manure is a major factor in the agroecological transition of agro-silvo-pastoral systems (Vall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Every year, livestock faces a forage resource deficit, especially during the dry season when natural pastures are reduced and lack substantial nutritional value for livestock (Koutou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Millogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zampaligre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Tensaba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, animal performance during this season remains low due to the for the poor digestibility of the forages (Gbenou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e). Improving such a production system requires effective management of feeding practices, which are a crucial factor in successful livestock farming (Dimon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, utilizing vegetable crop residues as livestock feed could partially address the forage deficit during this period (Fall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Arbouche and Arbouche, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Gbenou at al., 2024b).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Burkina Faso, particularly in the Hauts-Bassins region, vegetable farming is increasingly prevalent, with crops such as onions, cabbage, tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, green beans, lettuce, and potatoes (Drabo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Sebego, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ou\u0026eacute;draogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Vegetable farming is thus a key element in the food security of growing cities and a regulator of endemic unemployment exacerbated by rural exodus. In addition to producing fruits, vegetables, and leaves for human consumption, these crops generate residues (straw, haulms, leaves, etc.) that are used as animal feed particularly during the dry season. Using vegetable by-products in animal feed offers an innovative solution for diversifying livestock feeding practices, reducing dependence on pasture resources, and lowering feed costs (El Otmani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile the broader context of crop-livestock integration and crop residue utilization is well-documented, significant knowledge gaps persist regarding the specific utilization patterns of vegetable crop residues (VCR) within mixed farming systems. In Senegal, for example, onion leaves are collected by producers for feeding sheep (Fall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In Burkina Faso, studies by Sib et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Millogo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the use of cabbage leaves, sweet potato haulms, and zucchini residues in feeding dairy cows in the Hauts-Bassins region. Additionally, Bindelle and Buldgen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) reported that sweet potato haulms could be incorporated into the rations of cattle, pigs, and poultry. Studies in Colombia reported a significant increase in voluntary consumption of taro leaves by pigs (Leterme et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). According to El Otmani et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), vegetable crop residues offer a solution for diversifying livestock feed and addressing the forage shortage during the dry season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite this existing research on crop-livestock systems and alternative feed sources, critical research gaps remain in understanding how different farm types within mixed vegetable-livestock systems utilize VCR. Specifically, there is insufficient documentation of the management practices, utilization patterns, and farmer perceptions regarding VCR across different farm types within intensively cultivated mixed systems. Furthermore, the spatial and temporal dimensions of VCR availability and utilization patterns require systematic documentation to inform targeted extension strategies and policy interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe motivation for this study stems from the need to address these specific knowledge gaps within the well-documented broader context of crop-livestock integration. While general principles of crop residue utilization are established, the heterogeneity in farming systems necessitates farm-specific understanding of VCR management practices. This is particularly important given the increasing intensification of vegetable production systems and the growing recognition of VCR as valuable feed resources that require optimized management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, this study was initiated to provide specific references on the utilization of vegetable crop residues across different farm types in mixed vegetable-livestock systems of the Houet province, Burkina Faso. The general objective of this study is to characterize farm typologies and document their specific management practices related to vegetable crop residue utilization, thereby contributing targeted knowledge to inform extension recommendations and sustainable intensification strategies within these mixed farming systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLocation and biophysical characteristics of the study area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the municipality of Bama, a peri-urban area located 25 km northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso on National Road No. 9 in the Hauts-Bassins region of western Burkina Faso (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis region falls within the southern Sudanese climate zone, characterized by two distinct seasons: a rainy season from mid-May to October, during which humid monsoon winds prevail; and a dry season (approximately 7 months) from November to mid-May, which includes a cold dry period (mid-November to February) and a hot dry period (March to mid-May) (M\u0026rsquo;Bodj, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydrologically, the commune lies within the Kou watershed, which is significant due to its role in supplying potable water to the city. The municipality of Bama boasts one of Burkina Faso's largest freshwater reserves, the Kou Basin. This basin is crucial for various economic activities, including irrigated agriculture, vegetable farming, livestock farming, and fishing. It originates in the P\u0026eacute;ni area south of Bobo-Dioulasso. The commune also hosts one of the country's largest dams, the Samand\u0026eacute;ni Dam, with a capacity of 1.5\u0026nbsp;billion cubic meters of water per year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe region's vegetation reflects the less arid climatic conditions characteristic of the southern Sudanese sector. It is home to diverse savanna types varying in size, density, and species composition. The area features shrub savannas, tree savannas, wooded savannas, open forests, gallery forests, and rupicolous formations (Font\u0026egrave;s and Guinko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSampling and survey method\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the surveys, from an exhaustive list of vegetable farming sites within a 50 km radius around the city of Bobo-Dioulasso, where the primary vocation is vegetable farming, eight vegetable production sites within the commune of Bama were selected for this study. The selection of the commune of Bama was guided by the following criteria: its proximity to the city of Bobo-Dioulasso for security purpose, its status as a high vegetable production area due to its favorable hydrological conditions (Drabo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ou\u0026eacute;draogo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and the presence of settled Fulani pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Zampaligre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The villages where vegetable farming is widespread within the commune of Bama were considered for data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sample size for the study survey was determined using the formula of Dagnelie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:n=\\frac{(\\text{U}1-\\:{\\alpha\\:}/2)^2\\times\\:\\:\\text{p}(1-\\text{p})}{\\text{d}^2}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e is the sample size per village;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eU\u003csub\u003e1- α/2\u003c/sub\u003e = 1,96 is the value of the standard normal variable for a probability α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ed\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03 is the margin of error, fixed considering the desired precision;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.1% (RGA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) is the proportion of vegetable farmers in the commune of Bama\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReferring to the methodology adopted by Dahouda et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), a range of representative samples was estimated by multiplying the minimum sample size by 2, then adding 3% of this value to account for unforeseen circumstances. The number N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2n\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;3%(2n) obtained is the adjusted sample size. N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;54. Therefore, any sample chosen between the minimum size of 26 farmers and the adjusted size (54) per village will yield significant results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA sample of 243 agro-pastoral vegetable farmers was interviewed across the eight villages: 29 in Badara, 28 in Bama, 33 in Banakeledaga, 27 in Banaorodougou, 32 in Diaradougou, 30 in Natema, 29 in Samandeni, and 35 in Sangoulema. The target population was exclusively active vegetable producers and livestock farmers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative and qualitative data were collected from vegetable producers and livestock farmers using a smartphone. The digital questionnaire, previously deployed on the Kobotoolbox platform via the KoboCollect tool (Nampa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Chrysostome et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), was used for data collection. The questionnaire was designed to characterize the structure, operation, and performance of the farms over a complete agricultural cycle (2022 was the reference year). It included the following sections :\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetable production: For each type of crop, the cultivated area in 2022, and the estimated proportion of the crop that was self-consumed and sold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnimal production: For each type of animal (breeding cattle, draft cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, pigs, poultry), the number of births, sales, deaths, self-consumed animals, purchase of feed cake, and health expenses during the past year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganic fertilizer production: For each production method (pit manure, pen manure), the location, type of biomass, and production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surveys were conducted individually during the day, depending on the availability of the producers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe collected data were extracted from the Kobotoolbox platform and used to create a database in Microsoft Excel 2016. After cleaning and coding, the database was imported into the R 4.2.3 software environment (R Core Team, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) for statistical analysis. A typology of the farms was developed by performing a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using the FactoMineR package (L\u0026ecirc; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) after identifying 16 variables of interest (Table\u0026nbsp;1). These variables were used to identify three types of farmers: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers. The structural variables included the areas of vegetable, food, and total crops on the farm, and the number of cattle, small ruminants, and other animals expressed in Tropical Livestock Units (TLU).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the operational variables, they comprised agroecological and non-agroecological agricultural equipment, the quantity of organic fertilizer used, the quantity of vegetable crop residues (VCR) stored (green bean leaves, cabbage leaves), and crop residues (CR) (cowpea haulms and maize straw). The performance variables included milk production across the three seasons of the year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA Hierarchical Ascendant Classification (HAC) was performed using the coordinates of the individuals on the first two factorial axes of the PCA, allowing us to characterize homogeneous groups of farms. The means of the quantitative parameters were compared through an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the Kruskal-Wallis test at the 5% threshold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTypology of mixed vegetable-livestock farms\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the 16 variables of interest selected for analysis, the area of food crops on the farms explained the data distribution the best, followed by the total cultivated area, non-agroecological and agroecological agricultural equipment, dairy production, and the number of cattle (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea). The proximity of these variables to the axes indicated that agroecological and non-agroecological agricultural equipment and the number of cattle are linked to Axis 1 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb). The total cultivated area and the area of food crops are associated with Axis 2. The quantity of stored green bean leaves (GBL) and dairy production during the cold dry season are parameters more correlated with Axis 3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quantity of milk produced is greatly influenced by the number of cattle and the quantity of stored vegetable crop residues. The strong negative correlation of non-agroecological equipment with Axis 1 shows that farms with a large number of such equipment have fewer animals and do not produce much milk. The typology of farms revealed three types: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Hierarchical Ascendant Classification (HAC), by projecting the coordinates of the individuals onto the two main axes, allowed us to distinguish three (3) types of farms (market gardeners oriented, crop-livestock oriented, and livestock oriented), as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe characteristics of the different types of farmers were as follows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of the three producer types\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarket gardeners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgro-pastoralists\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivestock farmers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep -value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;97\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;116\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal exploited area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eha\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.88\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.19\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea of food crops\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eha\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.77\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.88\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea of market gardening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eha\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.66 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of cattle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.91\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.15\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.20 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of small ruminants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.02\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.75\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of other animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.058\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.24\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgro-ecological equipment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.47\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.07 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.31\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-agro ecological equipment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.26 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.88\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of organic manure used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10368.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11360.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11773.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9674.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6896.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9842.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6895.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.524\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of maize stalks stored\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e810.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e439.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;195.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e868.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;827.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e803.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;474.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.073\u003csup\u003e​\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of cowpea tops stored\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e318.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e343.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;257.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e324.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;397.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;157.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.432\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of green bean leaves stored\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e613.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e645.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;581.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e467.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;360.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e920.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;537.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003csup\u003e​\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount of stored cabbage leaves\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e885.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1074.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1048.26 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e515.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;490.78\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1600\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1083.2\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.034 \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of milk per cow milked per day in rainy season\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL/c/d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.461\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of milk per cow milked per day in cold dry season\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL/c/d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.261\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of milk per cow milked per day in hot dry season\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL/c/d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.313\u003csup\u003e​\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e: number of respondents; (a, b): on the same line, values marked with different letters are significantly different; *: significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05); **: highly significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01); ***: very highly significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001); ha: hectare; TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;one bovine weighing 250kg live weight. L/c/d: liter of milk/cow/day; kg: kilogram; %: percentage\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eType 1: Market gardeners\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eType 1 comprises 39.91% of the surveyed individuals (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). These farms are characterized by small total land areas (4.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.7 ha) with large areas dedicated to market gardening (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). They maintain a small bovine herd (4.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.91 TLU) and a modest number of small ruminants (1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04 TLU). They store few crop residues and vegetable crop residues. Additionally, they use fewer agroecological equipment (52.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.47%) compared to other types. However, they utilize the highest amount of non-agroecological equipment (48.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.26%) without significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). They also use the highest amount of organic manure (11360.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11773.68 kg). Market gardeners store 1074.54 kg of cabbage leave residues.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eType 2: Agro-pastoralists\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndividuals in this group represent 47.77% of the surveyed population and are characterized by operating on large total land areas (9.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.88 ha), including significant areas for staple crops (4.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.88 ha) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). They have average areas of market gardening (0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.66 ha) and maintain an average of 3.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.02 TLU of small ruminants and 1.058\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.24 TLU of other animals. Their bovine herd averages 5.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.15 TLU, mostly draft cattle. They use more agroecological agricultural equipment (77.20%) compared to other farm types (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Agro-pastoralist farmers store 515.78 kg of cabbage leave residues.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eType 3: Livestock farmers\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivestock farmers represent only 12% of the surveyed population and have a large herd of small ruminants (3.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.75 TLU) and cattle (16.015\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.20 TLU) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). They cultivate small areas of market gardening (0.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4 ha) and staple crops (2.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.29 ha), mainly for family subsistence. Livestock farmers are the group with the highest use of agroecological agricultural equipment (79.47%; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Moreover, they store more residues of cabbage leaves (1600 kg; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBecoming of vegetable crop residues\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGreen bean leaves (GBL), and sweet potato haulms were exclusively used as fodder by farm managers in all three groups (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed). Market gardeners predominantly recycled cucumber residues significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea). Additionally, cabbage and onion leaves, along with residues from zucchini and tomatoes, were recycled by both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Eggplant, pepper, and chili stalks left after animal grazing are cut and burned before planting another crop.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTypes and uses of vegetable crop residues\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEggplant stalks are primarily used in their raw state (56.5%) by the market gardeners (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea). Green bean leaves are dried before being fed to animals by both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Other vegetable crop residues were utilized in their raw (fresh) state by all groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePractices for distributing vegetable crop residues\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnion leaves, cucumber residues, tomato residues, and zucchini residues are distributed in the barn by some market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Cabbage leaves are used as feed on grazing and also distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb). Green bean leaves were most commonly distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Sweet potato haulms were exclusively distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. The livestock farmers only distributed cabbage leaves and green bean haulms in the barn. The remaining VCR were grazed directly by the animals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePeasant perceptions on the practice of managing vegetable crop residues in animal feeding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVCR were more valued as fodder by agro-pastoralists (50%; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists used VCR, when stored, to feed draft cattle and weakened animals. In contrast, livestock farmers fed lactating cows, calves, and heifers with stored VCR (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The collected, transported, and stored VCR were preferably distributed in the morning (65.9%) before grazing and in the evening (61.6%) upon return from grazing by agro-pastoralists (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). According to them, this allows the animals to cope with poor grazing paths. When served in the evening, the reasons were as follows: to facilitate the animals' quick return from grazing, to supplement poor grazing during the dry season in both quantity and quality of fodder, and finally, to allow the animals to ruminate better at night. Market gardeners and agro-pastoralists primarily used VCR for the maintenance of their draft animals in preparation for the following rainy season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractices of distributing vegetable crop residues to animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractices\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarket gardeners (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgro-pastoralists (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivestock farmers (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLivestock receiving VCR\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVCR as fodder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeakened livestock\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuckling cows\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDraft cattle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalves/calves\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther livestock\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDistribution period\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMorning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt any time\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAppreciation of vegetable crop residues\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetable crop residues such as GBL, cabbage leaves, and sweet potato haulms have garnered significant attention among the majority of respondents. More than 50% of respondents, particularly market gardeners and agro-pastoralists, consider these residues to be of very good quality (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb). Sweet potato haulms are highly regarded by market gardeners and livestock farmers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ec). Cucumber residues are well appreciated by market gardeners (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea). Cabbage leaves and GBL are highly valued by agro-pastoralists and livestock farmers, especially for enhancing milk production in cows. Additionally, agro-pastoralists have a favorable view of onion leaves, particularly for poultry and ruminant feeding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMarket gardening-livestock farmer types in the peri-urban areas\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe selected variables for the typology revealed three groups of producers. The market gardeners have more land dedicated to vegetable crops and little livestock, while the agro-pastoralists are characterized by average sizes of both crop areas and livestock. As for the livestock farmers, they own large herds of livestock and small crop areas. Regardless of the type of producer considered, the integration of market gardening and livestock farming offers multiple advantages. It allows for the diversification of income sources, efficient use of resources, and rational waste management. This combination can be seen as a strategy to minimize economic losses in an environment marked by economic uncertainties (such as the volatility of agricultural prices) and significant climatic risks. Primarily, it serves as a strategy to mitigate risks and offset losses in one activity through gains or savings (especially in the form of livestock) generated from another production line. The typology observed in this study remains similar to that of Orounladji et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), with the only difference being that their study on the cross-examination of agroecology and viability in agro-silvo-pastoral systems considered farmers in general instead of focusing on market gardeners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFeeding strategies in the peri-urban farms\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe availability and utilization of VCR in market gardening-livestock production systems offer potential benefits, such as reduced animal feeding costs, agricultural waste management, and adaptation to seasonal constraints. Thus, harvested and stored VCR are selectively distributed to certain animal categories (milk-producing, fattening, draft, or weakened animals), with distribution times carefully chosen. In the Bama municipality, the level of VCR utilization in animal feed depends on crop type and farming type. Crops like eggplant, bell pepper, and chili stems are grazed directly in the fields. Indeed, Bangala Mada et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the importance of understanding the vegetative cycle to determine when specific crops are likely to produce residues, typically towards the end of the vegetative cycle, during harvest. According to the interviewed farmers, the vegetative cycle of eggplants, peppers, and chili peppers ranges from six months to over a year, provided they are adequately watered and fertilized. Therefore, scarcity of water prompts these crops to be left for direct grazing by animals, explaining the low proportion of fiber-rich VCR used as fodder among livestock farmers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCabbage emerges as the most cultivated crop in the study area, a finding corroborated by Ou\u0026eacute;draogo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) across urban, semi-urban, and rural settings in the Hauts Bassins region. This suggests that cabbage residues generated at harvest may be quantitatively significant. Hence, cabbage leaves are predominantly used as fodder in the study area, consistent with findings by Sib et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), who highlighted the use of cabbage leaves as high-quality fodder in dairy cattle feeding among dairy farmers around Bobo-Dioulasso. Millogo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) further revealed that cabbage leaves are highly valued by animals due to their high nitrogen content and good nutritional quality, forming a common component of all rations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen bean leaves, on the other hand, are primarily used to feed animals. In Senegal, they are entirely recovered and constitute a national market commodity. Furthermore, Fall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) indicated that green bean leaves quantities produced in the Senegal River Valley are transported to Dakar for urban livestock feeding. According to various farmer perceptions, VCR are either valued as animal feed or recycled into soil for parcel fertilization. Green bean leaves were highly regarded due to their high nitrogen content and popularity among animals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the study area, few market gardening residues were stored. The quantity of stored VCR depended on their valuation rather than the number of animals. Similar results were reported by Erenstein et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) in India, who found that the quantity of cereal straws used by farmers depended on their preferences, household labor, crop production levels, access to alternative biomass resources, livestock management practices, and biomass demand. In this study, appreciation also conditioned the quantity of certain VCR stored. Notably, the most appreciated VCR (GBL) was the most stored by farm managers across different classes without significant differences. This was due to a lack of time or resources needed to collect all VCR. Farms harvested a portion and left the rest in the fields for grazing. When household animals were entrusted to Fulani herders, these VCR were used for pasture by the herders. Regarding sweet potato haulms, the quantities produced were sold and transported to Bobo-Dioulasso for urban livestock feeding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFeeding constraints and coping strategies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the availability and utilization of VCR in market gardening-livestock production systems offer potential benefits, it requires proper planning, efficient management, and technical knowledge to maximize benefits and overcome associated challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of non-agroecological equipment can be justified by the need to ensure irrigation and maintenance of large cultivated plots and transportation of highly perishable market garden products due to inadequate storage facilities. The significant storage of green bean leaves and cabbage leaves may be explained by the fact that these producers stockpile fewer VCR. Additionally, the harvest period for VCR may coincide with the establishment of market garden plots, leading to a shortage of labor and time needed to manage both activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgro-pastoralists predominantly own small ruminants and other animals (poultry, pigs, donkeys) in addition to cattle. They often sell animals to finance seed expenses for market gardening and the establishment of market garden plots. Small ruminants, which multiply rapidly, are easily sold to meet such expenses. Studies by Vall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and Koutou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) confirm this finding, indicating that livestock serves as a standing savings and provides draft animals among agro-pastoralists. Furthermore, animal manure's role as an organic fertilizer is increasingly prominent due to rising chemical fertilizer prices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivestock farmers, with smaller areas of both staple and market gardening, utilize minimal animal fodder and rely on manure sales. They do not own land and lack the workforce to manage both livestock and market gardening activities. However, they possess a large number of cattle and small ruminants, utilizing all VCR for animal feed. Studies by Koutou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) have revealed that the number of animals determines their social status among livestock farmers, providing milk for both market and household consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, some market gardeners and agro-pastoralists believe that cabbage leaves are unsuitable for animals. They argue that cabbage cultivation requires substantial fertilizer and pesticide use, rendering cabbage leaves unfit for animal consumption. Studies by Son et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and Soro et al. (2018) have highlighted low levels of farmer education resulting in misunderstanding of pesticide usage instructions on packaging, leading to excessive and sometimes inappropriate use of phytosanitary products. Conversely, others have noted that fresh green bean leaves and cabbage leaves caused diarrhea in animals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights a clear typology of mixed market gardening-livestock farms in the Bama municipality, revealing three distinct profiles: (i) market gardeners with extensive vegetable plots and few animals, (ii) agro-pastoralists combining diverse livestock with staple and vegetable crop production, and (iii) livestock farmers with large herds but minimal crop cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcross all farm types, vegetable crop residues (VCR) were systematically used as fodder, though their modes of utilization varied. Green bean leaves emerged as the most valued and widely used residue across all systems, particularly in barn feeding. Sweet potato haulms were also highly appreciated, especially by market gardeners and livestock farmers. Eggplant stems were typically grazed fresh in the field. Cabbage leaves and green bean leaves were the most frequently stored residues and were notably used to support lactating cows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings underscore the significant role of VCR in alleviating dry-season fodder shortages and improving nutrient cycling in mixed farming systems. They also reveal strong complementarities between vegetable production and livestock feeding strategies. Understanding these dynamics opens new opportunities for promoting circular resource use and enhancing the resilience and productivity of crop-livestock systems in West Africa. Further research on the nutritional value of these residues would help optimize their use in livestock diets while contributing to climate-smart agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe manuscript does not contain clinical studies or patient data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal informed consent was obtained prior to the interview of the farmers involved in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe interviewed farmers have consented to the submission of the results of this study to the journal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors reported no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis project has received funding from the European Union (European DeSIRA programme, under grant agreement No. [FOOD/2019/410\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;169]).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBMO: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors say the data collectors and participating farmers deserve recognition. 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International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 13(1):441. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i1.35\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4314/ijbcs.v13i1.35\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"animal feeding, fodder, recycling, vegetable crop residues","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7396470/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7396470/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn Burkina Faso, livestock feeding during the dry season is constrained by recurrent quantitative and qualitative deficits of available fodder biomass, a challenge further exacerbated by climate change. One promising strategy to mitigate these shortages is the use of vegetable crop residues (VCR) as supplementary fodder, particularly in areas with intensive vegetable production. This study aimed to characterize the practices of VCR utilization in the vegetable-growing region of Hauts-Bassins, in western Burkina Faso. A survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire among 243 farmers in the locality. Principal Component Analysis followed by hierarchical clustering was used to classify farmers based on their agricultural and livestock practices. This analysis revealed three distinct groups: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers. VCR were widely used across all groups as animal feed, with green bean leaves (GBL: 100%) and sweet potato haulms (100%) being preferred by nearly all producers. Cucumber residues were also commonly used, particularly by market gardeners (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Most VCR were offered through open grazing, while GBL and cabbage leaves were more frequently stored and fed in barns, especially by agro-pastoralists. Sweet potato haulms were often sold and transported to Bobo-Dioulasso for use in urban livestock systems. VCR were primarily allocated to weak animals, lactating cows, draft animals, and calves, underscoring their functional importance in smallholder systems. These findings highlight the potential of VCR recycling as a means to alleviate dry-season fodder shortages and to support integrated crop-livestock management. Further laboratory analyses are recommended to determine the chemical composition and nutritional value of these residues, which would inform better feeding strategies, improve animal productivity, and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of livestock product.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Addressing dry-season feed gaps with vegetable crop residues in Sub-Saharan Africa crop-livestock systems","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-10 19:14:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7396470/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b310a6e6-43c2-4b7d-8acf-672f223223da","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-12T13:30:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-10 19:14:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7396470","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7396470","identity":"rs-7396470","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}