Assessing Climate Adaptation Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration in Kenyan Drylands

Assessing Climate Adaptation Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration in Kenyan Drylands | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessing Climate Adaptation Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration in Kenyan Drylands Vivian Onyango, Jessica Ruijsch, Hussein Wario, Ronald Hutjes, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7321509/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Ecosystem restoration is increasingly being posited as a response option to both land degradation and climate change issues, especially in drylands. However, the success of these interventions is persistently encumbered by a lack of contextual alignment with dryland realities. This paper analyses how adaptation outcomes in ecosystem restoration are influenced and shaped by the extent that the restoration interventions are entrenched within the socio-ecological realities. This study combines satellite data and field ethnographies through field observations, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and participatory mapping, to analyse a past farmer-managed natural regeneration project among Rendille pastoralists in Marsabit, Kenya. We show that contextual alignment with the local governance systems, livelihood and ecological dynamics improves the adaptive capacities of local land users and delivers benefits that are sustainable. However, owing to the increasing intensity and frequency of climate anomalies such as droughts, restoration alone is insufficient to meet the adaptation needs of the local communities. This necessitates broader policy actions, including efforts to address increasing threats of climate change in drylands. This study underscores the importance of contextual alignment of ecosystem restoration and offers guidance and insights to future projects on ensuring contextual alignment in ecosystem restoration to benefit people and ecosystems. acacia arid and semi-arid lands Kenya livestock pastoralists restoration Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. INTRODUCTION Arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) cover over 80% of Kenya’s terrestrial land, hosting 30% of its population and 70% of its livestock (Mganga 2023). The variable precipitation and high temperatures of ASALs (Kalele et al. 2021; Mganga 2023) limit crop production (Wamari et al. 2017), making extensive pastoralism the most viable production activity herein. Over millennia, an intricate connection has developed between pastoralists and the dryland environment (Niamir-Fuller and Huber-Sannwald 2020). This has yielded a coupled socio-ecological system wherein human and environmental factors influence each other and drive changes in drylands (Stringer et al. 2017). In ASALs, degradation due to anthropogenic pressure and climate change affects vegetation productivity, causing negative social and economic impact (Burrell et al. 2020). In Kenya, approximately 2% of ASALs are denuded, with additional 30%–40% undergoing degradation (Nyangito et al. 2008; cited by Mganga et al. 2018). Climate change-induced heat stress reduces soil moisture and leads to vegetation loss in ASALs (Hermans and McLeman 2021). Climate change triggers drought in ASALs (Opiyo et al. 2015). Different forms of drought—hydrological, agricultural and socio-economic—are interconnected and act simultaneously in ASALs, worsening effects on ecosystems and human systems (Ondiko and Karanja 2021). Climate change in ASALs is also increasing drought frequency (Opiyo et al. 2015; Kogo et al. 2020). The multi-layered and recurrent nature of droughts threatens the natural resource base and undermines pastoral livelihoods that directly depend on it (Opiyo et al. 2015), jeopardising future resilience in ASALs (Van Loon et al. 2024). Ecosystem restoration is considered a response option to both land degradation and climate change issues. Restoration can alter the inherent feedback between land, climate and human systems while delivering multiplicative benefits (Vignola et al. 2015; Pandit et al. 2020). In drylands, restoration interventions such as natural regeneration and agroforestry can increase vegetation cover (Ruijsch et al. 2023), which may persist during climate anomalies and help sustain livelihoods (Wu et al. 2014). Restoration can alter the biophysical properties of the Earth’s surface (e.g. evapotranspiration or albedo), providing a more comfortable local climate (Ruijsch et al. 2024). Socio-economic benefits from restoration include income generation from selling direct products such as forage and timber, and support to livestock production (Sacande et al. 2021). However, ecosystem restoration in drylands is beset with a contextual misalignment between ecosystem restoration and dryland realities (Briske et al. 2024). This occurs when restoration interventions are ill-fitted to the ecological and socio-cultural context (e.g. livelihoods, governance systems, production objectives) (Ramprasad et al. 2020). Sources of misalignment include top-down influences, such as large-scale studies that make a case for where to restore (Strassburg et al. 2020) and how to restore (Bastin et al., 2019). These studies often fail to conceptualise the local context, such as local communities’ perceptions on degradation and restoration (Fleischman et al. 2022; Veldman et al. 2019). Empirically grounded case studies on the local context that can inform and improve contextual alignment of restoration in drylands are lacking. When ecosystem restoration is linked to other outcomes such as adaptation, ensuring contextual alignment becomes crucial, as adaptation can be riven with ambiguity (Owen 2020). Ambiguity in adaptation is partly due to conceptual differences in understanding adaptation among researchers, policy actors and communities. This affects what is perceived as the success or failure of adaptation and the methodologies used to assess adaptation outcomes (Berrang-Ford et al. 2011; Mills-Novoa 2023). Without standard metrics for evaluating adaptation outcomes (Owen 2020), the perception of the success or failure of adaptation depends on competing values, varying across space and time (Singh et al. 2021). This underscores the importance of contextual alignment in the appraisal of restoration projects that aim for adaptation outcomes (e.g. nature-based solutions; NbS). It also elevates land users as important protagonists operating within a socio-ecological context, which influences the planning, implementation and sustainability of NbS. In drylands, such influences include local knowledge and historical perspectives on landscapes, species and climate trends. Ecosystem restoration aligned with and embedded within the customary, tenure and institutional context can be more effective (Mansourian et al. 2025; Elias et al. 2021). Such alignment also influences the local ownership, legitimacy and sustainability of NbS interventions. Many frameworks assessing restoration approaches linked to NbS inadequately engage with the local context (van der Jagt et al. 2023). The exclusion of land users and their perception and knowledge from such appraisals omits the influence of context on ecosystem restoration, failing to robustly analyse the extent that NbS are contextually aligned. This gap has been emphasized in scholarly work on adaptation in drylands (e.g. Kmoch et al. 2024; Tugjamba et al. 2023). This study aims to narrow these existing research gaps by studying the contextual alignment of ecosystem restoration for adaptation in drylands. To improve the robustness of the analysis, we use an interdisciplinary approach that integrates satellite data with field ethnographies to analyse climate and vegetation trends, understanding how these influence the local adaptive capacities. To this end, we ask the following research questions: To what extent do restoration interventions influence changes in vegetation cover? Does increasing vegetation cover deliver adaptation benefits to local pastoralists during climate anomalies? How much do these adaptation benefits from increasing vegetation cover align with the adaptation needs of pastoralists? The answers to these questions could guide future projects to ensure contextual alignment in ecosystem restoration for the benefit of people and nature. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS We theorize that the assessment of adaptation outcomes in ecosystem restoration projects is robust when an interdisciplinary method is used to unpack the contextual alignment of the ecosystem restoration project and the extent that it meets the adaptation needs of local land users (pastoralists). We ground this theory on an empirical analysis of a past restoration project in Kenyan ASALs using satellite data and field ethnographies. We consider climate anomalies (drought or floods) induced by anthropogenic factors or hemispheric systems such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Because pastoralist communities experience different drought types simultaneously, we consider drought as such in this study. We also categorise the droughts as single-year droughts (occurring within a single year period) or multi-year droughts (extending across consecutive years). 2.1 A framework for assessing the contextual alignment of adaptation benefits in ecosystem restoration projects We conceptualised adaptation in drylands as multi-dimensional, with intricate linkages across socio-ecological domains, to improve adaptive capacities in ecosystems and human systems in response to climate anomalies (Table 1). Table 1. Description of key elements in assessing contextual alignment in ecosystem restoration projects Element Description Climate anomalies - Identify climate related causal factors that can drive other changes in the drylands. - Examine pastoralists’ experiences with such changes and their perceptions of climate anomalies. - Outline the biophysical elements of climate anomalies using satellite data and explore pastoralists’ experiences with past climate anomalies. Socio-cultural context - Identify prevailing socio-cultural elements, including livelihoods, institutions and governance. - Map landscape use patterns by pastoralists through key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs) and participatory mapping to outline the governance of resources and other intersecting factors. - Assess ecosystem restoration interactions as enablers or hindrances. - Evaluate climate anomaly interactions with adaptive capacities. Ecosystem restoration - Determine the role of ecosystem restoration: increasing vegetation cover in improving adaptive capacities of pastoralists - Triangulate data sources using satellite imagery, pastoralists’ knowledge and published records to reveal trends. Adaptation benefits - Document improvements in adaptive capacities due to changes in vegetation cover. - Analyse interactions with climate anomalies (negative impacts) and ecosystem restoration (positive impact). We analyse four interconnected elements—climate anomalies, socio-cultural context, ecosystem restoration, and adaptation benefits—to understand, characterize and assess the contextual alignment of adaptation benefits from ecosystem restoration in drylands (Figure 1). 2.2 Study area and project description This study was conducted in Ndikiir (1°40′58″N 37°41′49″E) and Korr (2°00′29″N 37°30′24″E), two villages in Laisamis constituency, lying in the lowlands of Marsabit County, northern Kenya (Figure 2). Both have comparable climatic conditions: arid climate, typified by extremely variable rainfall with high evaporation rates that are 10 times higher than rainfall (Galwab et al. 2024). The mean annual rainfall in the lowlands is <200 mm. The annual maximum temperature range is 30–35°C and minimum temperature range, 15–26°C. The areas experience bimodal rains, with long rains from March and May and short rains from October to December (ibid). The case study restoration project was implemented by World Vision Kenya (WVK) between 2019 and 2022. Before 2018, WVK had a project on food nutrition and security in the study areas, which revealed that low milk production in livestock was mainly driven by degrading natural resources. In a follow-up, a multi-component project was designed for improved climate resilience and land restoration through farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR). Through previously established women’s savings and loans groups, project implementation started mainly with women and youth as early off-takers. 2.3 Study design We used an interdisciplinary approach combining satellite observations and field ethnographies to address these complex study elements. To add a biophysical context to pastoralists’ perspectives, we combined key informant interviews (KIIs) and FGDs with satellite data. The field ethnographies and satellite data provided a multi-perspective view on restoration and climate anomalies; however, our aim was not to compare these sources but rather allow complementary data and improved understanding on the extent of adaptation benefits of restoration for pastoral land users. Specifically, we used satellite data to study climate anomalies and vegetation changes through time on landscape and project scales. Precipitation data were obtained from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) dataset (Funk et al. 2015), which combines satellite data and field measurements to provide rainfall data at 0.05° resolution since 1981. Drought data were based on the standardised precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) (Vicente-Serrano et al. 2010), which calculates standardised anomalies in the difference between precipitation and evapotranspiration to monitor drought. SPEI values at 0.5° resolution were obtained from the SPEIbase (Beguería et al. 2023). The Southern oscillation index (SOI) was used to study the relation between climate anomalies in the region with global climate phenomena such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Negative (positive) values of SOI represent El Niño (La Niña) phases (Trenberth 1984). Data were obtained from http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/data/indices/index.html To provide information on changes in vegetation, we used the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), a vegetation index between −1 and 1, which increases with increasing vegetation greenness (Tucker 1979). NDVI data were obtained from Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS) data (version 3) (Pinzon and Tucker 2014) between 1981 and 2012, and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer data (MOD13Q1.061) (Didan 2021) between 2000 and 2024 at a 250-m spatial resolution. To determine the impact of the small FMNR project on vegetation greenness, we used the higher-resolution NDVI data calculated from Norway’s International Climate and Forests Initiative (NICFI) Satellite Data Program Basemaps from Tropical Forest Monitoring, based on Planet data (Planet Team, 2017). Data between 2016 and 2024 at 5-m spatial resolution were used for analysis. To determine the effect of the FMNR project on vegetation greenness, the mean NDVI within the fenced project areas was compared to the mean NDVI in a reference area, comprising a buffer (50 m) surrounding the fenced area. Comparing the NDVI in the project and reference areas before and after implementation allowed us to separate the effect of external factors, such as climate variability and climate change, from the signal of the FMNR project on the NDVI. The field study was conducted between May and June 2024. We unpacked the nuanced relationships between the pastoralists and their environment, specifically between increasing vegetation cover and their production objectives. We selected the respondents based on the project design, where different actors were engaged in the project at different phases. Women and youth were early off-takers. The elders who were late off-takers were important for granting approvals for project implementation within the landscape. Elders are also a knowledge repository on climate, dryland management and vegetation dynamics. Historical events were used to refresh respondents’ memory and build a timeline of events. As a first step, we used participatory mapping with 10–12 people to characterize the land, detail spatiotemporal uses and unravel the role of the restored sites in the landscape. We used Google Earth printouts of the geographical extent of the two villages as visual aids (ibid). These were printed on a canvas material at a scale of 1:15,000 to show important topographical features (ibid). In this manner, we could understand the role of governance in the use and access to these resources over time, including during droughts, and the gender dynamics in the use and management of resources. We then conducted KIIs (n = 16) across three main categories (women, elders and youths), including three women leaders of the groups (n = 6), two youths (n = 4) and three elders (n = 6), in each village. The initial study period was 2000–2024; however, as the research objectives became apparent to the elders, they underscored a need for a longer historical context—from the 1970s, when current elders were pre-adolescent to adolescent—to comprehensively link the past and present. The elders further proposed three members of the Naabo (the community decision-making body, comprising men only) whom they perceived as important resource persons on ecology and the management of the landscape. The elders helped detail long-term temporal trends of climate and vegetation in the landscapes. Lastly, we performed two FGDs (n = 2) with 20 participants each, i.e. 40 pastoralists (12 elders, 20 women and eight youths). We asked the same questions in the KII and FGDs. The KII participants also participated in the FGDs to calibrate the results and fill gaps. The interviews were conducted in the Rendille language using a translator and were captured by audio recording. A second translator transcribed and translated the material to English, while checking for consistencies. Four KIIs with the youths were done in Swahili, a language spoken by the lead author. 2.4 Field data analysis We performed a thematic analysis on all the qualitative data, following Braun and Clarke, 2021 (Braun and Clarke 2023), in a six-step framework for data analysis (Table 2). The analysis was used to write the Results section and answer the research questions. We digitised the participatory maps to capture crucial information on decision-making and use of landscapes in space and time by the pastoralists. This was crucial to analyse the role of the restored sites within broader landscape grazing management dynamics and livestock production needs. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Socio-cultural context Pastoralism, or extensive livestock production, is the main livelihood source for the Rendille pastoral community in both villages. The Rendille camps ( manyattas ) are based on kinship with a central decision-making body composed of male elders ( Naabo ). The Naabo holds daily meetings, and on a need-by-need basis, young men can be invited to the meeting. Women are not invited under any circumstance. The decisions made in the Naabo , such as grazing plans, trickle down to all residents of the camp, and compliance is expected from all residents. The Naabo have established usufruct rules to manage the entire landscape (including restored sites) under their jurisdiction, with enforceable penalties. This has strengthened the Naabo while sustaining restoration results, including resource use during dry seasons and drought. The Naabo also negotiates and coordinates reciprocal relationships with neighbouring manyattas and communities. Former WVK project coordinators indicated to the lead author that the FMNR strategy mimicked the Naabo in that elders were central to decision-making for sustainability and strengthening the pastoralists’ governance structures. Hence, the FMNR decision-making strategy aligned well with the Rendille governance structure. The participatory mapping exercise revealed a mosaic landscape with a seasonally variable vegetation cover influenced by precipitation. The dry-season grazing areas that also include the restored sites lie closer to settlements. During the wet season, pastoralists use peripheral resources in the landscape, often around temporary waterpoints (Figure 3). The first author observed this during field work, noting that these areas were mainly grasslands. The key informants indicated that the restoration sites were selected by the elders. The areas were former settlements and were perceived as degraded due to the preponderance of undesirable shrubs and low-quality forage. Women rely on these resources to take care of small livestock such as goats and lactating animals, and this is becoming increasingly difficult due to the degradation of these resources: ‘ Goat kids now graze around the homestead, feeding on the leaves and acacia pods. This is a benefit because before, they would wander far away, I have to go and find them. Sometimes they are eaten by wild animals, and other times they get lost ’, KII, Ndikiir. The project allocated significant implementation responsibilities and stewardship of these areas to women, who were also the early adopters. This reflects the leveraging of local knowledge to define degraded versus healthy lands, clearly identify the main change agents and align with local governance structures. 3.2. Climate anomalies As a first step to determine the impact of restoration on adaptation to climate anomalies, we documented satellite data and pastoralists’ observations and experience with climate anomalies. This also provides context for interpreting the pastoralists’ perceptions. The pastoralists perceive climate anomalies through changes in temperature (high temperatures), changes in precipitation (low rainfall, failed rains) and high rainfall. Changes in precipitation included increased periods of no rainfall during the wet seasons and longer dry periods. Over the last few decades, the long rains (March–May) sometimes fail completely, and the shorter rains (October–December) tend to be shorter. High precipitation was linked to flood events. Changes in temperature occur mainly in dry seasons, when the temperatures tend to be very high, referred to locally as kerewa. The pastoralists hesitated to provide detailed accounts, citing trauma connected to experiences with the 2020–2023 drought. All respondents had observed and experienced climate anomalies in the past (Figure 4), including floods, but predominantly droughts. According to the elders, the 1970s was the decade of onset of drought. Observational data showed high variability in precipitation throughout the years, with some years having a total exceeding 500 mm (e.g. 1997). Other years (e.g. 2000) received <100 mm (Figure 4b). The average precipitation over the study period was 256 mm/year. These high and low precipitation years often correspond, respectively, to El Niño and La Niña events (Figure 4a) and were mentioned by respondents (e.g. 1997 heavy rainfall). Negative rainfall anomalies (orange colour, Figure 4b) often result in meteorological drought events, as indicated by a negative SPEI (Figure 4c). These correspond to drought periods mentioned by respondents (Figure 4d), supporting their claims that droughts have been increasing in intensity and frequency. Decadal flooding tends to follow multi-year drought events, similarly, observed by the respondents who mentioned the 1997 flooding due to El Niño and the 2024 floods following the 2020–2023 droughts. 3.2.1. Impacts of droughts on adaptive capacities All the pastoralists reported reduced adaptive capacities due to droughts, highlighting negative impacts on livestock production. Drought factors such as high temperatures and low precipitation led to a lack of surface water and low vegetation cover, compounding negative impacts on the livestock-based livelihood. At the peak of short (single year) and long droughts (multiple years), the vegetation cover dries up, including in the restored areas. Tree cover remnants are often covered in sand due to strong winds. The lack of vegetation exposes soils to high ambient temperature, limiting human and livestock movement. As vegetation cover reduces, the search for pastures and water over long distances is becoming frequent, which is straining collaborations with neighbouring pastoral communities. Many respondents reported experiencing conflicts, livestock theft and even loss of community members due to violence over the use of remote grazing areas. In the long term, these challenges could undermine long-distance mobility, an important adaptation strategy for pastoralists. The women argued that frequent and long-duration mobility threatens childhood nutrition, because when livestock are away from home for extended periods, children face a lack of milk. 3.2.2. Impacts of floods on adaptive capacities The respondents identified experience with two major floods: the 1997 El Niño and 2024 floods. Both floods severely reduced adaptive capacities, causing livestock deaths, uprooted trees from the landscape and displacement of local land users. The floods also deposited sand on the landscape from the hilltops, which is believed to contribute to the disappearance of grasses. The respondents indicated that floods are often followed by drought seasons. The 1997 El Niño rains triggered the sprouting of acacia trees, which improved long-term adaptive capacities. However, the 2024 floods led to the appearance of sand flies (known locally as kala-zaa ) in the landscape, which cause camel deaths. 3.3. Temporal changes in vegetation cover All the respondents perceived changes in vegetation cover at both sites over time. We used FGDs to validate the KIIs and fill in the gaps in some of the periods (Figure 5b). Climate anomalies, especially droughts, alter the vegetation cover, with a decline in trees and grasses. According to the elders, before the 1970s, the landscape was heterogenous, with diverse species of trees and wildlife. However, according to the pastoralists, following extreme and frequent droughts in the 1970s, the area lost substantial vegetation cover, negatively affecting livestock production and people. In response, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) established a relief distribution centre in Korr, a then dry-season grazing area, which led to the settlement of the previously nomadic Rendille pastoralists around the relief area. ‘ Korr is a new town in the windblown Kaisut Desert, located 40 km east of Ngurunit and 120 km west of the district capital on Marsabit Mountain. Korr did not exist, except as a dry season watering hole, before the droughts of the 1970s when the Catholic Diocese of Marsabit established a church and famine-relief centre there ’,(Nathan et al. 1996). Such settlements compromised access to an important dry-season grazing resource and undermined the governance and management of the grazing resources. The settlements were accompanied by the systematic removal of vegetation in Korr, culminating in bareland in the 1980s. This information aligns with the literature claiming that the increased settlements and rising population numbers led to a continuous overexploitation of woody vegetation in Korr (Synott 1979; Lampey 1978 as cited by Roba and Oba 2013; Haro et al. 2005). This shows various intersecting factors, including a past incongruity between development interventions and local land use, thereby worsening negative impacts. Further misalignment happened in the 1980s: to address degradation, the alien shrub Prosopis juliflora was introduced for restoration, but P. juliflora cover increased at the expense of local grasses essential for livestock production and livelihoods. All the respondents mentioned significant changes in the vegetation cover following the 1997–1998 El Niño rains that triggered acacia sprouts. This change is also visible as a strong increase in mean NDVI over time. The increasing vegetation cover due to acacia supports livestock production objectives and increases the adaptive capacities. However, the increased tree cover also corresponds with the disappearance of some grass species: ‘ Ntalangwani, Loirian, larapasi, Ikawa….Ikawa is very nutritious and even if the animal’s step on them they are resistant. This area had all those grass species that I have mentioned ’,elder in Ndikiir. This observation is corroborated by literature recording declining trends of the preferred grass species, Ikawa ( Setaria appendiculata ), in pastoral landscapes in Marsabit (Roba and Oba 2009). All respondents mentioned the reappearance of trees in the landscape from the mid-2000s to late 2010s. However, the trees often died before maturity because of constant deforestation and die-offs due to adverse climate effects and poor management. 3.3.1. Effect of restoration on vegetation cover Land users and remote sensing data point to an increase in vegetation cover due to restoration interventions by WVK. Before project implementation in 2019, the vegetation greenness in the three project areas (fenced) varied over time (Figure 6g–i), potentially owing to interannual variations in precipitation (Figure 4b). However, the NDVI inside the project (fenced) and reference (buffer) areas were fairly similar (Figure 6g–i). After project implementation in 2019, the NDVI in the project area started to increase compared to the reference area, especially in Korr (#2) (Figure 6i). Assuming that the precipitation is similar in the project and reference areas, the relative increase in vegetation greenness might be ascribed to restoration interventions rather than natural climate variations. Although the relative increase in NDVI was only 0.01–0.02, the change was noticed by the pastoralists. They mentioned increased vegetation cover in the project area, especially trees, due to improved governance and management of natural recourses for improved livestock production, child nutrition and adaptation to climate change. Visual inspection of the false colour satellite images indeed suggests increased tree cover after project implementation, although the exact type of vegetation is not measurable from NDVI data alone. Interestingly, the relative NDVI increase in Korr (#2) was immediate for an increase in woody vegetation, while the increase in Ndikiir was more gradual. However, the restoration interventions do not include tree planting per se , but improved management of existing trees, allowing them to green faster. 3.3.2. Other factors affecting temporal changes in vegetation cover Governance: The vegetation cover is governed by the traditional rules within Rendille on landscape management, including tree management. Before the restoration project, the Naabo was reportedly weakened, resulting in haphazard use of vegetation and its degradation. Currently, a strengthened Naabo has set up a spatio-temporal rule, including usufruct use in the landscape based on grazing plans. The governance of the landscape is supported by a flexible decision-making structure through daily meeting of the Naabo . According to the respondents, the increasing tree cover and a strengthened Naabo that guides resource use and sharing are improving livestock production and harmonious co-existence. Moreover, enforcement mechanisms, e.g. prohibitions against cutting and shaking acacia trees for pods to avoid deforestation and die-offs, ensure compliance. Institutions: Two key institutions influence vegetation management. At the settlement ( manyatta ) level, the Naabo implements day-to-day use, management and enforcement of regulations in support of sustainable landscapes. The Naabo works in conjunction with the local environmental management committees (EMCs), which operate at macro-landscape level through representatives from each settlement. The EMCs are currently recognized by the county government and connect the local communities and local government. Traditional knowledge: Community elders are knowledge reservoirs for the community. They monitor changes in local resources to guide use and access. For example, they monitor the availability of nutrient-rich grasses that can be set aside as fodder banks for livestock use during the dry season. Thus, their knowledge guides the environmental stewardship of the landscape to avoid degradation. Gender : Before the introduction of FMNR, the leading causes for changes in vegetation cover included cutting down of trees for firewood and construction materials. Women are responsible for both problems, as Rendille women construct huts, a recurrent activity with each household movement, and they are also tasked with sourcing firewood. This degradation was prevalent in resources around manyattas , which women also rely on to take care of small livestock. Considering gender dynamics, the project engaged women as environmental stewards and major beneficiaries of the restored sites. The female KII indicated that they spend about two hours every six weeks to manage the restored site, such as pruning acacia trees to facilitate vegetation recovery and increase vegetation cover. 3.4. Effects of increasing vegetation cover on adaptation capacities 3.4.1. Adaptation strategies The respondents state that the need to respond to climate anomalies is an ongoing, daily endeavour that is not restricted to a period during droughts or floods. They reported various anticipatory adaptation strategies, contingent upon increasing vegetation cover in the entire landscape and shaped by the socio-cultural context, as below. Mobility: Due to the inherent variabilities in vegetation cover, mobility enables the tracking and optimal use of ephemeral resources throughout the landscape. The respondents said they divide their landscape into micro-landscapes and macro-landscapes to guide mobility. The micro-landscape scale is land under the stewardship of the immediate manyattas . The elders from the manyattas , using traditional knowledge, delineate the landscape into wet- and dry-season grazing areas, as indicated earlier. The macro-landscapes are inter-community landscapes with flexible boundaries contingent on drought intensity, often extending to neighbouring counties. These landscapes are managed by inter-community elder groups and are important for single- and multi-year droughts, as young men ( morans ) and elders embark on long journeys in search of forage and water for livestock. Such long-distance journeys rely on amenable relationships within households and villages, e.g. splitting of livestock between morans and elderly men. Keeping diverse herds : All the respondents reported keeping diverse herds, comprising camels, goats, cows and donkeys, to optimally use fluctuating vegetation cover across space and time. Herd diversity is essential to adaptation, as different herds respond to droughts differently. For instance, camels can travel long distances without drinking water and can therefore access distant water resources and forage. The respondents perceived that camels are also resilient to high temperatures. Further, the respondents underscored the diet diversity of browsers such as camels and goats, which have versatile feed options during droughts, such as tree leaves, compared to grazers (e.g. cows), which rely on grasses that dry up faster under high temperatures and low precipitation. Changing herd composition: In response to the increasing frequency and intensity of climate anomalies, the respondents cited changing herd composition over time. Eight respondents and the FGDs reported transitioning from predominantly rearing cattle (grazers) to browsers, namely camels and goats. They attributed this to the landscape’s declining grass cover owing to droughts. While the respondents have reduced the proportion of cattle, they keep some cows for easy liquidity. The respondents argued that during droughts, cows had comparatively higher offtake. Eleven respondents and the FGD respondents reported selling cows during droughts, albeit at low prices to meet family needs. Keeping maximum herd numbers: All the respondents indicated that they kept herd numbers at a maximum to increase the probability of recovery following droughts and as ‘cash on hooves’ to sell during drought. The increasing vegetation cover in the landscapes, including in the restored sites, supports these high numbers before drought onset. During droughts, the respondents de-stock their herds by selling them to earn income to meet other needs. They stated that they harness maximum herd numbers with strategic mobility to utilise the landscape and meet animal nutritional needs. 3.4.2. Perceived adaptation benefits from increasing vegetation cover The respondents mentioned that during peak and multi-year climate anomalies such as droughts, the restored sites do not offer significant adaptation benefits, as vegetation in these areas are mostly dry and covered by sand. The increasing vegetation cover due to restoration were perceived as delivering adaptation benefits during dry seasons and early onset of single-year droughts. In the latter, the restored sites are critical resources available locally, shortening early reliance on long-distance mobility. However, all respondents employed anticipatory strategies to improve their adaptive capacities for peak climate anomalies. Four main types of benefits from anticipatory adaptation strategies are as follows: Economic benefits: All respondents use the restored sites, mainly covered by acacia trees, for livestock feed during dry seasons. This shortens the duration of single-year droughts. During this period, acacia products exhibit higher reliability than grasses, being used up faster following the end of the wet season. Acacia trees provide pods, flowers and leaves for livestock. The availability of feed improves livestock productivity and allows pastoralists to keep maximum herd numbers that they can sell at high prices at drought onset. The earnings are used to purchase immediate household needs. Pastoralists also sell acacia pods and firewood to other communities during short droughts. These diverse income activities complement and support pastoralists to meet immediate needs at drought onset. Social benefits: Increased vegetation cover reduced the workload for women through less time needed to tend to small livestock and searching for firewood. All the women mentioned that the restored sites provided firewood, reducing the time needed to search for firewood under high temperatures during droughts. They argued thatthis freed up more time for child rearing. Increasing vegetation cover supported livestock production, boosting food availability (e.g. milk and meat) for the household and child nutrition. Environmental benefits: All the FGD respondents mentioned that the trees improvedthe micro-climate due to shade, offsetting the effects of high temperatures and benefiting human and livestock well-being. Others argued that the trees attracted precipitation. ‘ We get the shade from the trees, before we were not receiving rainfall but nowadays because we have trees, they attract rainfall ’, KII, Korr. Institutional benefits : According to the respondents, the restored sites have rejuvenated and strengthened the Naabo . They perceived the Naabo as being empowered to guide resource use, e.g. when to collect acacia pods for use during dry season and limiting outsiders from using these important resources. They also argued that the communities are more cohesive in stewarding the management of the landscape, which has regulated the use of vegetation cover. 3.5. Adaptation gap To determine existing adaptation gaps, we asked respondents during FGDs and KIIs what else they would have needed based on their experience with past droughts. They mentioned a need for both short-term (e.g. humanitarian response) and longer-term structural (e.g. increasing access to education) adaptation strategies. Acknowledging limited vegetation cover during droughts, the pastoralists underscored that during peak droughts, they need well-coordinated humanitarian assistance encompassing a combination of money, food and water and support for migrating members and livestock. The current humanitarian responses are ad hoc and uncoordinated, often focussed on pastoralists in manyattas but not on migrating family members. Moreover, the current emphasis by many organisations during droughts is to provide support during climate anomalies, with limited support after the events, such as rebuilding stock after decimations by droughts. The pastoralists also argue that interventions to improve adaptive capacities must be integrated within broader programs that reduce structural vulnerabilities, such as lack of access to quality education, especially at the tertiary level. They noted that many youths still lack tertiary education, depriving them of good jobs and alternative income streams. Respondents called for programs targeting pastoral youths’ absorption in job markets. They also suggested more targeted research on the impacts of climate anomalies in the drylands. For instance, following recent droughts (2020–2023) and heavy rains in 2024, the sand fly appeared on the landscape, causing camel disease and deaths. However, to their knowledge, no one is addressing remedial strategies. They therefore seek integrated efforts connecting healthy landscapes and improved livestock productivity throughout the value chain, including important social amenities such as veterinary services. The women pressed for better access to credit facilities to diversify household income sources. Lastly, the respondents rallied around the need for improved livestock production, not by introducing new species but by improving the performance of current breeds in face of current climate anomalies. 4. DISCUSSION Many studies assess restoration using single biophysical features such as soils, vegetation and hydrology but ignore socio-economic aspects (Onyango, forthcoming). The robustness of the present study lies in the use of interdisciplinary approaches to study biophysical aspects and socio-economic ones, including past trends. We show that it is possible to focus on a biophysical feature and improve its robustness by harnessing a socio-economic parameter such as perceptions on restoration. This is particularly important in improving the efficacy of assessment when restoration is linked with adaptation, a concept with no standardised parameters to assess the outcomes (Owen 2020). While the lack of standardised parameters is challenging, it has enabled us to situate our inquiry on the local context, by prioritising and capturing the perceptions of land users affected by this intervention, who are also responsible for sustaining the results (Mills-Novoa 2023). Understanding the local context is important when attributing changes in vegetation cover, as this can often be affected by factors such as climate variability and anthropogenic factors. In the Sahelian drylands, climate variability due to increased precipitation increased the vegetation cover (Roba and Oba 2013). Similarly, in this study, the 1997 El Niño phenomenon, characterized by increased precipitation, caused the natural regeneration of acacia in the landscape. This study further shows the resilience of drylands and the ability of woody vegetation therein to regenerate despite continuous overexploitation, when supported by favourable precipitation and pastoral land use (Roba and Oba 2013). NDVI results showed small differences between the restored areas and control sites. By engaging pastoralists, we could attribute these changes to improved management practices guided by traditional governance of natural resources. However, sustaining the regeneration hinges on proper management by the land users. The restoration intervention was found to align with the socio-cultural and ecological context. For example, WVK recognised the local governance and knowledge systems and embedded the project within this context. This understanding stems from the organisation’s long history of working with pastoral communities on integrated natural resource management in Kenya, including in the study area (Ojuok and Ndayizigiye 2021). This alignment elicited responses to important questions within the restoration process: what is degraded, how do we restore and for whom and what purpose is it being restored? At a small scale, focusing on pastures close to settlements used and managed by women, the organisation assigned proportionally higher implementation responsibilities to women but in close consultation with elders, who have the overall responsibility on pastoral resources. The women reported benefits of improved livestock production and reduced workload, especially during climate anomalies. Both restoration and adaptation objectives are effective when they are bottom-up and aligned to local expectations (Lofqvist et al. 2023; Tugjamba et al. 2023). This practical socio-ecological approach to restoration and adaptation is direly needed, as there are few practical examples (Tugjamba et al. 2023), despite the increasing calls for such approaches, e.g. within the realm of UN-Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (Bond et al. 2019; Veldman et al. 2019; Fleischman et al. 2020; Briske et al. 2024). Exceptionally, we find that increasing tree cover supports livestock production, contrary to other drylands in Northern Kenya, where it is driving the loss of pastures and undermining livestock production (Kimiti et al. 2020; Maundu et al. 2009). An important caveat is that the Rendille traditionally keep camels and goats (Fratkin and Roth 1990; Ceccon et al. 2016; Haro et al. 2005), which browse and optimally use diverse acacia products (pods, flowers and leaves). Therefore, an increasing indigenous acacia cover fits their livestock production needs. Despite the dominance of tree cover in some parts of the landscape, the pastoralists underscored the importance of diverse vegetation composition of various tree and grass species for improved grazing efficiency and livestock production. Such mosaic landscapes would meet the nutritional needs of diverse herds of livestock and strengthen this as an anticipatory adaptation strategy. Anticipatory adaptation strategies rely on the continuous availability of increasing vegetation cover to support livestock production. The restoration intervention supported these innate strategies developed by pastoralists (Opiyo et al. 2015; Krätli et al. 2022). Thus, increasing vegetation cover aligned with the adaptation needs of local land users as it supported the continuous process of improving their adaptive capacities. This challenges the common misconception that pastoralists in ASALs are resigned to the unfortunate fate of climate change and cannot respond to climate shocks (Silvestri et al. 2012). However, while restoration can be effective for responding to climate change, the effectiveness of restoration to deliver adaptation benefits in drylands during peak climate anomalies can be limited by environmental conditions and prevailing vulnerabilities. For example, the pastoralists indicated that some of their preferred grasses have completely disappeared closer to settlements due to frequent droughts and the growing transition from grasslands to woody species. These changes at landscape level are occurring amidst other contemporary socio-economic pressures in wider pastoral lands, such as land parcelling and privatisation. This scenario threatens the very tenets of pastoralism, i.e. mobile use of heterogenous resources scattered over vast lands that are crucial to adapting to climate change (Tugjamba et al. 2021; Krätli et al. 2022). Moreover, recurrent climate change is triggering conflicts and underlying tensions (Tugjamba et al. 2023; Schilling et al. 2014). The respondents mentioned direct conflicts, e.g. with the Samburu during migration, and indirect conflicts when they are proxy to conflicts between the Samburu and other communities, especially the Garba, as documented in the literature (Roba and Oba 2013; Haro et al. 2005). Archaeological records show that pastoral systems in Eastern Africa have historically been resilient to ecological and socio-political perturbations to the system (Wright 2019). Current scholarly work furthers the argument that pastoral systems are a product of adapting to climate variability and will continue to be resilient (e.g. Semplici and Campbell 2023; Niamir-Fuller and Huber-Sannwald 2020). However, there is a need to interrogate how livestock production will be sustained amidst recurrent droughts with a legacy that threatens future recovery of vegetation under increasingly constrained mobility, acute shortage of water and strains of social conflict. Further, in marginalised communities such the Rendille, adaptation research discloses long-standing structural vulnerabilities, often exacerbated by climate change (Haro et al. 2005; Rickards et al. 2024). In such contexts, adaptation can contextualise multi-causal dynamics between climate change and socio-political factors (Rickards et al. 2024) and seek transformational adaptation through a new and improved system (O’Brien 2012). This is currently missing in adaptation approaches in pastoral systems (Tugjamba et al. 2023). We opine that the effectiveness of restoration in drylands as an adaptation response must be centred on local socio-political dimensions that complement deliberate actions to respond to short-term and long-term climate impacts, intertwined with development outcomes. This includes short-term monitoring of changes in vegetation cover to inform early livestock offtake and humanitarian responses. In the longer term, restoration interventions can engage with or be part of broader structural transformation initiatives in the drylands to support economic empowerment within pastoral production systems. This encompasses diversification into education coupled with employment opportunities (Opiyo et al. 2015) and entrepreneurship to generate non-pastoral incomes within pastoral households. External revenue sources can complement pastoral production and support pastoral families during drought events (Achiba 2018; Lenaiyasa et al. 2020). We are not arguing for the replacement of pastoral production but rethinking the future of sustainable pastoralism amidst recurrent, intense droughts. On a broader scale, there is a need to mitigate climate forcing, as adaptation alone is insufficient for populations in areas facing precarious climatic conditions. We used simple participatory methods to incorporate pastoralists’ local knowledge on climate anomalies and the role of restoration in improving their adaptive capacities. In this process, we find that local land users’ recollections of climate change align with published records (similar findings by (Balasha et al. 2023; Tugjamba et al. 2023). The experience and knowledge of climate change influences pastoralists to adopt anticipatory measures, for they understand that it is not if but when climate impacts occur. Some limitations to the methodology include the short period of satellite data and targeting a comparatively homogenous group of land users (pastoralists). This methodology therefore may be inadequate in cases with diverse, sometimes competing values and land uses. Besides, our respondents were directly involved in the project, potentially being positively biased regarding project outcomes. Although we excluded non-participant neighbouring groups, this case study mirrors other pastoral societies in drylands of Kenya, Africa and the world and can provide important lessons for restoration in these areas. 5. CONCLUSION Climate anomalies in drylands are intensifying, making it crucial to assess whether NbS truly meet land users’ adaptation needs. Using an interdisciplinary approach integrating ecological and socio-cultural factors, we examined how ecosystem restoration enhances adaptive capacity among pastoralists. We find that the success of ecosystem restoration in drylands is closely linked to the contextual alignment with the ecological and socio-cultural realities of the pastoralists. The alignment of ecosystem restoration with governance, institutions, gender and production objectives elevates the often overlooked human and social elements in ecosystem restoration. By focussing on the extent that adaptive capacities improve livestock production, the core livelihood activity of pastoralists, we show that embedding restoration interventions within the socio-cultural realities improves the effectiveness of NbS in delivering adaptation outcomes. This study contributes to much-needed post-assessment information on restoration projects linked to adaptation. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7321509","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":511514639,"identity":"2f91f469-bc58-40f8-9f02-11de74dbb55e","order_by":0,"name":"Vivian Onyango","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAw0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDADfhCRUECKFskGkBYDUrQYHACTxKg83nzwM2+bTb7x+dWJHx4YMMjzix0goOXMsWRp3rY0y2033m6WADrMcObsBPxaJGfkGEjnth02MLtxdgNIS4LBbUJa5r///BukxXjG2c0/iNLCL8HDBrbFgL93G3G28POkmVn/OZdmIHGDd5tFgoEEYb+wsR9+fHNGmY0Bf//ZzTd/VNjI80sT0IIAEmCVEsQqBzvxACmqR8EoGAWjYCQBAFJiQaOdpmFsAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6075-4320","institution":"Wageningen University and Research: Wageningen University \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vivian","middleName":"","lastName":"Onyango","suffix":""},{"id":511514640,"identity":"26fe3361-9dd3-4a87-becd-e016de4d17f0","order_by":1,"name":"Jessica Ruijsch","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wageningen UR: Wageningen University \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jessica","middleName":"","lastName":"Ruijsch","suffix":""},{"id":511514641,"identity":"d93db448-7731-4922-87d7-83d08c26e87e","order_by":2,"name":"Hussein Wario","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Centre for Research and Development in Drylands","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hussein","middleName":"","lastName":"Wario","suffix":""},{"id":511514642,"identity":"808c93e1-0176-4e2f-a7ff-d081361e7c4a","order_by":3,"name":"Ronald Hutjes","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wageningen University Research Centre: Wageningen University \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ronald","middleName":"","lastName":"Hutjes","suffix":""},{"id":511514643,"identity":"de9032f7-877e-4ec7-81f2-522a581b6388","order_by":4,"name":"Raffaele Vignola","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wageningen University Research Centre: Wageningen University \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Raffaele","middleName":"","lastName":"Vignola","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-07 19:21:48","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7321509/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7321509/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91147433,"identity":"719a0f05-3870-4132-9322-7d78004ec41c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:31:42","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":128777,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA framework for assessing the contextual alignment of adaptation outcomes in ecosystem restoration projects\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/ba358df638a62d1034e08896.png"},{"id":91147434,"identity":"1df33377-76f7-4a35-a36b-b451784791f2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:31:42","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":362919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of study areas within Kenya. (\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) Stars indicate locations of Korr and Ndikiir villages. (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) Yearly average MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) between 2000-01-01 and 2024-12-31.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/e2c9321cef3b46459f8ab2c6.png"},{"id":91147436,"identity":"96046d87-787d-450c-9e55-9e34edef146d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:31:42","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5455489,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticipatory map showing land use characterization in Korr, Marsabit County\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/6f32dabdb00fb80acb54c2c3.png"},{"id":91149232,"identity":"32bd7778-94ed-4670-87c5-fcdef18b57e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:47:43","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1006320,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePast climate anomalies from a pastoralist and remote sensing perspective. Southern oscillation index (SOI) \u003cstrong\u003e(a),\u003c/strong\u003e yearly precipitation anomaly \u003cstrong\u003e(b)\u003c/strong\u003e and 12-month standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) \u003cstrong\u003e(c).\u003c/strong\u003e Precipitation and SPEI show the mean value within the Laisamis region. Pastoralists’ collective memory and experience with past climate anomalies \u003cstrong\u003e(d).\u003c/strong\u003e The precipitation anomaly is defined as the deviation from the 1981–2024 mean (256 mm/year).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/9e77292e4b8e42403a05158f.png"},{"id":91147993,"identity":"ba74c285-9f91-4ae8-a689-73ed1a3021c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:39:42","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":278586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemporal changes in vegetation cover. Yearly mean, minimum and maximum normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) and land users’ perceptions on temporal changes in vegetation cover from the 1970s to 2020s (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/fc4743efbfe26a7add54e5ec.png"},{"id":91147440,"identity":"f2d7e09e-f878-49e7-a39b-b19a4c5c9a4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:31:42","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1082645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of restoration on vegetation cover in relation to climate anomalies. False colour satellite images of the three study regions before the intervention (2018,\u003cstrong\u003e top\u003c/strong\u003e) and after the intervention (2024, \u003cstrong\u003emiddle\u003c/strong\u003e) and a time series of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) within the project area and a surrounding reference area \u003cstrong\u003e(bottom\u003c/strong\u003e). The dotted lines indicate the moment of intervention. Data are from Planet (Planet Team, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/595734b01782caccc36d5c71.png"},{"id":95312911,"identity":"df976eb9-df00-4a91-8ce7-4907796280d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:50:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":9135180,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7321509/v1/90fb4cf9-09cd-4d7c-aa71-5018a152f97d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAssessing Climate Adaptation Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration in Kenyan Drylands\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eArid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) cover over 80% of Kenya\u0026rsquo;s terrestrial land, hosting 30% of its population and 70% of its livestock (Mganga 2023). The variable precipitation and high temperatures of ASALs (Kalele et al. 2021; Mganga 2023) limit crop production (Wamari et al. 2017), making extensive pastoralism the most viable production activity herein.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver millennia, an intricate connection has developed between pastoralists and the dryland environment (Niamir-Fuller and Huber-Sannwald 2020). This has yielded a coupled socio-ecological system wherein human and environmental factors influence each other and drive changes in drylands (Stringer et al. 2017). In ASALs, degradation due to anthropogenic pressure and climate change affects vegetation productivity, causing negative social and economic impact (Burrell et al. 2020). In Kenya, approximately 2% of ASALs are denuded, with additional 30%\u0026ndash;40% undergoing degradation (Nyangito et al. 2008; cited by Mganga et al. 2018). Climate change-induced heat stress reduces soil moisture and leads to vegetation loss in ASALs (Hermans and McLeman 2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate change triggers drought in ASALs (Opiyo et al. 2015). Different forms of drought\u0026mdash;hydrological, agricultural and socio-economic\u0026mdash;are interconnected and act simultaneously in ASALs, worsening effects on ecosystems and human systems (Ondiko and Karanja 2021). Climate change in ASALs is also increasing drought frequency (Opiyo et al. 2015; Kogo et al. 2020). The multi-layered and recurrent nature of droughts threatens the natural resource base and undermines pastoral livelihoods that directly depend on it (Opiyo et al. 2015), jeopardising future resilience in ASALs (Van Loon et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEcosystem restoration is considered a response option to both land degradation and climate change issues. Restoration can alter the inherent feedback between land, climate and human systems while delivering multiplicative benefits (Vignola et al. 2015; Pandit et al. 2020). In drylands, restoration interventions such as natural regeneration and agroforestry can increase vegetation cover (Ruijsch et al. 2023), which may persist during climate anomalies and help sustain livelihoods (Wu et al. 2014). Restoration can alter the biophysical properties of the Earth\u0026rsquo;s surface (e.g. evapotranspiration or albedo), providing a more comfortable local climate (Ruijsch et al. 2024). Socio-economic benefits from restoration include income generation from selling direct products such as forage and timber, and support to livestock production (Sacande et al. 2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, ecosystem restoration in drylands is beset with a contextual misalignment between ecosystem restoration and dryland realities (Briske et al. 2024). This occurs when restoration interventions are ill-fitted to the ecological and socio-cultural context (e.g. livelihoods, governance systems, production objectives) (Ramprasad et al. 2020). Sources of misalignment include top-down influences, such as large-scale studies that make a case for where to restore (Strassburg et al. 2020) and how to restore (Bastin et al., 2019). These studies often fail to conceptualise the local context, such as local communities\u0026rsquo; perceptions on degradation and restoration (Fleischman et al. 2022; Veldman et al. 2019). Empirically grounded case studies on the local context that can inform and improve contextual alignment of restoration in drylands are lacking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen ecosystem restoration is linked to other outcomes such as adaptation, ensuring contextual alignment becomes crucial,\u0026nbsp;as adaptation can be riven with ambiguity (Owen 2020). Ambiguity in adaptation is partly due to conceptual differences in understanding adaptation among researchers, policy actors and communities. This affects what is perceived as the success or failure of adaptation and the methodologies used to assess adaptation outcomes (Berrang-Ford et al. 2011; Mills-Novoa 2023). Without standard metrics for evaluating adaptation outcomes (Owen 2020), the perception of the success or failure of adaptation depends on competing values, varying across space and time (Singh et al. 2021). This underscores the importance of contextual alignment in the appraisal of restoration projects that aim for adaptation outcomes (e.g. nature-based solutions; NbS). It also elevates land users as important protagonists operating within a socio-ecological context, which influences the planning, implementation and sustainability of NbS. In drylands, such influences include local knowledge and historical perspectives on landscapes, species and climate trends. Ecosystem restoration aligned with and embedded within the customary, tenure and institutional context can be more effective (Mansourian et al. 2025; Elias et al. 2021). Such alignment also influences the local ownership, legitimacy and sustainability of NbS interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany frameworks assessing restoration approaches linked to NbS inadequately engage with the local context (van der Jagt et al. 2023). The exclusion of land users and their perception and knowledge from such appraisals omits the influence of context on ecosystem restoration, failing to robustly analyse the extent that NbS are contextually aligned. This gap has been emphasized in scholarly work on adaptation in drylands (e.g. Kmoch et al. 2024; Tugjamba et al. 2023). This study aims to narrow these existing research gaps by studying the contextual alignment of ecosystem restoration for adaptation in drylands. To improve the robustness of the analysis, we use an interdisciplinary approach that integrates satellite data with field ethnographies to analyse climate and vegetation trends, understanding how these influence the local adaptive capacities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo this end, we ask the following research questions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTo what extent do restoration interventions influence changes in vegetation cover?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDoes increasing vegetation cover deliver adaptation benefits to local pastoralists during climate anomalies?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHow much do these adaptation benefits from increasing vegetation cover align with the adaptation needs of pastoralists?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe answers to these questions could guide future projects to ensure contextual alignment in ecosystem restoration for the benefit of people and nature.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe theorize that the assessment of adaptation outcomes in ecosystem restoration projects is robust when an interdisciplinary method is used to unpack the contextual alignment of the ecosystem restoration project and the extent that it meets the adaptation needs of local land users (pastoralists). We ground this theory on an empirical analysis of a past restoration project in Kenyan ASALs using satellite data and field ethnographies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe consider climate anomalies (drought or floods) induced by anthropogenic factors or hemispheric systems such as El Ni\u0026ntilde;o-Southern Oscillation. Because pastoralist communities experience different drought types simultaneously, we consider drought as such in this study. We also categorise the droughts as single-year droughts (occurring within a single year period) or multi-year droughts (extending across consecutive years).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2.1 A framework for assessing the contextual alignment of adaptation benefits in ecosystem restoration projects\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe conceptualised adaptation in drylands as multi-dimensional, with intricate linkages across socio-ecological domains, to improve adaptive capacities in ecosystems and human systems in response to climate anomalies (Table 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Description of key elements in assessing contextual alignment in ecosystem restoration projects\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"652\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 491px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescription\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClimate anomalies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 491px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Identify climate related causal factors that can drive other changes in the drylands.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Examine pastoralists\u0026rsquo; experiences with such changes and their perceptions of climate anomalies.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Outline the biophysical elements of climate anomalies using satellite data and explore pastoralists\u0026rsquo; experiences with past climate anomalies.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocio-cultural context\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 491px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Identify prevailing socio-cultural elements, including livelihoods, institutions and governance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Map landscape use patterns by pastoralists through key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs) and participatory mapping to outline the governance of resources and other intersecting factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Assess ecosystem restoration interactions as enablers or hindrances.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Evaluate climate anomaly interactions with adaptive capacities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcosystem restoration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 491px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Determine the role of ecosystem restoration: increasing vegetation cover in improving adaptive capacities of pastoralists\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Triangulate data sources using satellite imagery, pastoralists\u0026rsquo; knowledge and published records to reveal trends.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdaptation benefits\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 491px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Document improvements in adaptive capacities due to changes in vegetation cover.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Analyse interactions with climate anomalies (negative impacts) and ecosystem restoration (positive impact).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe analyse four interconnected elements\u0026mdash;climate anomalies, socio-cultural context, ecosystem restoration, and adaptation benefits\u0026mdash;to understand, characterize and assess the contextual alignment of adaptation benefits from ecosystem restoration in drylands (Figure 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2.2 Study area and project description\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Ndikiir (1\u0026deg;40\u0026prime;58\u0026Prime;N 37\u0026deg;41\u0026prime;49\u0026Prime;E) and Korr (2\u0026deg;00\u0026prime;29\u0026Prime;N 37\u0026deg;30\u0026prime;24\u0026Prime;E), two villages in Laisamis constituency, lying in the lowlands of Marsabit County, northern Kenya (Figure 2). Both have comparable climatic conditions: arid climate, typified by extremely variable rainfall with high evaporation rates that are 10 times higher than rainfall (Galwab et al. 2024). The mean annual rainfall in the lowlands is \u0026lt;200 mm. The annual maximum temperature range is 30\u0026ndash;35\u0026deg;C and minimum temperature range, 15\u0026ndash;26\u0026deg;C. The areas experience bimodal rains, with long rains from March and May and short rains from October to December (ibid).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe case study restoration project was implemented by World Vision Kenya (WVK) between 2019 and 2022. Before 2018, WVK had a project on food nutrition and security in the study areas, which revealed that low milk production in livestock was mainly driven by degrading natural resources. In a follow-up, a multi-component project was designed for improved climate resilience and land restoration through farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR). Through previously established women\u0026rsquo;s savings and loans groups, project implementation started mainly with women and youth as early off-takers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2.3 Study design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used an interdisciplinary approach combining satellite observations and field ethnographies to address these complex study elements. To add a biophysical context to pastoralists\u0026rsquo; perspectives, we combined key informant interviews (KIIs) and FGDs with satellite data. The field ethnographies and satellite data provided a multi-perspective view on restoration and climate anomalies; however, our aim was not to compare these sources but rather allow complementary data and improved understanding on the extent of adaptation benefits of restoration for pastoral land users. Specifically, we used satellite data to study climate anomalies and vegetation changes through time on landscape and project scales. Precipitation data were obtained from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) dataset (Funk et al. 2015), which combines satellite data and field measurements to provide rainfall data at 0.05\u0026deg; resolution since 1981. Drought data were based on the standardised precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) (Vicente-Serrano et al. 2010), which calculates standardised anomalies in the difference between precipitation and evapotranspiration to monitor drought. SPEI values at 0.5\u0026deg; resolution were obtained from the SPEIbase (Beguer\u0026iacute;a et al. 2023). The Southern oscillation index (SOI) was used to study the relation between climate anomalies in the region with global climate phenomena such as El Ni\u0026ntilde;o-Southern Oscillation. Negative (positive) values of SOI represent El Ni\u0026ntilde;o (La Ni\u0026ntilde;a) phases (Trenberth 1984). Data were obtained from http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/data/indices/index.html\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo provide information on changes in vegetation, we used the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), a vegetation index between \u0026minus;1 and 1, which increases with increasing vegetation greenness (Tucker 1979). NDVI data were obtained from Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS) data (version 3) (Pinzon and Tucker 2014) between 1981 and 2012, and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer data (MOD13Q1.061) (Didan 2021) between 2000 and 2024 at a 250-m spatial resolution. To determine the impact of the small FMNR project on vegetation greenness, we used the higher-resolution NDVI data calculated from Norway\u0026rsquo;s International Climate and Forests Initiative (NICFI) Satellite Data Program Basemaps from Tropical Forest Monitoring, based on Planet data (Planet Team, 2017). Data between 2016 and 2024 at 5-m spatial resolution were used for analysis. To determine the effect of the FMNR project on vegetation greenness, the mean NDVI within the fenced project areas was compared to the mean NDVI in a reference area, comprising a buffer (50 m) surrounding the fenced area. Comparing the NDVI in the project and reference areas before and after implementation allowed us to separate the effect of external factors, such as climate variability and climate change, from the signal of the FMNR project on the NDVI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe field study was conducted between May and June 2024. We unpacked the nuanced relationships between the pastoralists and their environment, specifically between increasing vegetation cover and their production objectives. We selected the respondents based on the project design, where different actors were engaged in the project at different phases. Women and youth were early off-takers. The elders who were late off-takers were important for granting approvals for project implementation within the landscape. Elders are also a knowledge repository on climate, dryland management and vegetation dynamics. Historical events were used to refresh respondents\u0026rsquo; memory and build a timeline of events.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a first step, we used participatory mapping with 10\u0026ndash;12 people to characterize the land, detail spatiotemporal uses and unravel the role of the restored sites in the landscape. We used Google Earth printouts of the geographical extent of the two villages as visual aids (ibid). These were printed on a canvas material at a scale of 1:15,000 to show important topographical features (ibid). In this manner, we could understand the role of governance in the use and access to these resources over time, including during droughts, and the gender dynamics in the use and management of resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe then conducted KIIs (n = 16) across three main categories (women, elders and youths), including three women leaders of the groups (n = 6), two youths (n = 4) and three elders (n = 6), in each village. The initial study period was 2000\u0026ndash;2024; however, as the research objectives became apparent to the elders, they underscored a need for a longer historical context\u0026mdash;from the 1970s, when current elders were pre-adolescent to adolescent\u0026mdash;to comprehensively link the past and present. The elders further proposed three members of the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(the community decision-making body, comprising men only)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewhom they perceived as important resource persons on ecology and the management of the landscape. The elders helped detail long-term temporal trends of climate and vegetation in the landscapes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLastly, we performed two FGDs (n = 2) with 20 participants each, i.e. 40 pastoralists (12 elders, 20 women and eight youths). We asked the same questions in the KII and FGDs. The KII participants also participated in the FGDs to calibrate the results and fill gaps.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe interviews were conducted in the Rendille language using a translator and were captured by audio recording. A second translator transcribed and translated the material to English, while checking for consistencies. Four KIIs with the youths were done in Swahili, a language spoken by the lead author.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2.4 Field data analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe performed a thematic analysis on all the qualitative data, following Braun and Clarke, 2021 (Braun and Clarke 2023), in a six-step framework for data analysis (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\" width=\"637\" height=\"281\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis was used to write the Results section and answer the research questions. We digitised the participatory maps to capture crucial information on decision-making and use of landscapes in space and time by the pastoralists. This was crucial to analyse the role of the restored sites within broader landscape grazing management dynamics and livestock production needs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003ch3\u003e3.1. Socio-cultural context\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePastoralism, or extensive livestock production, is the main livelihood source for the Rendille pastoral community in both villages. The Rendille camps (\u003cem\u003emanyattas\u003c/em\u003e) are based on kinship with a central decision-making body composed of male elders (\u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e). The \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e holds daily meetings, and on a need-by-need basis, young men can be invited to the meeting. Women are not invited under any circumstance. The decisions made in the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e, such as grazing plans, trickle down to all residents of the camp, and compliance is expected from all residents.\u0026nbsp;The\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Naabo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ehave established usufruct rules to manage the entire landscape (including restored sites) under their jurisdiction, with enforceable penalties. This has strengthened the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e while sustaining restoration results, including resource use during dry seasons and drought.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e also negotiates and coordinates reciprocal relationships with neighbouring \u003cem\u003emanyattas\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand communities. Former WVK project coordinators indicated to the lead author that the FMNR strategy mimicked the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ein that elders were central to decision-making for sustainability and strengthening the pastoralists\u0026rsquo; governance structures. Hence, the FMNR decision-making strategy aligned well with the Rendille governance structure.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participatory mapping exercise revealed a mosaic landscape with a seasonally variable vegetation cover influenced by precipitation. The dry-season grazing areas that also include the restored sites lie closer to settlements. During the wet season, pastoralists use peripheral resources in the landscape, often around temporary waterpoints (Figure 3). The first author observed this during field work, noting that these areas were mainly grasslands.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe key informants indicated that the restoration sites were selected by the elders. The areas were former settlements and were perceived as degraded due to the preponderance of undesirable shrubs and low-quality forage. Women rely on these resources to take care of small livestock such as goats and lactating animals, and this is becoming increasingly difficult due to the degradation of these resources: \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eGoat kids now graze around the homestead, feeding on the leaves and acacia pods. This is a benefit because before, they would wander far away, I have to go and find them. Sometimes they are eaten by wild animals, and other times they get lost\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, KII, Ndikiir.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe project allocated significant implementation responsibilities and stewardship of these areas to women, who were also the early adopters. This reflects the leveraging of local knowledge to define degraded versus healthy lands, clearly identify the main change agents and align with local governance structures.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2.\u0026nbsp;Climate anomalies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a first step to determine the impact of restoration on adaptation to climate anomalies, we documented satellite data and pastoralists\u0026rsquo; observations and experience with climate anomalies. This also provides context for interpreting the pastoralists\u0026rsquo; perceptions. The pastoralists perceive climate anomalies through changes in temperature (high temperatures), changes in precipitation (low rainfall, failed rains) and high rainfall. Changes in precipitation included increased periods of no rainfall during the wet seasons and longer dry periods. Over the last few decades, the long rains (March\u0026ndash;May) sometimes fail completely, and the shorter rains (October\u0026ndash;December) tend to be shorter. High precipitation was linked to flood events. Changes in temperature occur mainly in dry seasons, when the temperatures tend to be very high, referred to locally as \u003cem\u003ekerewa.\u003c/em\u003e The pastoralists hesitated to provide detailed accounts, citing trauma connected to experiences with the 2020\u0026ndash;2023 drought. All respondents had observed and experienced climate anomalies in the past (Figure 4), including floods, but predominantly droughts. According to the elders, the 1970s was the decade of onset of drought.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eObservational data showed high variability in precipitation throughout the years, with some years having a total exceeding 500 mm (e.g. 1997). Other years (e.g. 2000) received \u0026lt;100 mm (Figure 4b). The average precipitation over the study period was 256 mm/year. These high and low precipitation years often correspond, respectively, to El Ni\u0026ntilde;o and La Ni\u0026ntilde;a events (Figure 4a) and were mentioned by respondents (e.g. 1997 heavy rainfall). Negative rainfall anomalies (orange colour, Figure 4b) often result in meteorological drought events, as indicated by a negative SPEI (Figure 4c). These correspond to drought periods mentioned by respondents (Figure 4d), supporting their claims that droughts have been increasing in intensity and frequency. Decadal flooding tends to follow multi-year drought events, similarly, observed by the respondents who mentioned the 1997 flooding due to El Ni\u0026ntilde;o and the 2024 floods following the 2020\u0026ndash;2023 droughts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003e3.2.1.\u0026nbsp;Impacts of droughts on adaptive capacities\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the pastoralists reported reduced adaptive capacities due to droughts, highlighting negative impacts on livestock production. Drought factors such as high temperatures and low precipitation led to a lack of surface water and low vegetation cover, compounding negative impacts on the livestock-based livelihood. At the peak of short (single year) and long droughts (multiple years), the vegetation cover dries up, including in the restored areas. Tree cover remnants are often covered in sand due to strong winds. The lack of vegetation exposes soils to high ambient temperature, limiting human and livestock movement.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs vegetation cover reduces, the search for pastures and water over long distances is becoming frequent, which is straining collaborations with neighbouring pastoral communities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany respondents reported experiencing conflicts, livestock theft and even loss of community members due to violence over the use of remote grazing areas. In the long term, these challenges could undermine long-distance mobility, an important adaptation strategy for pastoralists. The women argued that frequent and long-duration mobility threatens childhood nutrition, because when livestock are away from home for extended periods, children face a lack of milk.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003e3.2.2.\u0026nbsp;Impacts of floods on adaptive capacities\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respondents identified experience with two major floods: the 1997 El Ni\u0026ntilde;o and 2024 floods. Both floods severely reduced adaptive capacities, causing livestock deaths, uprooted trees from the landscape and displacement of local land users. The floods also deposited sand on the landscape from the hilltops, which is believed to contribute to the disappearance of grasses. The respondents indicated that floods are often followed by drought seasons. The 1997 El Ni\u0026ntilde;o rains triggered the sprouting of acacia trees, which improved long-term adaptive capacities. However, the 2024 floods led to the appearance of sand flies (known locally as \u003cem\u003ekala-zaa\u003c/em\u003e)\u0026nbsp;in the landscape, which cause camel deaths.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.3.\u0026nbsp;Temporal changes in vegetation cover\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the respondents perceived changes in vegetation cover at both sites over time. We used FGDs to validate the KIIs and fill in the gaps in some of the periods (Figure 5b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate anomalies, especially droughts, alter the vegetation cover, with a decline in trees and grasses. According to the elders, before the 1970s, the landscape was heterogenous, with diverse species of trees and wildlife.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, according to the pastoralists, following extreme and frequent droughts in the 1970s, the area lost substantial vegetation cover, negatively affecting livestock production and people. In response, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) established a relief distribution centre in Korr, a then dry-season grazing area, which led to the settlement of the previously nomadic Rendille pastoralists around the relief area. \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eKorr is a new town in the windblown Kaisut Desert, located 40 km east of Ngurunit and 120 km west of the district capital on Marsabit Mountain. Korr did not exist, except as a dry season watering hole, before the droughts of the 1970s when the Catholic Diocese of Marsabit established a church and famine-relief centre there\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;,(Nathan et al. 1996).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSuch settlements compromised access to an important dry-season grazing resource and undermined the governance and management of the grazing resources. The settlements were accompanied by the systematic removal of vegetation in Korr, culminating in bareland in the 1980s. This information aligns with the literature claiming that the increased settlements and rising population numbers led to a continuous overexploitation of woody vegetation in Korr (Synott 1979; Lampey 1978 as cited by Roba and Oba 2013; Haro et al. 2005). This shows various intersecting factors, including a past incongruity between development interventions and local land use, thereby worsening negative impacts. Further misalignment happened in the 1980s: to address degradation, the alien shrub \u003cem\u003eProsopis juliflora\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas introduced for restoration, but \u003cem\u003eP. juliflora\u003c/em\u003e cover increased at the expense of local grasses essential for livestock production and livelihoods.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the respondents mentioned significant changes in the vegetation cover following the 1997\u0026ndash;1998 El Ni\u0026ntilde;o rains that triggered acacia sprouts. This change is also visible as a strong increase in mean NDVI over time. The increasing vegetation cover due to acacia supports livestock production objectives and increases the adaptive capacities. However, the increased tree cover also corresponds with the disappearance of some grass species: \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eNtalangwani, Loirian, larapasi, Ikawa\u0026hellip;.Ikawa is very nutritious and even if the animal\u0026rsquo;s step on them they are resistant. This area had all those grass species that I have mentioned\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;,elder in Ndikiir.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis observation is corroborated by literature recording declining trends of the preferred grass species, Ikawa (\u003cem\u003eSetaria appendiculata\u003c/em\u003e), in pastoral landscapes in Marsabit (Roba and Oba 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll respondents mentioned the reappearance of trees in the landscape from the mid-2000s to late 2010s. However, the trees often died before maturity because of constant deforestation and die-offs due to adverse climate effects and poor management.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003e3.3.1.\u0026nbsp;Effect of restoration on vegetation cover\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLand users and remote sensing data point to an increase in vegetation cover due to restoration interventions by WVK. Before project implementation in 2019, the vegetation greenness in the three project areas (fenced) varied over time (Figure 6g\u0026ndash;i), potentially owing to interannual variations in precipitation (Figure 4b). However, the NDVI inside the project (fenced) and reference (buffer) areas were fairly similar (Figure 6g\u0026ndash;i). After project implementation in 2019, the NDVI in the project area started to increase compared to the reference area, especially in Korr (#2) (Figure 6i). Assuming that the precipitation is similar in the project and reference areas, the relative increase in vegetation greenness might be ascribed to restoration interventions rather than natural climate variations. Although the relative increase in NDVI was only 0.01\u0026ndash;0.02, the change was noticed by the pastoralists. They mentioned increased vegetation cover in the project area, especially trees, due to improved governance and management of natural recourses for improved livestock production, child nutrition and adaptation to climate change.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisual inspection of the false colour satellite images indeed suggests increased tree cover after project implementation, although the exact type of vegetation is not measurable from NDVI data alone. Interestingly, the relative NDVI increase in Korr (#2) was immediate for an increase in woody vegetation, while the increase in Ndikiir was more gradual. However, the restoration interventions do not include tree planting \u003cem\u003eper se\u003c/em\u003e, but improved management of existing trees, allowing them to green faster.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003e3.3.2. \u0026nbsp;Other factors affecting temporal changes in vegetation cover\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGovernance:\u003c/em\u003e The vegetation cover is governed by the traditional rules within Rendille on landscape management, including tree management. Before the restoration project, the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e was reportedly weakened, resulting in haphazard use of vegetation and its degradation. Currently, a strengthened \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e has set up a spatio-temporal rule, including usufruct use in the landscape based on grazing plans. The governance of the landscape is supported by a flexible decision-making structure through daily meeting of the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e. According to the respondents, the increasing tree cover and a strengthened\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Naabo\u003c/em\u003e that guides resource use and sharing are improving livestock production and harmonious co-existence. Moreover, enforcement mechanisms, e.g. prohibitions against cutting and shaking acacia trees for pods to avoid deforestation and die-offs, ensure compliance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInstitutions:\u003c/em\u003e Two key institutions influence vegetation management. At the settlement (\u003cem\u003emanyatta\u003c/em\u003e) level, the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e implements day-to-day use, management and enforcement of regulations in support of sustainable landscapes. The\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Naabo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eworks in conjunction with the local environmental management committees (EMCs), which operate at macro-landscape level through representatives from each settlement. The EMCs are currently recognized by the county government and connect the local communities and local government.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTraditional knowledge:\u003c/em\u003e Community elders are knowledge reservoirs for the community. They monitor changes in local resources to guide use and access. For example, they monitor the availability of nutrient-rich grasses that can be set aside as fodder banks for livestock use during the dry season. Thus, their knowledge guides the environmental stewardship of the landscape to avoid degradation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGender\u003c/em\u003e: Before the introduction of FMNR, the leading causes for changes in vegetation cover included cutting down of trees for firewood and construction materials. Women are responsible for both problems, as Rendille women construct huts, a recurrent activity with each household movement, and they are also tasked with sourcing firewood. This degradation was prevalent in resources around \u003cem\u003emanyattas\u003c/em\u003e, which women also rely on to take care of small livestock. Considering gender dynamics, the project engaged women as environmental stewards and major beneficiaries of the restored sites. The female KII indicated that they spend about two hours every six weeks to manage the restored site, such as pruning acacia trees to facilitate vegetation recovery and increase vegetation cover.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.4.\u0026nbsp;Effects of increasing vegetation cover on adaptation capacities\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003e3.4.1. Adaptation strategies\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respondents state that the need to respond to climate anomalies is an ongoing, daily endeavour that is not restricted to a period during droughts or floods. They reported various anticipatory adaptation strategies, contingent upon increasing vegetation cover in the entire landscape and shaped by the socio-cultural context, as below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMobility:\u003c/em\u003e Due to the inherent variabilities in vegetation cover, mobility enables the tracking and optimal use of ephemeral resources throughout the landscape. The respondents said they divide their landscape into micro-landscapes and macro-landscapes to guide mobility. The micro-landscape scale is land under the stewardship of the immediate \u003cem\u003emanyattas\u003c/em\u003e. The elders from the \u003cem\u003emanyattas\u003c/em\u003e, using traditional knowledge, delineate the landscape into wet- and dry-season grazing areas, as indicated earlier. The macro-landscapes are inter-community landscapes with flexible boundaries contingent on drought intensity, often extending to neighbouring counties. These landscapes are managed by inter-community elder groups and are important for single- and multi-year droughts, as young men (\u003cem\u003emorans\u003c/em\u003e) and elders embark on long journeys in search of forage and water for livestock. Such long-distance journeys rely on amenable relationships within households and villages, e.g. splitting of livestock between \u003cem\u003emorans\u003c/em\u003e and elderly men.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKeeping diverse herds\u003c/em\u003e: All the respondents reported keeping diverse herds, comprising camels, goats, cows and donkeys, to optimally use fluctuating vegetation cover across space and time. Herd diversity is essential to adaptation, as different herds respond to droughts differently. For instance, camels can travel long distances without drinking water and can therefore access distant water resources and forage. The respondents perceived that camels are also resilient to high temperatures. Further, the respondents underscored the diet diversity of browsers such as camels and goats, which have versatile feed options during droughts, such as tree leaves, compared to grazers (e.g. cows), which rely on grasses that dry up faster under high temperatures and low precipitation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChanging herd composition:\u003c/em\u003e In response to the increasing frequency and intensity of climate anomalies, the respondents cited changing herd composition over time. Eight respondents and the FGDs reported transitioning from predominantly rearing cattle (grazers) to browsers, namely camels and goats. They attributed this to the landscape\u0026rsquo;s declining grass cover owing to droughts. While the respondents have reduced the proportion of cattle, they keep some cows for easy liquidity. The respondents argued that during droughts, cows had comparatively higher offtake. Eleven respondents and the FGD respondents reported selling cows during droughts, albeit at low prices to meet family needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKeeping maximum herd numbers:\u003c/em\u003e All the respondents indicated that they kept herd numbers at a maximum to increase the probability of recovery following droughts and as \u0026lsquo;cash on hooves\u0026rsquo; to sell during drought. The increasing vegetation cover in the landscapes, including in the restored sites, supports these high numbers before drought onset. During droughts, the respondents de-stock their herds by selling them to earn income to meet other needs. They stated that they harness maximum herd numbers with strategic mobility to utilise the landscape and meet animal nutritional needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003e3.4.2.\u0026nbsp;Perceived adaptation benefits from increasing vegetation cover\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respondents mentioned that during peak and multi-year climate anomalies such as droughts, the restored sites do not offer significant adaptation benefits, as vegetation in these areas are mostly dry and covered by sand. The increasing vegetation cover due to restoration were perceived as delivering adaptation benefits during dry seasons and early onset of single-year droughts. In the latter, the restored sites are critical resources available locally, shortening early reliance on long-distance mobility. However, all respondents employed anticipatory strategies to improve their adaptive capacities for peak climate anomalies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour main types of benefits from anticipatory adaptation strategies are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEconomic benefits:\u003c/em\u003e All respondents use the restored sites, mainly covered by acacia trees, for livestock feed during dry seasons. This shortens the duration of single-year droughts. During this period, acacia products exhibit higher reliability than grasses, being used up faster following the end of the wet season. Acacia trees provide pods, flowers and leaves for livestock. The availability of feed improves livestock productivity and allows pastoralists to keep maximum herd numbers that they can sell at high prices at drought onset. The earnings are used to purchase immediate household needs. Pastoralists also sell acacia pods and firewood to other communities during short droughts. These diverse income activities complement and support pastoralists to meet immediate needs at drought onset.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSocial benefits:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eIncreased vegetation cover reduced the workload for women through less time needed to tend to small livestock and searching for firewood. All the women mentioned that the restored sites provided firewood, reducing the time needed to search for firewood under high temperatures during droughts. They argued thatthis freed up more time for child rearing. Increasing vegetation cover supported livestock production, boosting food availability (e.g. milk and meat) for the household and child nutrition.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnvironmental benefits:\u003c/em\u003e All the FGD respondents mentioned that the trees improvedthe micro-climate due to shade, offsetting the effects of high temperatures and benefiting human and livestock well-being. Others argued that the trees attracted precipitation. \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eWe get the shade from the trees, before we were not receiving rainfall but nowadays because we have trees, they attract rainfall\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;, KII, Korr.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInstitutional benefits\u003c/em\u003e: According to the respondents, the restored sites have rejuvenated and strengthened the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e. They perceived the \u003cem\u003eNaabo\u003c/em\u003e as being empowered to guide resource use, e.g. when to collect acacia pods for use during dry season and limiting outsiders from using these important resources. They also argued that the communities are more cohesive in stewarding the management of the landscape, which has regulated the use of vegetation cover.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.5.\u0026nbsp;Adaptation gap\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine existing adaptation gaps, we asked respondents during FGDs and KIIs what else they would have needed based on their experience with past droughts. They mentioned a need for both short-term (e.g. humanitarian response) and longer-term structural (e.g. increasing access to education) adaptation strategies. Acknowledging limited vegetation cover during droughts, the pastoralists underscored that during peak droughts, they need well-coordinated humanitarian assistance encompassing a combination of money, food and water and support for migrating members and livestock. The current humanitarian responses are ad hoc and uncoordinated, often focussed on pastoralists in \u003cem\u003emanyattas\u003c/em\u003e but not on migrating family members. Moreover, the current emphasis by many organisations during droughts is to provide support during climate anomalies, with limited support \u003cem\u003eafter\u003c/em\u003e the events, such as rebuilding stock after decimations by droughts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe pastoralists also argue that interventions to improve adaptive capacities must be integrated within broader programs that reduce structural vulnerabilities, such as lack of access to quality education, especially at the tertiary level. They noted that many youths still lack tertiary education, depriving them of good jobs and alternative income streams. Respondents called for programs targeting pastoral youths\u0026rsquo; absorption in job markets. They also suggested more targeted research on the impacts of climate anomalies in the drylands. For instance, following recent droughts (2020\u0026ndash;2023) and heavy rains in 2024, the sand fly appeared on the landscape, causing camel disease and deaths. However, to their knowledge, no one is addressing remedial strategies. They therefore seek integrated efforts connecting healthy landscapes and improved livestock productivity throughout the value chain, including important social amenities such as veterinary services. The women pressed for better access to credit facilities to diversify household income sources. Lastly, the respondents rallied around the need for improved livestock production, not by introducing new species but by improving the performance of current breeds in face of current climate anomalies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eMany studies assess restoration using single biophysical features such as soils, vegetation and hydrology but ignore socio-economic aspects (Onyango, forthcoming). The robustness of the present study lies in the use of interdisciplinary approaches to study biophysical aspects and socio-economic ones, including past trends. We show that it is possible to focus on a biophysical feature and improve its robustness by harnessing a socio-economic parameter such as perceptions on restoration. This is particularly important in improving the efficacy of assessment when restoration is linked with adaptation, a concept with no standardised parameters to assess the outcomes (Owen 2020). While the lack of standardised parameters is challenging, it has enabled us to situate our inquiry on the local context, by prioritising and capturing the perceptions of land users affected by this intervention, who are also responsible for sustaining the results (Mills-Novoa 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding the local context is important when attributing changes in vegetation cover, as this can often be affected by factors such as climate variability and anthropogenic factors. In the Sahelian drylands, climate variability due to increased precipitation increased the vegetation cover (Roba and Oba 2013). Similarly, in this study, the 1997 El Ni\u0026ntilde;o phenomenon, characterized by increased precipitation, caused the natural regeneration of acacia in the landscape. This study further shows the resilience of drylands and the ability of woody vegetation therein to regenerate despite continuous overexploitation, when supported by favourable precipitation and pastoral land use (Roba and Oba 2013). NDVI results showed small differences between the restored areas and control sites. By engaging pastoralists, we could attribute these changes to improved management practices guided by traditional governance of natural resources. However, sustaining the regeneration hinges on proper management by the land users.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe restoration intervention was found to align with the socio-cultural and ecological context. For example, WVK recognised the local governance and knowledge systems and embedded the project within this context. This understanding stems from the organisation\u0026rsquo;s long history of working with pastoral communities on integrated natural resource management in Kenya, including in the study area (Ojuok and Ndayizigiye 2021). This alignment elicited responses to important questions within the restoration process: what is degraded, how do we restore and for whom and what purpose is it being restored? At a small scale, focusing on pastures close to settlements used and managed by women, the organisation assigned proportionally higher implementation responsibilities to women but in close consultation with elders, who have the overall responsibility on pastoral resources. The women reported benefits of improved livestock production and reduced workload, especially during climate anomalies. Both restoration and adaptation objectives are effective when they are bottom-up and aligned to local expectations (Lofqvist et al. 2023; Tugjamba et al. 2023).\u0026nbsp;This practical socio-ecological approach to restoration and adaptation is direly needed, as there are few practical examples\u0026nbsp;(Tugjamba et al. 2023), despite the increasing calls for such approaches, e.g. within the realm of UN-Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (Bond et al. 2019; Veldman et al. 2019; Fleischman et al. 2020; Briske et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExceptionally, we find that increasing tree cover supports livestock production, contrary to other drylands in Northern Kenya, where it is driving the loss of pastures and undermining livestock production (Kimiti et al. 2020; Maundu et al. 2009). An important caveat is that the Rendille traditionally keep camels and goats\u0026nbsp;(Fratkin and Roth 1990; Ceccon et al. 2016; Haro et al. 2005), which browse and optimally use diverse acacia products (pods, flowers and leaves). Therefore, an increasing indigenous acacia cover fits their livestock production needs. Despite the dominance of tree cover in some parts of the landscape, the pastoralists underscored the importance of diverse vegetation composition of various tree and grass species for improved grazing efficiency and livestock production. Such mosaic landscapes would meet the nutritional needs of diverse herds of livestock and strengthen this as an anticipatory adaptation strategy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnticipatory adaptation strategies rely on the continuous availability of increasing vegetation cover to support livestock production. The restoration intervention supported these innate strategies developed by pastoralists (Opiyo et al. 2015; Kr\u0026auml;tli et al. 2022).\u0026nbsp;Thus,\u0026nbsp;increasing vegetation cover aligned with the adaptation needs of local land users as it supported the continuous process of improving their adaptive capacities.\u0026nbsp;This challenges the common misconception that pastoralists in ASALs are resigned to the unfortunate fate of climate change and cannot respond to climate shocks\u0026nbsp;(Silvestri et al. 2012).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, while restoration can be effective for responding to climate change, the effectiveness of restoration to deliver adaptation benefits in drylands during peak climate anomalies can be limited by environmental conditions and prevailing vulnerabilities. For example, the pastoralists indicated that some of their preferred grasses have completely disappeared closer to settlements due to frequent droughts and the growing transition from grasslands to woody species. These changes at landscape level are occurring amidst other contemporary socio-economic pressures in wider pastoral lands, such as land parcelling and privatisation. This scenario threatens the very tenets of pastoralism, i.e. mobile use of heterogenous resources scattered over vast lands that are crucial to adapting to climate change (Tugjamba et al. 2021; Kr\u0026auml;tli et al. 2022). Moreover, recurrent climate change is triggering conflicts and underlying tensions (Tugjamba et al. 2023; Schilling et al. 2014). The respondents mentioned direct conflicts, e.g. with the Samburu during migration, and indirect conflicts when they are proxy to conflicts between the Samburu and other communities, especially the Garba, as documented in the literature (Roba and Oba 2013; Haro et al. 2005).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArchaeological records show that pastoral systems in Eastern Africa have historically been resilient to ecological and socio-political perturbations to the system (Wright 2019). Current scholarly work furthers the argument that pastoral systems are a product of adapting to climate variability and will continue to be resilient (e.g.\u0026nbsp;Semplici and Campbell 2023; Niamir-Fuller and Huber-Sannwald 2020). However, there is a need to interrogate how livestock production will be sustained amidst recurrent droughts with a legacy that threatens future recovery of vegetation under increasingly constrained mobility, acute shortage of water and strains of social conflict. Further, in marginalised communities such the Rendille, adaptation research discloses long-standing structural vulnerabilities, often exacerbated by climate change (Haro et al. 2005; Rickards et al. 2024). In such contexts, adaptation can contextualise multi-causal dynamics between climate change and socio-political factors (Rickards et al. 2024) and seek transformational adaptation through a new and improved system (O\u0026rsquo;Brien 2012). This is currently missing in adaptation approaches in pastoral systems (Tugjamba et al. 2023). We opine that the effectiveness of restoration in drylands as an adaptation response must be centred on local socio-political dimensions that complement deliberate actions to respond to short-term and long-term climate impacts, intertwined with development outcomes. This includes short-term monitoring of changes in vegetation cover to inform early livestock offtake and humanitarian responses. In the longer term, restoration interventions can engage with or be part of broader structural transformation initiatives in the drylands to support economic empowerment within pastoral production systems. This encompasses diversification into education coupled with employment opportunities (Opiyo et al. 2015) and entrepreneurship to generate non-pastoral incomes within pastoral households. External revenue sources can complement pastoral production and support pastoral families during drought events (Achiba 2018; Lenaiyasa et al. 2020). We are not arguing for the replacement of pastoral production but rethinking the future of sustainable pastoralism amidst recurrent, intense droughts. On a broader scale, there is a need to mitigate climate forcing, as adaptation alone is insufficient for populations in areas facing precarious climatic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used simple participatory methods to incorporate pastoralists\u0026rsquo; local knowledge on climate anomalies and the role of restoration in improving their adaptive capacities. In this process, we find that local land users\u0026rsquo; recollections of climate change align with published records (similar findings by (Balasha et al. 2023; Tugjamba et al. 2023). The experience and knowledge of climate change influences pastoralists to adopt anticipatory measures, for they understand that it is not \u003cem\u003eif\u003c/em\u003e but \u003cem\u003ewhen\u003c/em\u003e climate impacts occur. Some limitations to the methodology include the short period of satellite data and targeting a comparatively homogenous group of land users (pastoralists). This methodology therefore may be inadequate in cases with diverse, sometimes competing values and land uses. Besides, our respondents were directly involved in the project, potentially being positively biased regarding project outcomes. Although we excluded non-participant neighbouring groups, this case study mirrors other pastoral societies in drylands of Kenya, Africa and the world and can provide important lessons for restoration in these areas.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eClimate anomalies in drylands are intensifying, making it crucial to assess whether NbS truly meet land users\u0026rsquo; adaptation needs. Using an interdisciplinary approach integrating ecological and socio-cultural factors, we examined how ecosystem restoration enhances adaptive capacity among pastoralists. We find that the success of ecosystem restoration in drylands is closely linked to the contextual alignment with the ecological and socio-cultural realities of the pastoralists.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe alignment of ecosystem restoration with governance, institutions, gender and production objectives elevates the often overlooked human and social elements in ecosystem restoration. By focussing on the extent that adaptive capacities improve livestock production, the core livelihood activity of pastoralists, we show that embedding restoration interventions within the socio-cultural realities improves the effectiveness of NbS in delivering adaptation outcomes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study contributes to much-needed post-assessment information on restoration projects linked to adaptation. It is an example of an accountability tool for project implementers and donors, informing the design, implementation and assessment of future projects. By providing empirical evidence that ecosystem restoration must transcend ecological boundaries to achieve meaningful climate adaptation, the study offers practical guidance for aligning restoration interventions with local contexts and ensuring that they serve the communities they aim to protect.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eACHIBA, G. A. 2018. Managing livelihood risks: Income diversification and the livelihood strategies of households in pastoral settlements in Isiolo County, Kenya. \u003cem\u003ePastoralism,\u003c/em\u003e 8\u003cstrong\u003e,\u003c/strong\u003e 20.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBALASHA, A. M., MUNYAHALI, W., KULUMBU, J. T., OKWE, A. N., FYAMA, J. N. M., LENGE, E. K. \u0026amp; TAMBWE, A. N. 2023. 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Drought Offset Ecological Restoration Program-Induced Increase in Vegetation Activity in the Beijing-Tianjin Sand Source Region, China. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science \u0026amp; Technology,\u003c/em\u003e 48\u003cstrong\u003e,\u003c/strong\u003e 12108-12117.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"acacia, arid and semi-arid lands, Kenya, livestock, pastoralists, restoration","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7321509/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7321509/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEcosystem restoration is increasingly being posited as a response option to both land degradation and climate change issues, especially in drylands. However, the success of these interventions is persistently encumbered by a lack of contextual alignment with dryland realities. This paper analyses how adaptation outcomes in ecosystem restoration are influenced and shaped by the extent that the restoration interventions are entrenched within the socio-ecological realities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study combines satellite data and field ethnographies through field observations, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and participatory mapping, to analyse a past farmer-managed natural regeneration project among Rendille pastoralists in Marsabit, Kenya. We show that contextual alignment with the local governance systems, livelihood and ecological dynamics improves the adaptive capacities of local land users and delivers benefits that are sustainable. However, owing to the increasing intensity and frequency of climate anomalies such as droughts, restoration alone is insufficient to meet the adaptation needs of the local communities. This necessitates broader policy actions, including efforts to address increasing threats of climate change in drylands. This study underscores the importance of contextual alignment of ecosystem restoration and offers guidance and insights to future projects on ensuring contextual alignment in ecosystem restoration to benefit people and ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing Climate Adaptation Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration in Kenyan Drylands","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-12 06:31:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7321509/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e5137055-b21a-47ed-98bc-18f8735e7479","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-06T03:28:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-12 06:31:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7321509","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7321509","identity":"rs-7321509","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}