Effect of insect exclusion screens on insect pests in high tunnels

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Quesada, Colton Batson, Ida Holaskova, Tom Basden This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614865/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract High tunnels can use insect exclusion screens as a mechanical pest control method within integrated pest management (IPM) programs. The impact of insect screens was evaluated on several tomato pests in commercial high tunnels. The study was conducted in five pairs of screened and open high tunnels at 5 farms. The effect of sampling methods on pest abundance in high tunnels was also compared. In general, screens increased the abundance of small pests that could penetrate the screen. However, this effect was driven by aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae), which were the most prominent pests. When thrips (Thysanoptera) populations were analyzed individually, screened tunnels had a lower abundance of thrips than open high tunnels. Like thrips, the abundance of the medium size group such as flea beetles (Coleoptera: Alticinae) was reduced in screened high tunnels. We also found the differences between treatments were affected by the insect sampling method and varied by insect species. For instance, we found that visual observation was the best method to evaluate aphid abundance, followed by vacuum and sticky traps. In contrast, visual observation was the worst method to evaluate thrips. Vacuum and visual observations were statistically similar. Sticky traps were the method that collected more thrips. In addition, vacuum and sticky traps were suitable methods for detecting flea beetles. Last, we found the size of screens (0.72mm x 0.97mm) used in this study did not increase temperature. In the absence of differences in temperature, changes in pest populations may be attributed to other factors. Mechanical control insect mesh aphids thrips flea beetles Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Small-scale crop producers are common in the northeastern United States, and they compete with large producers on price and availability. Small-scale producers often resort to unique marketing strategies for their crops. The demand for local, high-quality produce has been increasing with the popularity of farmer’s markets (Conner et al., 2009). Farmer’s markets allow producers to establish a local customer base and avoid competition with wholesale producers (Brown & Miller, 2008 ). Buyers at farmer’s markets seek fresh, high-quality produce that is grown locally. They largely disregard price in purchasing decisions, allowing higher prices to remain competitive. Consumers also want a variety of produce and availability outside of summer months (Alonso & O’Neill, 2010 ). Growers seek to answer consumer demands by producing a diverse range of crops while maintaining quality. However, climate, geography, and history restrict the size of agricultural production in the region despite the trend of industry-wide consolidation (USDA Economic Research Service, 2024a ; 2024b ). This has led growers to seek methods to increase productivity that are compatible with the resources available to them. High tunnels are structures used by producers to extend their growing season and increase production on a smaller plot of land. An early start to the growing season and increased crop quality allows farmers to ask for a higher price at these local markets. The environment in high tunnels is not controlled as much as in greenhouses, but they still offer protection from weather events and trap heat when the sides are closed (Carey et al., 2009 ). High tunnels require investment and different management techniques than crops grown in the field (Bruce et al., 2019 ). They are often labor intensive and used in conjunction with field crops, with the highest value vegetables, fruit, and cut flowers being reserved for production in the high tunnel. Pest management is key for agricultural producers. High tunnels may offer refuge from common pathogens where environmental conditions are unfavorable for development (O’Connell et al., 2012 ). However, this is not always the case for insects. Just as the plants are protected from weather events, insect pests are protected from otherwise limiting weather and predation (Ingwell et al., 2017 ). Compared to a traditional greenhouse, the open side walls allow for pest invasion and free movement between the exterior and interior (Leach & Isaacs, 2018 ). Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L) is the most common crop grown in high tunnels in the region (Carey et al., 2009 ). In West Virginia, the most common pests on tomatoes are aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae), thrips (Thysanoptera), spider mites (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae), whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), and some caterpillars species such as tomato fruit worm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and tomato hornworm, Manduca quinquemaculata (Haworth) (Nault & Speese III, 2002). When pest outbreaks occur, chemical control is the most common method to manage pests because pesticides are easy to use, effective, and have quick results. However, in West Virginia, a large part of vegetable growers avoids the use of pesticides and most vegetable producers prefer reduced risk insecticides such as horticultural oils (CRQ, pers. obs.). Small growers often sell their products at fresh-markets, school systems, or directly to consumers who have high concerns about pesticide use in agriculture. Growers must adapt to consumer demands while staying productive and profitable (Conner et al., 2009). Practices such as sanitation can reduce successful overwintering of pests in high tunnels (Pottorf & Panter, 2009). However, insect pests often move to high tunnels from overwintering locations during the growing season. Insect exclusion screens are a mechanical control that can be used for organic production or as part of integrated pest management programs for conventional growers in high tunnels to prevent establishment of pest populations. Spotted wing drosophila, Drosphila suzukii has been reduced in raspberries (Leach et al., 2016 ), and a yield increase in cucumbers ( Cucumis sativus L.) was achieved when cucumber beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) were excluded by this technique (Ingwell & Kaplan, 2019 ). They work best when the primary pests are too large to fit through the mesh, so this method is reliant on the high tunnel being properly sealed elsewhere. If the pores are too fine, the screens may contribute to an increase in ambient temperature and humidity inside the high tunnel by reducing the air movement (Pottorff & Panter, 2009 ; Ingwell et al., 2018 ). This can pose a problem for sensitive crops in the hotter months of the season, but the risk of this depends on the crops being grown and the local climate (Ingwell et al., 2018 ). Also, the increase in temperatures can speed up the life cycle of insect pests resulting in higher populations (Nava-Camberos et al., 2001 ). Another factor that can influence pest populations is the presence of natural enemies. Naturally occurring predators and parasitoids play a vital role in managing certain pest populations in agroecosystems (Macfadyen et al., 2014 ). Insect exclusion screens may lead to a loss in natural enemies due to restricting migration without the full benefit of retaining augmentative releases (Ingwell et al., 2018 ). The screens excluding natural enemies might also lead to secondary infestations of pests that otherwise wouldn’t be significant, like aphids or thrips (Ingwell & Kaplan, 2019 ). Insect pests can be introduced on plants or by workers entering the high tunnel, by passing the netting. This creates an enemy-free space for a population to establish itself early, which may result in damage to crops before the suppressive effects from natural enemies can occur. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of exclusion screens on insect pests of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. 2. Materials and methods Research was conducted in 10 high tunnels five farms in north central West Virginia (Table 1 ). Two high tunnels of the same size were used at each farm, one high tunnel was randomly selected to be used as a control (without screen), and the other high tunnel had the insect exclusion screen installed. The exclusion screen used at each farm was a ProtekNet 70g (Dubois Agrinovation, Saint-Rémi, Quebec) with pore sizes of 0.72mm x 0.97mm. The side walls and vents were covered with the screen and secured to the high tunnel using zig zag wire. The exclusion screens were also installed at entrances (large doors), but their installation varied depending on the high tunnel design and the grower’s preference for accessibility. Three growers secured screens across one of the entrances with wiggle wire and the other entrance with eight high strength magnets (3.17 cm diameter x 0.5 cm, Mikede, China) used to connect overlapping pieces of the netting. One grower preferred both entrances using magnets, and the last grower secured both entrances with wiggle wire because the high tunnels have an additional small door. The screens were installed prior to planting in 2023. The growers agreed to be consistent in both high tunnels in all agricultural practices, including but not limited to crop species, densities, planting dates (Table 1 ). For instance, the grower who planted tomatoes in both high tunnels, had half the plants in the high tunnel with screen and half in high tunnels without screen. Another grower cultivated tomatoes and green bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.), this grower used the same number of rows for both crops. Also, the order of plants grown in the screened high tunnels mirrored the order in the high tunnel without screens. Because of the variability among farms, farms were used as a random factor in the statistical model. Table 1 Details of study sites (location, sizes of high tunnels, planting dates and crops. Year Farm’s name Geolocation Size of High tunnels (m) Planting date Crops 2023 Carr 39.4090, -80.1539 9.14 x 18.28 May 9 Tomato (cherry, big beef*); pepper (green bell), cucumber, and squash, Cucurbita pepo , (heirloom) 2023 Daystar 39.1652, -79.8617 9.14 x 30.40 May 19 Tomato (cherry, German Johnson*), and pepper (green/red poblano, green/yellow/red bell) 2023 Sickler 39.1636, -79.9981 9.14 x 30.48 April 25–27 Tomato (BHN #589*, San Marzano) 2023 Maa Milk 39.5149, -80.2922 9.14 x 15.24 May 6 Tomato (German Johnson*, cherry), green bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris , heirloom), and pepper (jalapeno, Hungarian banana) 2023 Mountain Harvest 39.5403, -79.9729 9.14 x 30.4 March 20 Tomato (Geronimo*, Sakura, and Sungold) 2024 Carr 39.4090, -80.1539 9.14 x 18.28 April 15–20 Tomato (cherry, slicer*), cucumbers, and pepper (bell) 2024 Daystar 39.1652, -79.8617 9.14 x 30.40 May 6, 20, and 22, respectively Tomato (cherry, Big Beef, Roma*), pepper (poblano, bell, banana), and cucumber 2024 Sickler 39.1636, -79.9981 9.14 x 30.48 March 13 Tomatoes (BHN 589*, Plum Regal, Aunt Lou) 2024 Maa Milk 39.5149, -80.2922 9.14 x 15.24 May 6–7 Tomatoes (Cherokee purple*, black cherry, Amish paste, Florida 100), and peppers (Jalapeno, Hungarian wax, California wonder) 2024 Mountain Harvest 39.5403, -79.9729 9.14 x 30.4 April 1 Tomato (Big Beef* and cherry) * Varieties recorded for insect observation in 2024. All plants were transplanted and not sowed. 2.2. Temperature HOBO temp/RH loggers (LI-COR; Lincoln, Nebraska) were installed prior to the start of data collection. One logger was placed in each high tunnel approximately in the middle, and one was placed outside of the high tunnels to read the exterior environmental conditions. The loggers were placed at the top of a 1 m stake, and a radiation shield was placed over each logger. Each logger recorded the temperature and relative humidity once every hour until the end of the growing season. Average temperatures for each biweekly period were used to determine temperature effects. 2.3. Insect sampling Once planting was completed at all farms, biweekly surveys were conducted in each high tunnel on tomatoes because it was the only crop repeated in all farms across both years. Abundance of pests was assessed using three methods from planting to harvest in the 2023 and 2024 growing seasons. In 2023, samples were collected on May 16, 30, June 13, 27, July 11, 25, August 8, 23, September 6, and 20. In 2024, samples were collected on May 7, 21, June 4, 18, July 2, 16, 30, August 13, 27 and September 10. For the first method, insects were collected by using an Echo Shred’n’Vac leaf vacuum (ECHO Power Equipment, Lake Zurich, Illinois) and standard paint mesh bags (Lundin et al., 2018 ; Quesada & Sadof, 2019 ). The mesh bags were inserted into the vacuum tube and secured via rubber band around the neck of the tube. A label with the farm, date, high tunnel, and plant species was placed into the bag. The vacuum was used for 30 seconds, in a sweeping motion while the user walked down the rows as evenly as possible. The bags were secured with rubber bands after vacuuming and placed into a cooler until they could be transferred to a refrigerator at the end of each survey day. The next day, the arthropods in the bags were placed into glass vials with 70% ethanol sorted by date, farm, high tunnel, and plant species for preservation. Collected arthropods were identified to at least family level except for Thysanoptera, Araneae, and Psocodea, which were sorted by order. If there was further assistance needed for identification of the specimens collected, those specimens were sent off to a taxonomist for identification. The second method was visual observation. Five tomato plants were randomly selected to record the insects in each high tunnel. A mobile device was used to randomly generate row and plant numbers. The plants were flagged and observed throughout the growing season. Each selected plant was examined for one minute from top to bottom for large insects such as caterpillars. In addition, two leaves from the top (first and second complete leaves), the middle, and the bottom of each selected plant were used to count small insects such as aphids and whiteflies. Sticky traps were used in the third method. Two sticky traps were placed per high tunnel at about one third the total length from each entrance at canopy height. Sticky traps were 20.23 cm x 8.9 cm, blue on one side and yellow on the other, and were placed by the growers 24 hours prior to the biweekly survey. Sticky traps were collected, wrapped in plastic cling-wrap, and labeled with the date, farm, and high tunnel. Insects were classified within 72 hours after the survey day. 2.4. Statistical analysis Temperature was analyzed generalized linear mixed model (GLIMMIX) including using repeated measures ANOVA with PROC GLIMMIX in SAS (SAS®, v. 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, Copyright ©2002–2012). Temperature was used as a response variable, treatment and sampling date were used as independent variables, and sampling date and farms were used as random variables. Data were analyzed by year (2023 and 2024) separately. To estimate the impact of insect exclusion screens on insect pests, the abundance of insects was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA with PROC GLIMMIX in SAS. The count data were fitted to either negative binomial or Poisson distribution, using Laplace estimation method and Log link, depending on the goodness of fit. If goodness of fit was unacceptable, mostly due to the presence of large outliers, the data were further transformed using square root. Insect pests were divided into three size groups because screens can increase the abundance of small insects, such as Aphididae (aphids), while reducing the abundance of larger insects such as Chrysomelidae (cucumber beetles) and summed up (Ingwell & Kaplan, 2019 ). The first group was small pests that could pass through insect screens. Aphididae, Aleyrodidae, Cecidomyiidae, Sciaridae, Sciaroidea, and Thysanoptera families were included in the small pest group because screens aren't effective against them, according to manufacturer specifications (Dubois, 2023). This aligns with findings from other studies which demonstrated that screens are ineffective at preventing small pests like aphids and may even increase their abundance (Ingwell & Kaplan 2019 ). The second group was made up of pests that were too large to fit through the netting. The manufacturer specifications indicate that screen can stop large insects such as cucumber beetles and Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica Newman, which is consistent with the scientific data (Burkness et al., 2022 ; Ingwell and Kaplan, 2019 ; Dubois, 2023). Therefore, pests exceeding the size of a cucumber beetle were classified as large pests. We included the following familes: Anthomyiidae, Caelifera, Coreidae, Crambidae, Galerucinae, Gelechiidae, Gracillariidae, Gryllidae, Hesperiidae, Largidae, Lepidoptera, Membracidae, Noctuidae, Pentatomidae, Pieridae, Platystomatidae, Pterophoridae, Pyraloidea, Scarabaeidae, Sphingidae, Tephritidae, Tortricidae, and Yponomeutidae. However, the manufacturer states that screens stop leafhoppers, but not flea beetles (Dubois, 2023); leafhoppers are 2–5 mm, flea beetles are 3–5 mm (DeLong, 1971 ; Cloyd & Herrick 2023 ). Because we did not find other studies using the same screen size on leafhoppers or flea beetles, we created a group called medium pests. The medium size group consisted of pests visually larger than the individuals in the small pest group, but smaller than cucumber beetles. Alticinae, Aphrophoridae, Byturidae, Cercopidae, Chloropidae, Cicadellidae, Clastopteridae, Curculionidae, Derbidae, Miridae, Psilidae, and Tingidae families were included. Data were analyzed by insect size category and year separately. In the model, the response variable was the insect abundance; the independent variables were treatments, sampling methods, and sampling dates; all interactions of independent variables were included; and random variables were farms and sampling dates using autoregressive covariance structure of fist degree, or compound symmetry, depending on model optimization, judged by the lack-of-fit. Farms were used as random factors to account for covariance within farms across days,, and a high tunnel ID was considered the subject of repeated measures More than one model was fitted.. If the result showed differences among sampling methods but not between treatments, data was analyzed using another model with insect abundance by sampling methods separately. Then, the model had insect abundance per sampling methods as response variable, treatments and sampling date as independent variables plus their interactions, and sampling date and farms as random variables. In the last model, the interaction between treatment and sampling dates was removed if the interaction was not significant to increase the model power. In addition, aphids and thrips were analyzed separately from the rest of the small pests because they make up 75% and 20% in 2023 and 66% and 22% in 2024, respectively. Similarly, flea beetles (Coleoptera: Alticinae) and leafhoppers were analyzed separately from the rest of the medium insects because they were the most abundant pests in this category. Means of significant effects were compared with the Tukey-Kramer test. The significance criterion alpha for all tests was 0.05. 3. Results 3.1. Temperature Temperature was not significantly affected by the screening treatments in 2023 or 2024 (Table 2 .A and 2.B). As expected, temperature was affected by sampling date in both years 2023 and 2024 because it differs across the months. The mean average temperature was 0.141° C higher in the screened high tunnels than in the high tunnels without screens during the growing season in 2023 and 0.429° C higher during the growing season in 2024. During the hottest months of the year, from July to September in 2023, high tunnels without screens had a higher average temperature of 22.49° C compared to 22.24°C in screened high tunnels. During the same months in 2024, high tunnels with screens had an average temperature of 24.11° C, which was 0.27°C numerically higher than tunnels without screens. Table 2 Fixed effects of insect exclusion screens on temperatures and abundance of insect pests using repeated measures ANOVA with PROC GLIMMIX in SAS. Factors df F value P value A) Temperature (2023) Treatment 1 78 0.00 0.993 Sampling date 1 9 10.52 0.010 ** B) Temperature (2024) Treatment 1 57 0.03 0.865 Sampling date 1 9 13.00 0.006 ** C) Small pests (2023) Treatment 1 222 6.12 0.014 ** Sampling method 2 222 17.79 < 0.001 ** D) Aphididae (aphids, 2023) Treatment 1 222 8.96 0.003 ** Sampling method 2 222 35.23 < 0.001 ** E) Thysanoptera (thrips, 2023) Treatment 1 144 4.08 0.045 ** Sampling method 1 144 23.57 < 0.001 ** F) Small pests (2024) Treatment 1 228 1.16 0.282 Sampling method 2 228 3.56 0.030 ** G) Small pests (vacuum data, 2024) Treatment 1 78 4.22 0.043 ** H) Small pests (visual observation data, 2024) Treatment 1 78 24.49 < 0.001 ** I) Small pests (sticky trap data, 2024) Treatment 1 141 10.90 0.001 ** J) Aphididae (aphids, 2024) Treatment 1 228 7.94 0.005 ** Sampling method 2 228 20.84 < 0.001 ** K) Thysanoptera (thrips, 2024) Treatment 1 228 1.23 0.269 Sampling method 2 228 20.93 < 0.001 ** L) Thysanoptera (thrips, sticky trap data, 2024) Treatment 1 64 5.11 0.027 M) Medium pests (2023) Treatment 1 222 13.41 < 0.001 ** Sampling method 2 222 37.01 < 0.001 ** N) Alticinae (flea beetles, 2023) Treatment 1 222 7.36 0.007 ** Sampling method 2 222 0.66 0.520 ** O) Cicadellidae (leafhoppers, 2023) Treatment 1 222 0.57 0.451 Sampling method 2 222 1.82 0.165 P) Medium pests (2024) Treatment 1 227 10.02 0.002 ** Sampling method 2 227 15.76 < 0.001 ** Q) Alticinae (flea beetles, 2024) Treatment 1 228 0.29 0.593 Sampling method 2 228 6.01 0.003 ** R) Cicadellidae (leafhoppers, 2024) Treatment 1 228 0.76 0.383 Sampling date 1 29 0.00 0.999 S) Large pests (2023) Treatment 1 222 1.01 0.317 Sampling method 2 222 0.63 0.532 T) Large pests (2024) Treatment 1 228 2.27 0.134 Sampling method 2 228 5.24 0.006 3.2. Small Pests In 2023, the abundance of small pests was significantly affected by the treatments and sampling methods (Table 2 .C). The abundance of small pests was higher in screened high tunnels. Based on the statistical analyses of estimates, visual observation was the best sampling method, followed by sticky traps and vacuum. All sample methods were statistically difference from each other. In the vacuum samples, there were 414 and 704 small pests collected in control and screened high tunnels, respectively (Table 3 ). The small pests in the control high tunnels were 84.8% Aphididae, 8.7% Thysanoptera, 5.8% Sciaridae, and 0.7% Cecidomyiidae. In the screened high tunnels, Aphididae was 96.2% of the small pests followed by Sciaridae (3.0%), Thysanoptera (0.7%), and Cecidomyiidae (0.1%). The small pests found via observation were in Aphididae and Aleyrodidae. In the controls, Aphididae was 97.8% of the 1611 total, and 99.8% of the 2616 small pests in the screened high tunnels. The sticky traps captured 1425 small pests in the control high tunnels. Thysanoptera (77.1%) was the most abundant along with Aphididae (15.7%). Aleyrodidae, Sciaridae, Sciaroidea, and Cecidomyiidae were also present. Thysanoptera (60.2%), Aphididae (18.8%), and Sciaridae (10.6%) were the most common in the screened high tunnel, which caught 586 small pests, in addition to Aleyrodidae, Sciaroidea, and Cecidomyiidae. Table 3 Number of insect pests collected with an inverted leaf blower vacuum, sticky traps and count using visual observation on tomatoes grown in 10 commercial high tunnels. Order Family Subfamily 2023 2024 Vacuum Sticky Trap Visual Observation Vacuum Sticky Trap Visual Observation Coleoptera Byturidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Alticinae 82 18 34 128 104 14 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Galerucinae 6 2 1 0 5 1 Coleoptera Curculionidae 0 2 0 0 2 0 Coleoptera Scarabaeidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 Diptera Agromyzidae 1 6 0 3 6 0 Diptera Anthomyiidae 1 1 0 0 9 0 Diptera Cecidomyiidae 4 35 0 53 70 0 Diptera Chloropidae 50 54 0 41 75 15 Diptera Platystomatidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 Diptera Psilidae 0 6 0 2 1 0 Diptera Sciaridae 45 95 0 48 123 3 Diptera Sciaroidea* 0 22 0 0 0 0 Diptera Tephritidae 5 0 0 0 1 0 Hemiptera Aleyrodidae 0 73 40 3 310 5 Hemiptera Aphididae 1028 334 4187 1109 173 1855 Hemiptera Aphrophoridae 0 0 0 2 19 0 Hemiptera Cercopidae 0 9 0 0 0 0 Hemiptera Cicadellidae 29 263 3 18 380 2 Hemiptera Clastopteridae 0 0 0 0 1 0 Hemiptera Coreidae 5 0 3 2 0 0 Hemiptera Derbidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 Hemiptera Largidae 0 0 0 0 2 0 Hemiptera Membracidae 0 0 0 3 1 0 Hemiptera Miridae 0 5 0 8 6 1 Hemiptera Pentatomidae 0 0 1 0 1 0 Hemiptera Tingidae 0 0 0 6 1 5 Lepidoptera Crambidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 Lepidoptera Gelechiidae 0 0 0 1 1 0 Lepidoptera Gracillariidae 0 0 0 4 13 0 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae 0 8 0 0 29 0 Lepidoptera Noctuidae 0 1 0 4 2 3 Lepidoptera Pieridae 0 1 0 0 1 0 Lepidoptera Pterophoridae 0 0 0 1 0 0 Lepidoptera Pyraloidea* 0 0 0 1 0 0 Lepidoptera Sphingidae 0 0 0 0 0 2 Lepidoptera Tortricidae 0 1 0 0 6 0 Lepidoptera Yponomeutidae 0 0 0 1 1 0 Lepidoptera 8 8 5 0 0 2 Orthoptera Caelifera* 2 1 4 0 0 0 Orthoptera Gryllidae* 0 0 2 0 1 0 Thysanoptera 41 1452 0 12 1029 1 Trombidiformes Tetranychidae 0 0 0 1 6 0 Aphididae were also analyzed separately from the rest of the small pests because they represented a high percentage of this category. Aphididae were affected by treatments and sampling methods Table 2 .D. Aphididae abundance was increased in the screened high tunnel (158%) compared to the high tunnels without screens. All sampling methods were significantly different from each other, but their order was different compared to the results of the small insect group. Based on the estimates, observation was the best sampling method followed by vacuum and sticky traps. Thysanoptera were the second highest pests collected within this size category. Treatments and sampling methods also affected Thysanoptera (Table 2 .E). Unlike the Aphididae results, the abundance of Thysanoptera was reduced (-69%) by the insect exclusion screens. Sticky traps were the best sampling method to detect Thysanoptera, followed by vacuum. Sticky traps and vacuum were statistically different from each other. The observation method was removed from the analysis because Thysanoptera were not detected by this sampling method. In 2024, the abundance of small insects was not affected by treatment, but it was significantly different among sampling methods and sampling time (Table 2 .F). Unlike 2023, the best sampling method was sticky traps followed by vacuum and observation. Vacuum and visual observation were not statistically different from each other. The data was further analyzed by sampling methods separately. In the vacuum sample, the abundance of small insects significantly increased in screened high tunnels (Table 2 .G). There were 1018 small pests collected with the vacuum in the high tunnels with screens. Aphididae made up 96.1% of them. Tetranychidae, Sciaridae, Aleyrodidae, Cecidomyiidae, and Thysanoptera were also collected (Table 3 ). 208 small pests were collected in the control high tunnels. Aphididae (63.0%) were the most common, followed by Sciaridae (15.4%) and Cecidomyiidae (15.4%). Aleyrodidae and Thysanoptera were present too. Similar to the vacuum sampling method, high tunnels with screens were statistically different from unscreened high tunnels, where screens increase small insect abundance using visual observation (Table 2 .H). Except for a single Thysanoptera and Aleyrodidae, Aphididae (99.9) was nearly all the 1496 observed small pests in the screened high tunnels. In the controls, Aphididae (98.1%), Sciaridae (0.8%), and Aleyrodidae (1.1%) were observed for a total of 368 small pests. There were also significant differences between treatments on small pests in the sticky trap samples (Table 2 .I). However, unlike vacuum and observation, insect exclusion screens reduced the small pest abundance by about half compared to the control high tunnels. This explains the inconsistency in the results between small pest abundance in 2023 and 2024, when all sampling methods were used for the analysis. The sticky traps captured 1150 and 561 small pests in the control and screened high tunnels, respectively. Thysanoptera (63.8%) and Aleyrodidae (17.2%) were the most abundant in the controls. Likewise, Thysanoptera (52.6%), Aleyrodidae (20.0%), and Aphididae (17.5%) were the most common small pests in the netted high tunnels. Sciaridae, Tetranychidae, and Cecidomyiidae were also present in both treatments. Similar to 2023, Aphididae abundance was significantly affected by treatments and sampling methods in 2024 (Table 2 .J). Abundance of Aphididae was higher in screened high tunnels (712%) compared to the high tunnels without screens. Observation and vacuum sampling methods were statistically similar and were the best methods for detecting Aphididae. The sticky trap method was statistically different from the other two. The abundance of Thysanoptera was not affected by treatment (Table 2 .K). However, their abundance was significantly affected by sampling methods. Sticky traps showed the higher number of Thysanoptera, and it was statistically difference to both vacuum and observation. The low numbers in vacuum and observation methods explain the inconsistency between 2023 and 2024. However, when Thysanoptera were analyzed using the 2024 sticky trap data separately, the abundance of Thysanoptera was significantly reduced in screened high tunnels (-60%) compared to the control (Table 2 .L). 3.3. Medium Pests In 2023, there were significant differences in medium pest abundance caused by treatments and sampling methods (Table 2 .M). The abundance of medium pests was reduced by insect exclusion screens compared to the high tunnels without screens. Sticky traps were the best sampling method followed by vacuum and visual observation. Sampling methods were all significantly different from each other. In the vacuum samples, the control high tunnels had 104 collected consisting of Alticinae (41.3%), Chloropidae (34.6%), and Cicadellidae (24.0%). The 57 medium pests in the screened high tunnels were in the same families of Alticinae (68.4%), Chloropidae (24.6%), and Cicadellidae (7.0%). The number of individuals was similar between treatments with the visual observation method. The control high tunnels had 18 Alticinae whereas the netted high tunnels had 19 individuals, Alticinae (84.2%) and Cicadellidae (15.8%). In the sticky trap samples, 276 medium pests were captured in the controls, Cicadellidae (74.3%) and Chloropidae (15.9%) were the most abundant. Psilidae, Curculionidae, Alticinae, Miridae, and Cercopidae were also captured. In the netted high tunnels, 81 medium pests were found in the traps. Cicadellidae (71.6%) and Chloropidae (12.3%) were the most common, and Psilidae, Alticinae, and Cercopidae were also found. Similar results were obtained when abundance of Alticinae (flea beetles) was analyzed separately from the medium size (Table 2 .N). The insect exclusion screen reduced (-16.4%) Alticinae compared to the control. However, the best sampling method was vacuum. This was followed by visual observation and sticky traps which were not significantly different from each other. Unlike Alticinae, Cicadellidae was not statistically affected by screens, time or sampling methods (Table 2 .O). Sampling date *treatment and Sampling date *treatment*sampling method interactions were removed from the model because we got infinity solutions due to lack of variance. The 2024 results were consistent with those obtained in 2023. Insect exclusion screens reduced the abundance of medium pests compared to the control (Table 2 .P). The results of the sampling methods were also similar. Sticky traps were the best sampling method, followed by vacuum and visual observation, and all differed from each other. In the vacuum samples, the most abundant of the 107 medium pests found in the screened high tunnel were Alticinae (77.6%) and Chloropidae (17.8%). The other families were Miridae, Cicadellidae, and Psilidae. The control high tunnels saw 98 medium pests where Alticinae (45.9%), Chloropidae (22.4%), and Cicadellidae (16.3%) were the most common. Aphrophoridae, Tingidae, Psilidae, and Miridae were collected as well. In the visual observation, there were 25 medium pests in the control high tunnel consisting of Chloropidae (56.0%), Tingidae (20.0%), and Alticinae (12.0%) as the most abundant along with Miridae and Cicadellidae. In the screened high tunnels, Alticinae was 11 (91.7%) of the 12 medium pests and Chloropidae. In the sticky trap samples, there were 465 medium pests caught in the controls. Cicadellidae (70.1%) made up the majority of them, but Alticinae (14.0%) and Chloropidae (11.6%) were notable as well. Insects in Aphrophoridae, Psilidae, Curculionidae, Miridae, Clastopteridae, and Tingidae were present too. There were 126 medium pests in the high tunnels with screens installed, mostly from Cicadellidae (42.9%), Alticinae (31.0%), and Chloropidae (16.7%). The families of Aphrophoridae, Derbidae, and Byturidae were identified as well. Unlike 2023, the abundance of Alticinae was not affected by treatments (Table 2 .Q). However, Alticinae was significantly affected by sampling methods. Vacuum and sticky traps were the best methods to detect Alticinae, and they were statistically similar. Abundance of Alticinae was further analyzed using vacuum and sticky trap data, but the result remained the same, as treatments did not affect their abundance. The effect of screens on Cicadellidae in 2024 was consistent with those observed in 2023. Abundance of Cicadellidae was statistically similar in screened high tunnels compared to those without screens (Table 2 .R). There was no statical significance detected among treatments, sampling dates, sampling methods or interactions. 3.4. Large pests Although the high tunnel without screens had four times more large pests than the screened tunnel, statistical analysis in 2023 revealed no significant difference between treatments or sampling methods (Table 2 .S). This might be explained by the low abundance of large insects in all farms over the season across several sampling dates. In the vacuum sample, 5 large pests were collected in the screened high tunnels. Only the taxa of Galerucinae (60.0%) and Caelifera (40.0%) were present. In the control high tunnels, 23 large pests were collected. The most abundant group was Lepidoptera (34.8%) followed by Coreidae (21.7%), Tephritidae (21.7%), and Galerucinae (13.0%). In the visual observation samples, there were 11 large pests in 5 taxa found in the control high tunnels. Lepidoptera was the most common at 36.4%. Coreidae (27.3%), Caelifera (18.2%), Galerucinae (9.1%), and Pentatomidae (9.1%). In the screened high tunnels, Caelifera (40.0%), Gryllidae (40.0%) and Lepidoptera (20.0%) made up the 5 large pests. In the sticky Trap samples, there were 5 large pests captured in the screened high tunnels consisting of Lepidoptera (40.0%), Caelifera (20.0%), Hesperiidae (20.0%), and Agromyzidae (20.0%). In the control high tunnels, 24 large pests were found on the traps. Hesperiidae (29.2%), Lepidoptera (25.0%), and Agromyzidae (20.8%) were the most common. Pieridae, Tortricidae, Noctuidae, Anthomyiidae, and Galerucinae were also caught. In 2024, the abundance of large pests in unscreened high tunnels was more than double the abundance in screened high tunnels. Yet, the abundance of large pets was not significantly affected by treatments (Table 2 .T). Unlike 2023, there was a significant difference among sampling methods, the sticky trap method was better for detecting large pests compared to vacuum and visual observation. When the abundance of large pests was analyzed using sticky trap data separately, results remained the same, treatments did not affect their abundance. In the vacuum samples, 20 large pests were collected, 14 in the controls and 6 in the netted high tunnels. Noctuidae (28.6%), Gracillariidae (21.4%), and Membracidae (21.4%) were the most abundant in the controls. Individuals from Agromyzidae, Pterophoridae, Pyraloidea, and Gelechiidae were collected too. Insects from Coreidae (33.3%), Agromyzidae (33.3%), Gracillariidae (16.7%), and Yponomeutidae (16.7%) were present in the screened high tunnels. In the visual observation samples, 5 large pests were detected in the control high tunnels, Noctuidae (40.0%), Sphingidae (40.0%), and unknown Lepidoptera (20.0%). Three large pests were observed in the netted high tunnels from Noctuidae, Galerucinae, and an unknown Lepidoptera. In the sticky trap samples, 61 large pests were caught in the control high tunnels. The more common were Hesperiidae (44.3%), Gracillariidae (18.0%), Anthomyiidae (11.5%), and Tortricidae (6.6%). The families of Pieridae, Gelechiidae, Yponomeutidae, Crambidae, Membracidae, Pentatomidae, Tephritidae, Platystomatidae, Noctuidae, and Agromyzidae were also found on the traps. The traps in the screened high tunnels caught 21 large pests from Galerucinae (23.8%), Agromyzidae (19.0%), Hesperiidae (9.5%), Tortricidae (9.5%), Gracillariidae (9.5%), Largidae (9.5%), and Anthomyiidae (9.5%) along with an individual from Gryllidae and Scarabaeidae. 4. Discussion Understanding how insect exclusion screens affect insect pest populations is crucial for integrated pest management in high tunnels, both organic and conventional. (Ingwell et al., 2018 ). We studied the abundance of insect pests by group (small, medium, and large) and the most prevalent pest species in high tunnels with and without insect exclusion screens. We found that screens increased aphid abundance while reducing the abundance of other small species such as thrips and medium size pests. Also, sampling methods can affect the results of pest abundance surveys in commercial high tunnels. Despite high tunnels having insect exclusion screens, a high number of pests and species were found in the high tunnels. Ingwell et al. (2019) attributed the presence of insects to small openings that are difficult to seal, such as door cracks. In addition, we conducted our research on commercial farms where producers frequently opened and closed gates for agricultural practices. Our results showed that large pests that couldn’t fit through the pores of the mesh were not affected significantly by the treatments. These results can be explained by the low number of large pests we captured with our different techniques. Although the abundance of large insects was not statically affected by insect exclusion screens, the total of large insects was four times higher in high tunnels without screens compared to screened high tunnels in 2023 and double in the following year. This pattern is consistent with other studies that have shown that insect exclusion screens can significantly reduce large pests such as Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and cucumber beetles resulting in better yields (Burkness et al., 2022 ; Ingwell and Kaplan, 2019 ; Kuesel et al., 2019 ). In contrast, the use of insect exclusion screens led to the increase of small pest abundance in high tunnels. We grouped small pests such as aphids, whiteflies, thrips, fungus gnats (Diptera: Sciaridae), and spider mites because they can go through the screen, and it has been shown that they are more likely to outbreak in protected areas such as greenhouses compared to open field production (Kersting et al., 1999 ; Nava-Camberos et al., 2001 ; Cao et al., 2018 ). Over five families of small pests were detected with different sampling methods, and they had a higher density in high tunnels with the screens installed compared to high tunnels without screens. However, the small pest results were driven by the high number of aphids. When aphids and thrips were analyzed separately, results showed screens had the opposite impact on these pests. Aphid abundance was increased by screens, which is consistent with other studies using cucumbers (Ingwell et al., 2018 ). In contrast, the abundance of thrips was reduced by insect exclusion screens showing that screens can stop pests even when they are small enough to go through the screens. This is consistent with other studies that have shown that insect exclusion screens in high tunnels are effective at reducing populations of other small pests such as Drosophila spp. (Leach et al., 2016 ; Kong et al., 2017 ; Kuesel et al., 2019 ; 2020). Similar to thrips, our results showed that insect exclusion screens can reduce the abundance of medium size pests such as flea beetles. We also compared three pest monitoring methods (vacuum, visual observation, and sticky traps) finding significant differences in the estimated abundance of pest species. For instance, screens increased the abundance of aphids constantly in both years of this study. However, our results showed that visual observation was a better method for detecting aphids followed by vacuum in 2023, and they were statically similar in 2024. When data was analyzed by sampling method separately, the impact of insect exclusion screens was still detected in the visual observation and vacuum data, but the effect of screens on aphids was not detected using sticky traps. Although this can be explained by the biology of aphids, in which a large part of their population is wingless; if populations are higher in one treatment, the number of winged aphids should also be higher (Muller et al., 2001 ). This showed that if we were only using sticky traps to monitor insects, we would have different results for aphid abundance. Similar results were found with thrips. Our result showed that the best sampling method to detect thrips was sticky traps. In 2024, the effect of screens on thrips was only detected when sticky trap data was analyzed separately from the other sampling methods. Lastly, vacuuming was the best method to detect flea beetles. We observed similar trends in other pest species; however, statistical analyses were not performed because of insufficient sample sizes. For instance, Sphingidae, the Lepidopteran family containing hornworms, was only counted during visual observation. The caterpillars tend to be too large and strong to detach with the vacuum after a few instars, and they can’t fly to be stuck in a trap. Some Hempiteran pests, such as Pentatomidae and Coreidae, were mostly detected by visual observation whereas Cicadellidae was mostly detected on sticky traps. Lastly, fruit flies, Tephritidae and Drosophilidae, and adult Lepidopterans were hard to detect using visual observation. This aligns with what others have reported about sampling for abundance in a diverse insect population. Differences in mobility, size, and feeding preferences all contribute to how to best collect insects (Avinent et al., 1993 ; Gill & O’Neal, 2015 ; Hagstrum, 2000 ). Protected cropping systems like greenhouses and high tunnels are more prone to outbreaks of small insects such as aphids, whiteflies, and thrips due to three key factors. First, an increase of temperature in high tunnels can favor the abundance of insect pests by influencing fecundity, growth, development, and life cycle (Kersting et al., 1999 ; Nava-Camberos et al., 2001 ; Cao et al., 2018 ). Several studies have shown that insect screens can increase the temperature in high tunnels when installed across several geographic locations with different temperatures from Ontario, Canada to Indiana, US to southeast France (Kong et al., 2017 ; Ingwell et al., 2018 ; Fatnassi et al., 2006 ). The difference in temperature between high tunnels with and without screens were ~ 1°C, 2.66°C and 2.7°C which could potentially increase insect abundance. However, temperature was not affected by the screens in this study. In fact, the temperature in screened high tunnels was slightly lower compared to high tunnels without between July and September in 2023. The difference could be attributed to the size of the mesh. We used 0.72 x 0.97mm netting whereas other studies used 0.15 x 0.35 mm, 0.16mm 2 , and 0.78 x 0.25 mm sized mesh, respectively. In addition, technology might have helped maintain a stable temperature. All high tunnels for this research had ventilation systems that were triggered by a temperature sensor, and one of the five farms had a system to open and close the sides automatically. The second factor that can increase pest populations in high tunnels is the lack of rainfall. Rainfall reduces the growth and development of the insects, can damage insect wings or even kill them (Chen et al. 2019 ; Karthik et al., 2021 ; Urbaneja-Bernat et al., 2022 ; Morshed et al., 2023 ). Rainfall is unlikely to explain differences in populations in screened and open greenhouses were protected from rainfall and irrigated in the same fashion. The last factor that can influence pest populations is natural enemies, which can reduce the abundance of pests (Cardinale et al., 2003 ; Messelink et al., 2021 ). In the absence of differences in temperature and rainfall between the treatments, we hypothesize that abundance of aphids was triggered by the impact of insect exclusion screens on natural enemies. However, the effect of insect exclusion screens on natural enemies had been poorly studied (Ingwell et al. 2018 ). 5. Conclusion Insect screens influence the crop ecology in high tunnel systems. Our research expands the understanding of how insect exclusion screens affect pests in commercial high tunnels, improving integrated pest management for both organic and conventional production. Selecting the size of screens is important because screens can alter the temperature, which can impact production and pest management. Our results show that screens with pore sizes of 0.72mm x 0.97mm did not increase temperature and reduced the abundance of medium size pests such as flea beetles and small size pests such as thrips. However, screens increase the abundance of aphids in commercial high tunnels. In the absence of differences in temperature between treatments the impact of screens on natural enemies needs to be explored to explain changes in aphid abundance Declarations Author Contribution CQ was involve in all aspects of the manuscript CB collected data and help writing the manuscript OH analyzed the data TB help with the field workAll authors reviewed the manuscript Acknowledgement We thank Dr. Laura Ingwell for helping to choose the size of the insect exclusion screens. Ray Carr, Jeff Sickler, Kathee Sharp, Francisco “Chico” Ramirez, and Mitchell Stemler for collaborating in this study. Jonathan Morgan for collecting part of the insect samples and Cliff Sadof for comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by the Northeastern IPM Center through project award #2022-70006-38004 Accession Number: 1017389 from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture Crop Protection and Pest Management, Regional Coordination Program, by U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture # 2021-70006-35668, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture # 550230783 - Exp Station Hatch MSF 783 Quesada under 11400037. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and should not be construed to represent any official USDA or U.S. Government determination or policy. 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(2024a, September 5). State Fact Sheets: State Data. U. S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Data Products. https://data.ers.usda.gov/reports.aspx?ID=17854#P7be45adeec 914458bb77f48b8f9ac9e1_6_369iT12C0x0 USDA Economic Research Service. (2024b, September 5). Farm Income and Wealth Statistics: Cash receipts by State. U. S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Data Products. https://data.ers.usda.gov/reports.aspx?ID=17843#P649df88aeaee4522b2eea 7754e92162a_16_17iT0R0x10 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files FigS1.jpg FigS2.jpg Supportinginformation.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7614865","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":533986932,"identity":"68779666-e1ff-4cda-9b85-6efbbfc42686","order_by":0,"name":"Carlos R. 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14:13:28","extension":"xml","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":172998,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"70d1e14154cc455aaa2c2f1f436cc3c81structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/61a34e8e7ae34804821069be.xml"},{"id":94772363,"identity":"77748853-ceea-4bcd-a552-711caa240d7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 14:13:28","extension":"html","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":181241,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/dcdb872fe9de56af76a6e157.html"},{"id":94772331,"identity":"2272dbc3-267d-4cc3-a31b-0dec19d111c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 14:13:27","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70911,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on temperature in commercial high tunnels.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/6f55224a681e997ad9bf33d2.jpg"},{"id":94772332,"identity":"b8edabf6-8f34-427b-b7f2-eeae2842b7d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 14:13:27","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51814,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on small pests of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. The abundance of insects was estimated using three sampling methods (vacuum, sticky trap, visual observation) over ten sampling dates. Small pests were arthropods that can go through insect screens. A, C) Mean (+/- SE) of small pests on treatments per sample. B, D) Seasonal average of small pests on sampling methods per sample.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/4bc3f68e6252f0e997665cf1.jpg"},{"id":94825129,"identity":"7af4b4bf-4df7-407d-8873-134bc39b790b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:49:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on aphids (Aphididae) of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. The abundance of insects was estimated using three sampling methods (vacuum, sticky trap, visual observation) over ten sampling dates. A, C) Mean (+/- SE) of aphids on treatments per sample. B, D) Seasonal average of aphids on sampling methods per sample.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/931dc3c2512134e46e95009f.jpg"},{"id":94824999,"identity":"3a6ada54-3996-48c2-9f4f-25c4f0209a68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:49:40","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51828,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on thrips (Thysanoptera) of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. The abundance of insects was estimated using three sampling methods (vacuum, sticky trap, visual observation) over ten sampling dates. A, C) Mean (+/- SE) of thrips on treatments per sample. B, D) Seasonal average of thrips on sampling methods per sample.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/95b4b0e3d815e9058bc6dcc9.jpg"},{"id":94772338,"identity":"936d8f3d-1ff4-4509-9146-bd7ca92b7d9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 14:13:27","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54998,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on medium pests of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. The abundance of insects was estimated using three sampling methods (vacuum, sticky trap, visual observation) over ten sampling dates. A, C) Mean (+/- SE) of medium pests on treatments per sample. B, D) Seasonal average of medium pests on sampling methods per sample.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/3ec3f897e1907a8cf84712da.jpg"},{"id":94823727,"identity":"1865ae5c-3406-48af-828b-2b4206bc7157","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:47:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59882,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on flea beetles (Alticinae) of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. The abundance of insects was estimated using three sampling methods (vacuum, sticky trap, visual observation) over ten sampling dates. A, C) Mean (+/- SE) of flea beetles on treatments per sample. B, D) Seasonal average of flea beetles on sampling methods per sample.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/dc6d0cc4f51e716da706274b.jpg"},{"id":94824608,"identity":"570c0686-dacb-4fcb-a5e8-719ada31981a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:49:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56375,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of exclusion screens on large pests of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels. The abundance of insects was estimated using three sampling methods (vacuum, sticky trap, visual observation) over ten sampling dates. Large pests were insects that were too large to fit through the netting. A, C) Mean (+/- SE) of large pests on treatments per sample. B, D) Seasonal average of large pests on sampling methods per sample.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/528308ef999e7677cb7064fb.jpg"},{"id":107840420,"identity":"948d512b-0bcf-47b6-a6cd-983e7fa0be95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-26 17:54:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1111323,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/575dcf29-5e8f-43a5-88f3-4fcdb827e887.pdf"},{"id":94772334,"identity":"f89870c4-d625-428d-84d5-6693d57d0c70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 14:13:27","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":112286,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"FigS1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/7bf41eb990680962cc644018.jpg"},{"id":94772335,"identity":"7427e0a1-b31e-455b-889e-fd0e2e7ca572","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 14:13:27","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":118776,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"FigS2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/c36543f07011b7dadabe4fe9.jpg"},{"id":94823716,"identity":"7ea14208-cf09-4e2a-9046-88d1f72fcbea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:47:53","extension":"docx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":27904,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supportinginformation.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7614865/v1/11a55c4ab123370a84f282fb.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effect of insect exclusion screens on insect pests in high tunnels ","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSmall-scale crop producers are common in the northeastern United States, and they compete with large producers on price and availability. Small-scale producers often resort to unique marketing strategies for their crops. The demand for local, high-quality produce has been increasing with the popularity of farmer\u0026rsquo;s markets (Conner et al., 2009). Farmer\u0026rsquo;s markets allow producers to establish a local customer base and avoid competition with wholesale producers (Brown \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Buyers at farmer\u0026rsquo;s markets seek fresh, high-quality produce that is grown locally. They largely disregard price in purchasing decisions, allowing higher prices to remain competitive. Consumers also want a variety of produce and availability outside of summer months (Alonso \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Neill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Growers seek to answer consumer demands by producing a diverse range of crops while maintaining quality. However, climate, geography, and history restrict the size of agricultural production in the region despite the trend of industry-wide consolidation (USDA Economic Research Service, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e). This has led growers to seek methods to increase productivity that are compatible with the resources available to them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh tunnels are structures used by producers to extend their growing season and increase production on a smaller plot of land. An early start to the growing season and increased crop quality allows farmers to ask for a higher price at these local markets. The environment in high tunnels is not controlled as much as in greenhouses, but they still offer protection from weather events and trap heat when the sides are closed (Carey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). High tunnels require investment and different management techniques than crops grown in the field (Bruce et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). They are often labor intensive and used in conjunction with field crops, with the highest value vegetables, fruit, and cut flowers being reserved for production in the high tunnel.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePest management is key for agricultural producers. High tunnels may offer refuge from common pathogens where environmental conditions are unfavorable for development (O\u0026rsquo;Connell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). However, this is not always the case for insects. Just as the plants are protected from weather events, insect pests are protected from otherwise limiting weather and predation (Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Compared to a traditional greenhouse, the open side walls allow for pest invasion and free movement between the exterior and interior (Leach \u0026amp; Isaacs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e L) is the most common crop grown in high tunnels in the region (Carey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In West Virginia, the most common pests on tomatoes are aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae), thrips (Thysanoptera), spider mites (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae), whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), and some caterpillars species such as tomato fruit worm, \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa zea\u003c/em\u003e (Boddie), and tomato hornworm, \u003cem\u003eManduca quinquemaculata\u003c/em\u003e (Haworth) (Nault \u0026amp; Speese III, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen pest outbreaks occur, chemical control is the most common method to manage pests because pesticides are easy to use, effective, and have quick results. However, in West Virginia, a large part of vegetable growers avoids the use of pesticides and most vegetable producers prefer reduced risk insecticides such as horticultural oils (CRQ, pers. obs.). Small growers often sell their products at fresh-markets, school systems, or directly to consumers who have high concerns about pesticide use in agriculture. Growers must adapt to consumer demands while staying productive and profitable (Conner et al., 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractices such as sanitation can reduce successful overwintering of pests in high tunnels (Pottorf \u0026amp; Panter, 2009). However, insect pests often move to high tunnels from overwintering locations during the growing season. Insect exclusion screens are a mechanical control that can be used for organic production or as part of integrated pest management programs for conventional growers in high tunnels to prevent establishment of pest populations. Spotted wing drosophila, \u003cem\u003eDrosphila suzukii\u003c/em\u003e has been reduced in raspberries (Leach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and a yield increase in cucumbers (\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e L.) was achieved when cucumber beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) were excluded by this technique (Ingwell \u0026amp; Kaplan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). They work best when the primary pests are too large to fit through the mesh, so this method is reliant on the high tunnel being properly sealed elsewhere. If the pores are too fine, the screens may contribute to an increase in ambient temperature and humidity inside the high tunnel by reducing the air movement (Pottorff \u0026amp; Panter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This can pose a problem for sensitive crops in the hotter months of the season, but the risk of this depends on the crops being grown and the local climate (Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Also, the increase in temperatures can speed up the life cycle of insect pests resulting in higher populations (Nava-Camberos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother factor that can influence pest populations is the presence of natural enemies. Naturally occurring predators and parasitoids play a vital role in managing certain pest populations in agroecosystems (Macfadyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Insect exclusion screens may lead to a loss in natural enemies due to restricting migration without the full benefit of retaining augmentative releases (Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The screens excluding natural enemies might also lead to secondary infestations of pests that otherwise wouldn\u0026rsquo;t be significant, like aphids or thrips (Ingwell \u0026amp; Kaplan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Insect pests can be introduced on plants or by workers entering the high tunnel, by passing the netting. This creates an enemy-free space for a population to establish itself early, which may result in damage to crops before the suppressive effects from natural enemies can occur. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of exclusion screens on insect pests of tomatoes inside commercial high tunnels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eResearch was conducted in 10 high tunnels five farms in north central West Virginia (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Two high tunnels of the same size were used at each farm, one high tunnel was randomly selected to be used as a control (without screen), and the other high tunnel had the insect exclusion screen installed. The exclusion screen used at each farm was a ProtekNet 70g (Dubois Agrinovation, Saint-R\u0026eacute;mi, Quebec) with pore sizes of 0.72mm x 0.97mm. The side walls and vents were covered with the screen and secured to the high tunnel using zig zag wire. The exclusion screens were also installed at entrances (large doors), but their installation varied depending on the high tunnel design and the grower\u0026rsquo;s preference for accessibility. Three growers secured screens across one of the entrances with wiggle wire and the other entrance with eight high strength magnets (3.17 cm diameter x 0.5 cm, Mikede, China) used to connect overlapping pieces of the netting. One grower preferred both entrances using magnets, and the last grower secured both entrances with wiggle wire because the high tunnels have an additional small door. The screens were installed prior to planting in 2023. The growers agreed to be consistent in both high tunnels in all agricultural practices, including but not limited to crop species, densities, planting dates (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, the grower who planted tomatoes in both high tunnels, had half the plants in the high tunnel with screen and half in high tunnels without screen. Another grower cultivated tomatoes and green bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.), this grower used the same number of rows for both crops. Also, the order of plants grown in the screened high tunnels mirrored the order in the high tunnel without screens. Because of the variability among farms, farms were used as a random factor in the statistical model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetails of study sites (location, sizes of high tunnels, planting dates and crops.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarm\u0026rsquo;s name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeolocation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSize of High tunnels (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlanting date\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrops\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.4090, -80.1539\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 18.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMay 9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (cherry, big beef*); pepper (green bell), cucumber, and squash, \u003cem\u003eCucurbita pepo\u003c/em\u003e, (heirloom)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaystar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.1652, -79.8617\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 30.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMay 19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (cherry, German Johnson*), and pepper (green/red poblano, green/yellow/red bell)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSickler\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.1636, -79.9981\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 30.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApril 25\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (BHN #589*, San Marzano)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaa Milk\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.5149, -80.2922\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 15.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMay 6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (German Johnson*, cherry), green bean (\u003cem\u003ePhaseolus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e, heirloom), and pepper (jalapeno, Hungarian banana)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMountain Harvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.5403, -79.9729\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 30.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarch 20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (Geronimo*, Sakura, and Sungold)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.4090, -80.1539\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 18.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApril 15\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (cherry, slicer*), cucumbers, and pepper (bell)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaystar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.1652, -79.8617\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 30.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMay 6, 20, and 22, respectively\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (cherry, Big Beef, Roma*), pepper (poblano, bell, banana), and cucumber\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSickler\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.1636, -79.9981\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 30.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarch 13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomatoes (BHN 589*, Plum Regal, Aunt Lou)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaa Milk\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.5149, -80.2922\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 15.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMay 6\u0026ndash;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomatoes (Cherokee purple*, black cherry, Amish paste, Florida 100), and peppers (Jalapeno, Hungarian wax, California wonder)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMountain Harvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.5403, -79.9729\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.14 x 30.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApril 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTomato (Big Beef* and cherry)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e* Varieties recorded for insect observation in 2024. All plants were transplanted and not sowed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Temperature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHOBO temp/RH loggers (LI-COR; Lincoln, Nebraska) were installed prior to the start of data collection. One logger was placed in each high tunnel approximately in the middle, and one was placed outside of the high tunnels to read the exterior environmental conditions. The loggers were placed at the top of a 1 m stake, and a radiation shield was placed over each logger. Each logger recorded the temperature and relative humidity once every hour until the end of the growing season. Average temperatures for each biweekly period were used to determine temperature effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Insect sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnce planting was completed at all farms, biweekly surveys were conducted in each high tunnel on tomatoes because it was the only crop repeated in all farms across both years. Abundance of pests was assessed using three methods from planting to harvest in the 2023 and 2024 growing seasons. In 2023, samples were collected on May 16, 30, June 13, 27, July 11, 25, August 8, 23, September 6, and 20. In 2024, samples were collected on May 7, 21, June 4, 18, July 2, 16, 30, August 13, 27 and September 10.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the first method, insects were collected by using an Echo Shred\u0026rsquo;n\u0026rsquo;Vac leaf vacuum (ECHO Power Equipment, Lake Zurich, Illinois) and standard paint mesh bags (Lundin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Quesada \u0026amp; Sadof, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The mesh bags were inserted into the vacuum tube and secured via rubber band around the neck of the tube. A label with the farm, date, high tunnel, and plant species was placed into the bag. The vacuum was used for 30 seconds, in a sweeping motion while the user walked down the rows as evenly as possible. The bags were secured with rubber bands after vacuuming and placed into a cooler until they could be transferred to a refrigerator at the end of each survey day. The next day, the arthropods in the bags were placed into glass vials with 70% ethanol sorted by date, farm, high tunnel, and plant species for preservation. Collected arthropods were identified to at least family level except for Thysanoptera, Araneae, and Psocodea, which were sorted by order. If there was further assistance needed for identification of the specimens collected, those specimens were sent off to a taxonomist for identification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second method was visual observation. Five tomato plants were randomly selected to record the insects in each high tunnel. A mobile device was used to randomly generate row and plant numbers. The plants were flagged and observed throughout the growing season. Each selected plant was examined for one minute from top to bottom for large insects such as caterpillars. In addition, two leaves from the top (first and second complete leaves), the middle, and the bottom of each selected plant were used to count small insects such as aphids and whiteflies. Sticky traps were used in the third method. Two sticky traps were placed per high tunnel at about one third the total length from each entrance at canopy height. Sticky traps were 20.23 cm x 8.9 cm, blue on one side and yellow on the other, and were placed by the growers 24 hours prior to the biweekly survey. Sticky traps were collected, wrapped in plastic cling-wrap, and labeled with the date, farm, and high tunnel. Insects were classified within 72 hours after the survey day.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTemperature was analyzed generalized linear mixed model (GLIMMIX) including using repeated measures ANOVA with PROC GLIMMIX in SAS (SAS\u0026reg;, v. 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, Copyright \u0026copy;2002\u0026ndash;2012). Temperature was used as a response variable, treatment and sampling date were used as independent variables, and sampling date and farms were used as random variables. Data were analyzed by year (2023 and 2024) separately.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo estimate the impact of insect exclusion screens on insect pests, the abundance of insects was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA with PROC GLIMMIX in SAS. The count data were fitted to either negative binomial or Poisson distribution, using Laplace estimation method and Log link, depending on the goodness of fit. If goodness of fit was unacceptable, mostly due to the presence of large outliers, the data were further transformed using square root. Insect pests were divided into three size groups because screens can increase the abundance of small insects, such as Aphididae (aphids), while reducing the abundance of larger insects such as Chrysomelidae (cucumber beetles) and summed up (Ingwell \u0026amp; Kaplan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The first group was small pests that could pass through insect screens. Aphididae, Aleyrodidae, Cecidomyiidae, Sciaridae, Sciaroidea, and Thysanoptera families were included in the small pest group because screens aren't effective against them, according to manufacturer specifications (Dubois, 2023). This aligns with findings from other studies which demonstrated that screens are ineffective at preventing small pests like aphids and may even increase their abundance (Ingwell \u0026amp; Kaplan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The second group was made up of pests that were too large to fit through the netting. The manufacturer specifications indicate that screen can stop large insects such as cucumber beetles and Japanese beetles, \u003cem\u003ePopillia japonica\u003c/em\u003e Newman, which is consistent with the scientific data (Burkness et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ingwell and Kaplan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dubois, 2023). Therefore, pests exceeding the size of a cucumber beetle were classified as large pests. We included the following familes: Anthomyiidae, Caelifera, Coreidae, Crambidae, Galerucinae, Gelechiidae, Gracillariidae, Gryllidae, Hesperiidae, Largidae, Lepidoptera, Membracidae, Noctuidae, Pentatomidae, Pieridae, Platystomatidae, Pterophoridae, Pyraloidea, Scarabaeidae, Sphingidae, Tephritidae, Tortricidae, and Yponomeutidae. However, the manufacturer states that screens stop leafhoppers, but not flea beetles (Dubois, 2023); leafhoppers are 2\u0026ndash;5 mm, flea beetles are 3\u0026ndash;5 mm (DeLong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e; Cloyd \u0026amp; Herrick \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Because we did not find other studies using the same screen size on leafhoppers or flea beetles, we created a group called medium pests. The medium size group consisted of pests visually larger than the individuals in the small pest group, but smaller than cucumber beetles. Alticinae, Aphrophoridae, Byturidae, Cercopidae, Chloropidae, Cicadellidae, Clastopteridae, Curculionidae, Derbidae, Miridae, Psilidae, and Tingidae families were included. Data were analyzed by insect size category and year separately. In the model, the response variable was the insect abundance; the independent variables were treatments, sampling methods, and sampling dates; all interactions of independent variables were included; and random variables were farms and sampling dates using autoregressive covariance structure of fist degree, or compound symmetry, depending on model optimization, judged by the lack-of-fit. Farms were used as random factors to account for covariance within farms across days,, and a high tunnel ID was considered the subject of repeated measures More than one model was fitted.. If the result showed differences among sampling methods but not between treatments, data was analyzed using another model with insect abundance by sampling methods separately. Then, the model had insect abundance per sampling methods as response variable, treatments and sampling date as independent variables plus their interactions, and sampling date and farms as random variables. In the last model, the interaction between treatment and sampling dates was removed if the interaction was not significant to increase the model power. In addition, aphids and thrips were analyzed separately from the rest of the small pests because they make up 75% and 20% in 2023 and 66% and 22% in 2024, respectively. Similarly, flea beetles (Coleoptera: Alticinae) and leafhoppers were analyzed separately from the rest of the medium insects because they were the most abundant pests in this category. Means of significant effects were compared with the Tukey-Kramer test. The significance criterion alpha for all tests was 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Temperature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTemperature was not significantly affected by the screening treatments in 2023 or 2024 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.A and 2.B). As expected, temperature was affected by sampling date in both years 2023 and 2024 because it differs across the months. The mean average temperature was 0.141\u0026deg; C higher in the screened high tunnels than in the high tunnels without screens during the growing season in 2023 and 0.429\u0026deg; C higher during the growing season in 2024. During the hottest months of the year, from July to September in 2023, high tunnels without screens had a higher average temperature of 22.49\u0026deg; C compared to 22.24\u0026deg;C in screened high tunnels. During the same months in 2024, high tunnels with screens had an average temperature of 24.11\u0026deg; C, which was 0.27\u0026deg;C numerically higher than tunnels without screens.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFixed effects of insect exclusion screens on temperatures and abundance of insect pests using repeated measures ANOVA with PROC GLIMMIX in SAS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA) Temperature (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.993\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling date\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB) Temperature (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.865\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling date\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC) Small pests (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD) Aphididae (aphids, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE) Thysanoptera (thrips, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF) Small pests (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.282\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eG) Small pests (vacuum data, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH) Small pests (visual observation data, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI) Small pests (sticky trap data, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJ) Aphididae (aphids, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK) Thysanoptera (thrips, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL) Thysanoptera (thrips, sticky trap data, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM) Medium pests (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN) Alticinae (flea beetles, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.520\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eO) Cicadellidae (leafhoppers, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.451\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP) Medium pests (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ) Alticinae (flea beetles, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.593\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR) Cicadellidae (leafhoppers, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.383\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling date\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.999\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS) Large pests (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.317\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.532\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT) Large pests (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Small Pests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, the abundance of small pests was significantly affected by the treatments and sampling methods (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.C). The abundance of small pests was higher in screened high tunnels. Based on the statistical analyses of estimates, visual observation was the best sampling method, followed by sticky traps and vacuum. All sample methods were statistically difference from each other. In the vacuum samples, there were 414 and 704 small pests collected in control and screened high tunnels, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The small pests in the control high tunnels were 84.8% Aphididae, 8.7% Thysanoptera, 5.8% Sciaridae, and 0.7% Cecidomyiidae. In the screened high tunnels, Aphididae was 96.2% of the small pests followed by Sciaridae (3.0%), Thysanoptera (0.7%), and Cecidomyiidae (0.1%). The small pests found via observation were in Aphididae and Aleyrodidae. In the controls, Aphididae was 97.8% of the 1611 total, and 99.8% of the 2616 small pests in the screened high tunnels. The sticky traps captured 1425 small pests in the control high tunnels. Thysanoptera (77.1%) was the most abundant along with Aphididae (15.7%). Aleyrodidae, Sciaridae, Sciaroidea, and Cecidomyiidae were also present. Thysanoptera (60.2%), Aphididae (18.8%), and Sciaridae (10.6%) were the most common in the screened high tunnel, which caught 586 small pests, in addition to Aleyrodidae, Sciaroidea, and Cecidomyiidae.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of insect pests collected with an inverted leaf blower vacuum, sticky traps and count using visual observation on tomatoes grown in 10 commercial high tunnels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubfamily\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVacuum\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSticky Trap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVisual Observation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVacuum\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSticky Trap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVisual\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eObservation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eByturidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChrysomelidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlticinae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChrysomelidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGalerucinae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCurculionidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScarabaeidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgromyzidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnthomyiidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCecidomyiidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChloropidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlatystomatidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePsilidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSciaridae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSciaroidea*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTephritidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAleyrodidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e310\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAphididae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e334\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4187\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1109\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e173\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1855\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAphrophoridae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCercopidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCicadellidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e263\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e380\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClastopteridae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoreidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDerbidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLargidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMembracidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiridae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePentatomidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTingidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrambidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGelechiidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGracillariidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHesperiidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNoctuidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePieridae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePterophoridae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePyraloidea*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSphingidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTortricidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYponomeutidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaelifera*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGryllidae*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThysanoptera\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1452\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrombidiformes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTetranychidae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAphididae were also analyzed separately from the rest of the small pests because they represented a high percentage of this category. Aphididae were affected by treatments and sampling methods Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.D. Aphididae abundance was increased in the screened high tunnel (158%) compared to the high tunnels without screens. All sampling methods were significantly different from each other, but their order was different compared to the results of the small insect group. Based on the estimates, observation was the best sampling method followed by vacuum and sticky traps. Thysanoptera were the second highest pests collected within this size category. Treatments and sampling methods also affected Thysanoptera (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.E). Unlike the Aphididae results, the abundance of Thysanoptera was reduced (-69%) by the insect exclusion screens. Sticky traps were the best sampling method to detect Thysanoptera, followed by vacuum. Sticky traps and vacuum were statistically different from each other. The observation method was removed from the analysis because Thysanoptera were not detected by this sampling method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, the abundance of small insects was not affected by treatment, but it was significantly different among sampling methods and sampling time (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.F). Unlike 2023, the best sampling method was sticky traps followed by vacuum and observation. Vacuum and visual observation were not statistically different from each other. The data was further analyzed by sampling methods separately. In the vacuum sample, the abundance of small insects significantly increased in screened high tunnels (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.G). There were 1018 small pests collected with the vacuum in the high tunnels with screens. Aphididae made up 96.1% of them. Tetranychidae, Sciaridae, Aleyrodidae, Cecidomyiidae, and Thysanoptera were also collected (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). 208 small pests were collected in the control high tunnels. Aphididae (63.0%) were the most common, followed by Sciaridae (15.4%) and Cecidomyiidae (15.4%). Aleyrodidae and Thysanoptera were present too. Similar to the vacuum sampling method, high tunnels with screens were statistically different from unscreened high tunnels, where screens increase small insect abundance using visual observation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.H). Except for a single Thysanoptera and Aleyrodidae, Aphididae (99.9) was nearly all the 1496 observed small pests in the screened high tunnels. In the controls, Aphididae (98.1%), Sciaridae (0.8%), and Aleyrodidae (1.1%) were observed for a total of 368 small pests. There were also significant differences between treatments on small pests in the sticky trap samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.I). However, unlike vacuum and observation, insect exclusion screens reduced the small pest abundance by about half compared to the control high tunnels. This explains the inconsistency in the results between small pest abundance in 2023 and 2024, when all sampling methods were used for the analysis. The sticky traps captured 1150 and 561 small pests in the control and screened high tunnels, respectively. Thysanoptera (63.8%) and Aleyrodidae (17.2%) were the most abundant in the controls. Likewise, Thysanoptera (52.6%), Aleyrodidae (20.0%), and Aphididae (17.5%) were the most common small pests in the netted high tunnels. Sciaridae, Tetranychidae, and Cecidomyiidae were also present in both treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to 2023, Aphididae abundance was significantly affected by treatments and sampling methods in 2024 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.J). Abundance of Aphididae was higher in screened high tunnels (712%) compared to the high tunnels without screens. Observation and vacuum sampling methods were statistically similar and were the best methods for detecting Aphididae. The sticky trap method was statistically different from the other two. The abundance of Thysanoptera was not affected by treatment (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.K). However, their abundance was significantly affected by sampling methods. Sticky traps showed the higher number of Thysanoptera, and it was statistically difference to both vacuum and observation. The low numbers in vacuum and observation methods explain the inconsistency between 2023 and 2024. However, when Thysanoptera were analyzed using the 2024 sticky trap data separately, the abundance of Thysanoptera was significantly reduced in screened high tunnels (-60%) compared to the control (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.L).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Medium Pests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, there were significant differences in medium pest abundance caused by treatments and sampling methods (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.M). The abundance of medium pests was reduced by insect exclusion screens compared to the high tunnels without screens. Sticky traps were the best sampling method followed by vacuum and visual observation. Sampling methods were all significantly different from each other. In the vacuum samples, the control high tunnels had 104 collected consisting of Alticinae (41.3%), Chloropidae (34.6%), and Cicadellidae (24.0%). The 57 medium pests in the screened high tunnels were in the same families of Alticinae (68.4%), Chloropidae (24.6%), and Cicadellidae (7.0%). The number of individuals was similar between treatments with the visual observation method. The control high tunnels had 18 Alticinae whereas the netted high tunnels had 19 individuals, Alticinae (84.2%) and Cicadellidae (15.8%). In the sticky trap samples, 276 medium pests were captured in the controls, Cicadellidae (74.3%) and Chloropidae (15.9%) were the most abundant. Psilidae, Curculionidae, Alticinae, Miridae, and Cercopidae were also captured. In the netted high tunnels, 81 medium pests were found in the traps. Cicadellidae (71.6%) and Chloropidae (12.3%) were the most common, and Psilidae, Alticinae, and Cercopidae were also found.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar results were obtained when abundance of Alticinae (flea beetles) was analyzed separately from the medium size (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.N). The insect exclusion screen reduced (-16.4%) Alticinae compared to the control. However, the best sampling method was vacuum. This was followed by visual observation and sticky traps which were not significantly different from each other. Unlike Alticinae, Cicadellidae was not statistically affected by screens, time or sampling methods (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.O). Sampling date *treatment and Sampling date *treatment*sampling method interactions were removed from the model because we got infinity solutions due to lack of variance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 2024 results were consistent with those obtained in 2023. Insect exclusion screens reduced the abundance of medium pests compared to the control (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.P). The results of the sampling methods were also similar. Sticky traps were the best sampling method, followed by vacuum and visual observation, and all differed from each other. In the vacuum samples, the most abundant of the 107 medium pests found in the screened high tunnel were Alticinae (77.6%) and Chloropidae (17.8%). The other families were Miridae, Cicadellidae, and Psilidae. The control high tunnels saw 98 medium pests where Alticinae (45.9%), Chloropidae (22.4%), and Cicadellidae (16.3%) were the most common. Aphrophoridae, Tingidae, Psilidae, and Miridae were collected as well. In the visual observation, there were 25 medium pests in the control high tunnel consisting of Chloropidae (56.0%), Tingidae (20.0%), and Alticinae (12.0%) as the most abundant along with Miridae and Cicadellidae. In the screened high tunnels, Alticinae was 11 (91.7%) of the 12 medium pests and Chloropidae. In the sticky trap samples, there were 465 medium pests caught in the controls. Cicadellidae (70.1%) made up the majority of them, but Alticinae (14.0%) and Chloropidae (11.6%) were notable as well. Insects in Aphrophoridae, Psilidae, Curculionidae, Miridae, Clastopteridae, and Tingidae were present too. There were 126 medium pests in the high tunnels with screens installed, mostly from Cicadellidae (42.9%), Alticinae (31.0%), and Chloropidae (16.7%). The families of Aphrophoridae, Derbidae, and Byturidae were identified as well.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnlike 2023, the abundance of Alticinae was not affected by treatments (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.Q). However, Alticinae was significantly affected by sampling methods. Vacuum and sticky traps were the best methods to detect Alticinae, and they were statistically similar. Abundance of Alticinae was further analyzed using vacuum and sticky trap data, but the result remained the same, as treatments did not affect their abundance. The effect of screens on Cicadellidae in 2024 was consistent with those observed in 2023. Abundance of Cicadellidae was statistically similar in screened high tunnels compared to those without screens (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.R). There was no statical significance detected among treatments, sampling dates, sampling methods or interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Large pests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the high tunnel without screens had four times more large pests than the screened tunnel, statistical analysis in 2023 revealed no significant difference between treatments or sampling methods (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.S). This might be explained by the low abundance of large insects in all farms over the season across several sampling dates. In the vacuum sample, 5 large pests were collected in the screened high tunnels. Only the taxa of Galerucinae (60.0%) and Caelifera (40.0%) were present. In the control high tunnels, 23 large pests were collected. The most abundant group was Lepidoptera (34.8%) followed by Coreidae (21.7%), Tephritidae (21.7%), and Galerucinae (13.0%). In the visual observation samples, there were 11 large pests in 5 taxa found in the control high tunnels. Lepidoptera was the most common at 36.4%. Coreidae (27.3%), Caelifera (18.2%), Galerucinae (9.1%), and Pentatomidae (9.1%). In the screened high tunnels, Caelifera (40.0%), Gryllidae (40.0%) and Lepidoptera (20.0%) made up the 5 large pests. In the sticky Trap samples, there were 5 large pests captured in the screened high tunnels consisting of Lepidoptera (40.0%), Caelifera (20.0%), Hesperiidae (20.0%), and Agromyzidae (20.0%). In the control high tunnels, 24 large pests were found on the traps. Hesperiidae (29.2%), Lepidoptera (25.0%), and Agromyzidae (20.8%) were the most common. Pieridae, Tortricidae, Noctuidae, Anthomyiidae, and Galerucinae were also caught.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, the abundance of large pests in unscreened high tunnels was more than double the abundance in screened high tunnels. Yet, the abundance of large pets was not significantly affected by treatments (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.T). Unlike 2023, there was a significant difference among sampling methods, the sticky trap method was better for detecting large pests compared to vacuum and visual observation. When the abundance of large pests was analyzed using sticky trap data separately, results remained the same, treatments did not affect their abundance. In the vacuum samples, 20 large pests were collected, 14 in the controls and 6 in the netted high tunnels. Noctuidae (28.6%), Gracillariidae (21.4%), and Membracidae (21.4%) were the most abundant in the controls. Individuals from Agromyzidae, Pterophoridae, Pyraloidea, and Gelechiidae were collected too. Insects from Coreidae (33.3%), Agromyzidae (33.3%), Gracillariidae (16.7%), and Yponomeutidae (16.7%) were present in the screened high tunnels. In the visual observation samples, 5 large pests were detected in the control high tunnels, Noctuidae (40.0%), Sphingidae (40.0%), and unknown Lepidoptera (20.0%). Three large pests were observed in the netted high tunnels from Noctuidae, Galerucinae, and an unknown Lepidoptera. In the sticky trap samples, 61 large pests were caught in the control high tunnels. The more common were Hesperiidae (44.3%), Gracillariidae (18.0%), Anthomyiidae (11.5%), and Tortricidae (6.6%). The families of Pieridae, Gelechiidae, Yponomeutidae, Crambidae, Membracidae, Pentatomidae, Tephritidae, Platystomatidae, Noctuidae, and Agromyzidae were also found on the traps. The traps in the screened high tunnels caught 21 large pests from Galerucinae (23.8%), Agromyzidae (19.0%), Hesperiidae (9.5%), Tortricidae (9.5%), Gracillariidae (9.5%), Largidae (9.5%), and Anthomyiidae (9.5%) along with an individual from Gryllidae and Scarabaeidae.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding how insect exclusion screens affect insect pest populations is crucial for integrated pest management in high tunnels, both organic and conventional. (Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). We studied the abundance of insect pests by group (small, medium, and large) and the most prevalent pest species in high tunnels with and without insect exclusion screens. We found that screens increased aphid abundance while reducing the abundance of other small species such as thrips and medium size pests. Also, sampling methods can affect the results of pest abundance surveys in commercial high tunnels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite high tunnels having insect exclusion screens, a high number of pests and species were found in the high tunnels. Ingwell et al. (2019) attributed the presence of insects to small openings that are difficult to seal, such as door cracks. In addition, we conducted our research on commercial farms where producers frequently opened and closed gates for agricultural practices. Our results showed that large pests that couldn\u0026rsquo;t fit through the pores of the mesh were not affected significantly by the treatments. These results can be explained by the low number of large pests we captured with our different techniques. Although the abundance of large insects was not statically affected by insect exclusion screens, the total of large insects was four times higher in high tunnels without screens compared to screened high tunnels in 2023 and double in the following year. This pattern is consistent with other studies that have shown that insect exclusion screens can significantly reduce large pests such as \u003cem\u003ePopillia japonica\u003c/em\u003e (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and cucumber beetles resulting in better yields (Burkness et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ingwell and Kaplan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kuesel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the use of insect exclusion screens led to the increase of small pest abundance in high tunnels. We grouped small pests such as aphids, whiteflies, thrips, fungus gnats (Diptera: Sciaridae), and spider mites because they can go through the screen, and it has been shown that they are more likely to outbreak in protected areas such as greenhouses compared to open field production (Kersting et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Nava-Camberos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Over five families of small pests were detected with different sampling methods, and they had a higher density in high tunnels with the screens installed compared to high tunnels without screens. However, the small pest results were driven by the high number of aphids. When aphids and thrips were analyzed separately, results showed screens had the opposite impact on these pests. Aphid abundance was increased by screens, which is consistent with other studies using cucumbers (Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the abundance of thrips was reduced by insect exclusion screens showing that screens can stop pests even when they are small enough to go through the screens. This is consistent with other studies that have shown that insect exclusion screens in high tunnels are effective at reducing populations of other small pests such as \u003cem\u003eDrosophila\u003c/em\u003e spp. (Leach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Kuesel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; 2020). Similar to thrips, our results showed that insect exclusion screens can reduce the abundance of medium size pests such as flea beetles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe also compared three pest monitoring methods (vacuum, visual observation, and sticky traps) finding significant differences in the estimated abundance of pest species. For instance, screens increased the abundance of aphids constantly in both years of this study. However, our results showed that visual observation was a better method for detecting aphids followed by vacuum in 2023, and they were statically similar in 2024. When data was analyzed by sampling method separately, the impact of insect exclusion screens was still detected in the visual observation and vacuum data, but the effect of screens on aphids was not detected using sticky traps. Although this can be explained by the biology of aphids, in which a large part of their population is wingless; if populations are higher in one treatment, the number of winged aphids should also be higher (Muller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). This showed that if we were only using sticky traps to monitor insects, we would have different results for aphid abundance. Similar results were found with thrips. Our result showed that the best sampling method to detect thrips was sticky traps. In 2024, the effect of screens on thrips was only detected when sticky trap data was analyzed separately from the other sampling methods. Lastly, vacuuming was the best method to detect flea beetles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe observed similar trends in other pest species; however, statistical analyses were not performed because of insufficient sample sizes. For instance, Sphingidae, the Lepidopteran family containing hornworms, was only counted during visual observation. The caterpillars tend to be too large and strong to detach with the vacuum after a few instars, and they can\u0026rsquo;t fly to be stuck in a trap. Some Hempiteran pests, such as Pentatomidae and Coreidae, were mostly detected by visual observation whereas Cicadellidae was mostly detected on sticky traps. Lastly, fruit flies, Tephritidae and Drosophilidae, and adult Lepidopterans were hard to detect using visual observation. This aligns with what others have reported about sampling for abundance in a diverse insect population. Differences in mobility, size, and feeding preferences all contribute to how to best collect insects (Avinent et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Gill \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Neal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Hagstrum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtected cropping systems like greenhouses and high tunnels are more prone to outbreaks of small insects such as aphids, whiteflies, and thrips due to three key factors. First, an increase of temperature in high tunnels can favor the abundance of insect pests by influencing fecundity, growth, development, and life cycle (Kersting et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Nava-Camberos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have shown that insect screens can increase the temperature in high tunnels when installed across several geographic locations with different temperatures from Ontario, Canada to Indiana, US to southeast France (Kong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ingwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Fatnassi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The difference in temperature between high tunnels with and without screens were ~\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C, 2.66\u0026deg;C and 2.7\u0026deg;C which could potentially increase insect abundance. However, temperature was not affected by the screens in this study. In fact, the temperature in screened high tunnels was slightly lower compared to high tunnels without between July and September in 2023. The difference could be attributed to the size of the mesh. We used 0.72 x 0.97mm netting whereas other studies used 0.15 x 0.35 mm, 0.16mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 0.78 x 0.25 mm sized mesh, respectively. In addition, technology might have helped maintain a stable temperature. All high tunnels for this research had ventilation systems that were triggered by a temperature sensor, and one of the five farms had a system to open and close the sides automatically. The second factor that can increase pest populations in high tunnels is the lack of rainfall. Rainfall reduces the growth and development of the insects, can damage insect wings or even kill them (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Karthik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Urbaneja-Bernat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Morshed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Rainfall is unlikely to explain differences in populations in screened and open greenhouses were protected from rainfall and irrigated in the same fashion. The last factor that can influence pest populations is natural enemies, which can reduce the abundance of pests (Cardinale et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Messelink et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the absence of differences in temperature and rainfall between the treatments, we hypothesize that abundance of aphids was triggered by the impact of insect exclusion screens on natural enemies. However, the effect of insect exclusion screens on natural enemies had been poorly studied (Ingwell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eInsect screens influence the crop ecology in high tunnel systems. Our research expands the understanding of how insect exclusion screens affect pests in commercial high tunnels, improving integrated pest management for both organic and conventional production. Selecting the size of screens is important because screens can alter the temperature, which can impact production and pest management. Our results show that screens with pore sizes of 0.72mm x 0.97mm did not increase temperature and reduced the abundance of medium size pests such as flea beetles and small size pests such as thrips. However, screens increase the abundance of aphids in commercial high tunnels. In the absence of differences in temperature between treatments the impact of screens on natural enemies needs to be explored to explain changes in aphid abundance\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCQ was involve in all aspects of the manuscript CB collected data and help writing the manuscript OH analyzed the data TB help with the field workAll authors reviewed the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank Dr. Laura Ingwell for helping to choose the size of the insect exclusion screens. Ray Carr, Jeff Sickler, Kathee Sharp, Francisco \u0026ldquo;Chico\u0026rdquo; Ramirez, and Mitchell Stemler for collaborating in this study. Jonathan Morgan for collecting part of the insect samples and Cliff Sadof for comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by the Northeastern IPM Center through project award #2022-70006-38004 Accession Number: 1017389 from the U.S. Department of Agriculture\u0026rsquo;s National Institute of Food and Agriculture Crop Protection and Pest Management, Regional Coordination Program, by U.S. Department of Agriculture\u0026rsquo;s National Institute of Food and Agriculture # 2021-70006-35668, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture\u0026rsquo;s National Institute of Food and Agriculture # 550230783 - Exp Station Hatch MSF 783 Quesada under 11400037. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and should not be construed to represent any official USDA or U.S. Government determination or policy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data are included in the manuscript. Raw data are available upon request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlonso, A. D., \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Neill, M. (2010). A comparative study of farmers\u0026rsquo; markets visitors\u0026rsquo; needs and wants: the case of Alabama. \u003cem\u003eInt. 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(2024b, September 5). \u003cem\u003eFarm Income and Wealth Statistics: Cash receipts by State.\u003c/em\u003e U. S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Data Products. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://data.ers.usda.gov/reports.aspx?ID=17843#P649df88aeaee4522b2eea\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://data.ers.usda.gov/reports.aspx?ID=17843#P649df88aeaee4522b2eea\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e7754e92162a_16_17iT0R0x10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mechanical control, insect mesh, aphids, thrips, flea beetles","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614865/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614865/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHigh tunnels can use insect exclusion screens as a mechanical pest control method within integrated pest management (IPM) programs. The impact of insect screens was evaluated on several tomato pests in commercial high tunnels. The study was conducted in five pairs of screened and open high tunnels at 5 farms. The effect of sampling methods on pest abundance in high tunnels was also compared. In general, screens increased the abundance of small pests that could penetrate the screen. However, this effect was driven by aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae), which were the most prominent pests. When thrips (Thysanoptera) populations were analyzed individually, screened tunnels had a lower abundance of thrips than open high tunnels. Like thrips, the abundance of the medium size group such as flea beetles (Coleoptera: Alticinae) was reduced in screened high tunnels. We also found the differences between treatments were affected by the insect sampling method and varied by insect species. For instance, we found that visual observation was the best method to evaluate aphid abundance, followed by vacuum and sticky traps. In contrast, visual observation was the worst method to evaluate thrips. Vacuum and visual observations were statistically similar. Sticky traps were the method that collected more thrips. In addition, vacuum and sticky traps were suitable methods for detecting flea beetles. Last, we found the size of screens (0.72mm x 0.97mm) used in this study did not increase temperature. In the absence of differences in temperature, changes in pest populations may be attributed to other factors.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effect of insect exclusion screens on insect pests in high tunnels","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-30 14:13:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614865/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"690851d2-d431-41c5-a982-6d2dbd63d0b9","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-26T17:53:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-30 14:13:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7614865","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7614865","identity":"rs-7614865","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}