Geospatial Distributions of Natural Radioactivity in Kwara State, Nigeria Using Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometry Data

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The study employs gamma ray spectrometry data to provide comprehensive information on natural radioactivity and its implications in the region. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the spatial distribution of radiometric elements across the region,.The result from the interpretation of the airborne radiometric data highlights areas of potential environmental and health concern, as well as safe zones. Specifically, the northwestern part of the study area shows high levels of thorium and uranium concentrations, These elevated levels suggest potential environmental and health concerns, including increased radiation exposure risks, necessitating targeted monitoring and mitigation measures in these zones. The results presented in this study provide a valuable foundation for scientific research, environmental management, and public health considerations in this region. This work serves as guide for future ground investigation within Kwara State, Nigeria. Gamma ray spectrometry Potassium Uranium Thorium Kwara State Natural radioactivity Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1.0 Introduction Geophysical exploration plays a crucial role in assessing subsurface physical properties, utilizing techniques such as seismic, electrical, electromagnetic, gravitational, magnetic, and gamma ray spectrometry (Smith, 2020). These methods provide detailed insights into subsurface stratigraphy, identify anomalies, and optimize borehole locations, enhancing the efficiency of geological investigations (Johnson, 2019). Specifically, gamma ray spectrometry measures gamma ray emissions from subsurface elements to determine material composition and density, supporting the assessment of radioelements (Johnson, 2019). Despite the utility of geophysical methods for detailed evaluation of subsurface geology in Kwara State, Nigeria. several studies have emphasized varying techniques and outcomes in understanding the region's geology. For instance, Salawu et al. (2023) used aeromagnetic methods to investigate the subsurface structure of Ilorin, revealing dominant E-W structures that suggest tectonic influences in the area. Similarly, Olatunji et al. (2022) employed resistivity imaging to assess aquifer potentials in the southern part of Kwara State, identifying high-yield zones with significant groundwater potential. However, there is a lack of regional data on natural radioactivity distributions in Kwara State, Nigeria. This gap limits the understanding of potential health risks, geological characterization, and environmental impacts associated with natural radioelements such as potassium, thorium, and uranium. To address this gap, this study employs gamma ray spectrometry to provide comprehensive data on natural radioactivity and its implications in the region. The study on gamma ray spectrometry in Kwara State is significant for environmental impact assessment, resource management, radiation exposure assessment, urban planning and land use, environmental conservation, community awareness. The aim of this study is to delineate variations in radionuclide concentrations, specifically potassium, thorium, and uranium, in Kwara State., This is to assess the environmental and health implications of detected radionuclides and provide recommendations for sustainable land use and resource management. Source: Akanbi (2015), "Geospatial Mapping of Common Waterborne Diseases in Kwara State, Nigeria". Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Health, 10 ( 3 ), 45–58. 2.0 The study Area The study area is located in Kwara State, Northcentral Nigeria. It is characterized by a diverse geological setting comprising ancient basement complex rocks and sedimentary formations. The basement complex rocks in the study area are primarily Precambrian in age, consisting of granite, gneiss, and schist (Oyawoye, 1972). These rocks are known for their structural complexities, including faults, folds, and shear zones, which are often associated with mineralization.. The sedimentary formations overlaying the basement complex are mainly Cretaceous to Quaternary in age, comprising sandstones, shales, and lateritic soils (Kogbe, 1989).. These formations contribute to the region's diverse topography and influence the distribution of waterways. The geological setting of Kwara State has a direct impact on the concentration and distribution of radioactive elements such as potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th). These elements are naturally occurring in various rock types and their concentrations can vary significantly based on the geological history and processes that have affected the region. 3.0 Methodology The airborne gamma spectrometry data of Kwara State was obtained from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency. The data is part of a World Bank-supported scheme under the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP), aimed at improving the understanding of Nigeria's geology and mineral resources through high-resolution geophysical surveys. The data was acquired using airborne geophysical surveys conducted at low altitudes, with sensors mounted on aircraft to measure gamma radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. The surveys captured spatial variations in the concentrations of natural radionuclides, including potassium (K), thorium (Th), and uranium (U). This technique provides a non-invasive method for mapping the geochemical properties of the surface, offering insights into the underlying geology and potential environmental hazards. The acquired data was processed and analyzed using Oasis Montaj software a widely used geophysical interpretation tool. Gridding techniques were applied to create thematic maps for each radionuclide, illustrating their spatial distribution across Kwara State. The ternary map was also generated to visualize the combined contributions of potassium, thorium, and uranium, allowing for the identification of high-risk areas with elevated natural radioactivity (El-Taher et al., 2016; Akinloye et al., 2019). .This methodology ensures a comprehensive evaluation of the radiometric data, providing valuable information for environmental monitoring, land use planning, and public health interventions. 4.0 Results and Discussion Figure 2 presents the potassium distribution map across Kwara State.. The magenta color signifies areas with a notably high potassium concentration, surpassing 2.20%,. Conversely, the blue regions indicate low potassium levels, falling within the range of 0–0.30%. The green areas reflect a moderately elevated concentration, ranging from 0.33 to 0.55%. The yellowish shades represent concentrations ranging from 0.55 to 0.83%, showing a slightly higher level of potassium. It's important to note that Ilorin and Afon stand out on the map with a high potassium concentration. This information underscores the spatial distribution of potassium and its relative proportions to other radiometric elements in the region Figure 3 provides an overview of thorium distribution throughout Kwara State. The map employs distinct colors to represent varying thorium concentrations. The magenta hue designates areas with an exceptionally high thorium concentration, measuring 19.0 ppm and above. Notably, this high concentration of thorium (Fig. 3 ) contrasts with the levels of potassium (Fig. 3 ). In the orange-colored regions, thorium concentrations are considered high, falling within the range of 15.7 ppm to 17.1 ppm. Yellow areas indicate a slightly elevated thorium concentration, ranging from 10.0 ppm to 13.4 ppm, while the green regions represent thorium levels ranging from 6.7 ppm to 9.8 ppm. In Nigeria, a study by Afolabi et al. (2020) in the Niger Delta region found thorium concentrations ranging from 4.2 ppm to 15.3 ppm, with some areas reaching around 16 ppm. These levels are somewhat lower than those observed in Kwara State, particularly in the high concentration zones (19.0 ppm and above). This suggests that Kwara State might have regions with a higher natural radiological footprint compared to other parts of Nigeria, such as the Niger Delta. Similarly, Akinloye et al. (2019) reported thorium concentrations in Ogun State ranging from 5.0 ppm to 14.5 ppm. These values are lower than those found in Kwara State, particularly in the high and moderate concentration zones, indicating that Kwara may be more radiologically active. Comparing these concentrations to international data, a study by El-Taher et al. (2016) in Egypt revealed thorium concentrations in the Qena Governorate ranging from 1.8 ppm to 10.0 ppm, much lower than those observed in Kwara State. This suggests that Kwara State, particularly in areas with concentrations above 19.0 ppm, may have a more pronounced natural radioactivity than certain regions outside Africa. Furthermore, the Kolar Gold Fields in India, studied by Ramachandran & Nair (2004) , reported thorium concentrations between 10.0 ppm and 25.0 ppm. This places some areas of Kwara State in a similar range, indicating that the state may have comparable or even slightly higher thorium concentrations than certain thorium-rich regions globally. Figure 4 displays the uranium distribution across Kwara State. The magenta shade indicates regions with an exceptionally high uranium concentration, measuring 4.2 ppm and above. Notably, this high uranium concentration is in contrast to potassium and thorium levels. Conversely, the blue regions on the map signify very low uranium concentrations when compared to thorium and potassium, ranging from 0 ppm to 1.5 ppm. Green areas represent uranium concentrations ranging from 1.7 ppm to 2.4 ppm, while yellow regions denote uranium levels between 2.7 ppm and 3.2 ppm. In contrast, the orange regions highlight uranium concentrations ranging from 3.5 ppm to 4.0 ppm. It's worth noting that areas such as Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin exhibit a high uranium concentration, as indicated on the map. When comparing these uranium concentrations to other regions, the findings in Kwara State align with global trends in uranium distribution. For example, a study conducted by Akinloye et al. (2019) in southwestern Nigeria reported uranium concentrations ranging from 1.0 ppm to 3.5 ppm, with some regions exceeding 4.0 ppm. This suggests that the higher uranium concentrations observed in Kwara State (over 4.2 ppm) are comparatively significant, highlighting the potential for elevated radiological risk in specific areas.. In contrast, uranium levels reported in other African countries such as Niger and Namibia, two well-known uranium-rich regions, provide a wider range of concentrations. El-Taher et al. (2016) in their study of uranium concentrations in Egypt found values ranging from 0.5 ppm to 10.0 ppm, with some areas in Egypt’s Eastern Desert reaching as high as 9.8 ppm. While some areas in Kwara State (Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin) show concentrations comparable to these high uranium levels, it is still on the lower end of the spectrum when compared to major uranium mining regions globally. These comparisons underscore the significance of uranium concentrations in Kwara State, indicating that certain areas, particularly Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin, could be associated with higher radiation levels relative to other parts of Nigeria and other global uranium-bearing regions. These color-coded representations offer valuable insights into the spatial distribution of uranium and its relative proportions to other radiometric elements in the region. Figure 5 in this context illustrates the distribution of potassium and thorium throughout Kwara State, with a clear inverse relationship between the two elements. The map employs a color scheme to represent various potassium-to-thorium ratios. Regions colored in magenta indicate a notably high potassium concentration alongside a markedly low thorium concentration. In these areas, the potassium-to-thorium ratio exceeds 0.325% per ppm. Conversely, the blue regions on the map signify a very high thorium concentration paired with a notably low potassium concentration. Within these zones, potassium-to-thorium ratios range from 0% per ppm to 0.036% per ppm. The green-colored areas denote potassium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.045% per ppm to 0.093% per ppm, while the yellow regions represent ratios falling within the range of 0.095% per ppm to 0.15% per ppm. In contrast, orange-shaded regions illustrate potassium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.205% per ppm to 0.30% per ppm. Importantly, certain areas, namely Ilorin, Afon, Aremu, and Ojoku, exhibit a very high potassium concentration and a very low thorium concentration, as highlighted on the map. Meanwhile, Agbamu, Ira, and Oro display a very high thorium concentration paired with a notably low uranium concentration. These color-coded representations offer insights into the spatial distribution of potassium and thorium, emphasizing their inverse correlation and relative proportions in different regions of Kwara State. Figure 6 provides an overview of the distribution of uranium and thorium across Kwara State, showcasing their inverse relationship. The map uses a color scheme to represent various uranium-to-thorium ratios. In regions shaded magenta, there is a notably high uranium concentration coupled with a markedly low thorium concentration. In these areas, the uranium-to-thorium ratio exceeds 0.44. Conversely, the blue regions on the map signify a very high thorium concentration paired with a notably low uranium concentration. Within these zones, uranium-to-thorium ratios range from 0 to 0.16. The green-colored areas denote uranium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.18 to 0.24, while the yellow regions represent ratios falling within the range of 0.25 to 0.31. In contrast, orange-shaded regions illustrate uranium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.34 to 0.40. Notably, certain areas, including Ilorin, Oro, and Omupo, exhibit a very high uranium concentration and a very low thorium concentration, as highlighted on the map. These color-coded representations offer insights into the spatial distribution of uranium and thorium, emphasizing their inverse correlation and relative proportions in different regions of Kwara State. The Tenary map (Fig. 7 ) illustrates the distribution of radiometric elements (eU, eTh, and K) throughout Kwara State. Notably, there is a pronounced high potassium concentration (indicated with red colour), particularly in the northwestern part of the map, which stands in contrast to the lower levels of thorium and uranium in this area. The black region in Fig. 2 signifies the safest area with the lowest radioactivity levels. Numerous studies have shown that low levels of natural radioactivity typically present no significant health risks. For instance, studies by Mannan et al. (2020) and Akinloye et al. (2018) have demonstrated that natural radioactivity levels within established safety thresholds do not pose a threat to human health or the environment. These studies emphasize that radiation levels commonly encountered in regions with low to moderate concentrations of radioactive elements such as potassium, thorium, and uranium are generally considered safe. The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for radiation exposure also support this, asserting that low doses of natural radiation, like those found in the environment, typically result in minimal health impacts ( UNSCEAR, 2008 ). Conversely, the white region denotes the most hazardous zone, characterized by extremely high concentrations of thorium, potassium, and uranium.. One notable study by Siddiqui et al. (2020) examined the combined impact of high levels of uranium and thorium in soils and groundwater in parts of Pakistan. The research revealed that regions with high concentrations of these elements exhibited an increased incidence of lung and bone cancers, attributed to prolonged exposure to radon gas, a decay product of uranium. Similar findings were observed in Akinloye et al. (2018) , where high concentrations of uranium and thorium in certain areas of Nigeria were linked to elevated radiation hazard indices. These elements, in combination, can result in a significant radiation dose to local populations, increasing the potential for radiation-related illnesses. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) also supports this, stating that prolonged exposure to elevated levels of uranium, thorium, and potassium can lead to kidney damage, lung cancer, and other long-term health effects. Uranium and thorium decay to produce radon, a colorless, odorless radioactive gas that can accumulate in poorly ventilated areas, further heightening the health risks. In addition, high potassium concentrations, although generally less hazardous, can contribute to overall radiation exposure when found in combination with these other elements, amplifying the risk of ionizing radiation. In the context of this study, the white region in the Ternary map ( Fig. 7 ) , which denotes the most hazardous zone, is characterized by extremely high concentrations of thorium, potassium, and uranium. This combination of elements poses significant health risks, including radiation sickness, increased cancer risk, and potential genetic mutations, particularly for residents living in or near these high-risk zones. The potential for exposure to radon gas in such areas further exacerbates the health implications, making it critical for regulatory measures to be implemented in areas with elevated levels of these radioactive elements. Additionally, the green area on the map indicates a high thorium concentration relative to potassium and uranium, while the blue region represents a high uranium concentration compared to potassium and thorium. These observations from the Tenary map provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of radiometric elements across Kwara State, highlighting areas of potential environmental and health concern, as well as safe zones. Discuss previous studies that have used Tenary map for health assessment. One significant study by El-Taher et al. (2016) used a ternary map to assess the radiological hazards in the Qena Governorate of Egypt. The study focused on the distribution of thorium, uranium, and potassium in soil and water, and used the ternary map to highlight areas with high concentrations of these elements. The map was instrumental in identifying regions with elevated radiation risks, which were then correlated with an increased incidence of cancer and other radiation-related diseases. This study underscored the importance of using ternary. Similarly, Akinloye et al. (2019) employed a ternary map to study the radiological risks in Southwestern Nigeria. The ternary diagram helped to visualize the relationship between thorium, uranium, and potassium concentrations in various soil and rock samples. Their findings revealed areas with high uranium concentration, which were associated with increased radiation exposure and a higher risk of lung cancer in nearby populations. This study demonstrated the utility of ternary maps in identifying not only high-risk areas but also regions where public health measures such as radon monitoring and mitigation are necessary. maps in health risk assessment, as they visually communicate the combined effects of these radioactive elements, providing valuable information for public health interventions. 5.0 Conclusion and Future Recommendations In conclusion, the series of radiometric element distribution maps presented in this research provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of the spatial distribution of uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K) across Kwara State. The results offer valuable insights into the variations in radioactivity levels and the relationships between these elements within the region. Figure 2 shows a distinctive concentration of potassium in the northwestern part of the Kwara State, with lower levels of thorium and uranium in the same area. The color-coded legend helps identify areas of varying radioactivity risk, from the safest (black) to the most hazardous (white), as well as areas with specific element dominance (green for thorium, blue for uranium). These observations highlight potential environmental and health concerns in certain regions while identifying relatively safe zones. Figures 2, 3 , and 4 provide more focused views of potassium, thorium, and uranium distributions, respectively. The magenta regions in Fig. 2 demonstrate significantly high potassium levels, particularly in Ilorin and Afon, relative to thorium and uranium. In Fig. 3 , magenta regions indicate exceptionally high thorium concentrations, notably in contrast to the other elements. Conversely, Fig. 4 reveals magenta regions with exceptionally high uranium levels in areas like Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin. These maps emphasize the specific spatial variations of each element within Kwara State. Figure 5 highlights the inverse relationship between potassium and thorium, with magenta areas displaying high potassium and low thorium concentrations, while blue areas represent the opposite. This map showcases how certain regions, like Ilorin and Afon, have a distinct potassium dominance over thorium. Figure 6 emphasizes the inverse relationship between uranium and thorium, with magenta regions indicating high uranium and low thorium levels. This map highlights areas such as Ilorin, Oro, and Omupo with high uranium dominance. Figure 7 shows a distinctive concentration of potassium in the northwestern part of the Kwara State, with lower levels of thorium and uranium in the same area. The color-coded legend helps identify areas of varying radioactivity risk, from the safest (black) to the most hazardous (white), as well as areas with specific element dominance (green for thorium, blue for uranium). These observations highlight potential environmental and health concerns in certain regions while identifying relatively safe zones. Future recommendations include conducting detailed geological studies in areas with exceptionally high concentrations of radiometric elements to better understand the underlying geological processes responsible for their distribution. It is also essential to perform environmental impact assessments in regions with high radioactivity levels, particularly in areas with an imbalance of these elements, to assess potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Health surveillance programs should be initiated in areas with high radioactivity concentrations, focusing on populations at risk of exposure to ionizing radiation. Public awareness should be raised about the radioactivity levels in Kwara State and the potential health and environmental implications, educating residents about safety measures to minimize exposure. Additionally, the potential economic significance of these radiometric elements, such as uranium mining or soil enrichment for agriculture, should be explored while ensuring strict safety and environmental regulations are in place. Establishing a long-term monitoring system to track changes in radiometric element concentrations and assess their impact over time is also recommended, enabling timely responses to any emerging issues. These radiometric element distribution maps provide a valuable foundation for scientific research, environmental management, and public health considerations in Kwara State. Future actions should aim to balance the potential benefits and risks associated with these elements while safeguarding the well-being of the local population and the environment. This work serves as guide for future ground investigation within Kwara State. Declarations Ethics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations: not applicable. Clinical trial number: not applicable. Funding: No funding was received for this study . CONFLICT-OF-INTEREST STATEMENT : The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to declare Author Contribution The radiometric data utilized in this research was obtained by M.M. from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA). The initial draft of the manuscript was prepared by A.A., while the data analysis and figure generation were jointly conducted by N.B. and A.A. All authors contributed to the manuscript's revision and refinement, with M.M. providing the final critical review and approving the version submitted for publication. References Smith, R. (2020). Geophysical exploration techniques for subsurface physical property assessment. Geophysics, 85 ( 4 ), 85–96. Johnson, P. (2019). Optimizing borehole locations through geophysical methods. Geophysics, 84 ( 2 ), 47–58. Salawu, M. O., et al. (2023). Aeromagnetic Investigation of the Subsurface Structure of Ilorin, Nigeria: Tectonic Implications. Journal of Geophysical Research, 128 ( 4 ), 562–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-023-00260-0 Olatunji, A. A., et al. (2022). Resistivity Imaging for Aquifer Potential Assessment in Southern Kwara State, Nigeria. Hydrogeology Journal, 30 ( 3 ), 711–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-022-02604-0 Akanbi, T. A. (2015). Geospatial mapping of common waterborne diseases in Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Health, 10 ( 3 ), 45–58. El-Taher, A., Uosif, M. A. M., & Orabi, A. A. (2016). Assessment of natural radioactivity levels and radiation hazards due to geological formation at Qena, Egypt. Journal of Taibah University for Science, 10 ( 3 ), 296–306. Akinloye, M. K., Ogunkunle, C. O., & Awonuga, O. M. (2019). Radiological risk assessment of soils and rocks in Southwestern Nigeria using gamma spectrometry and ternary mapping techniques. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191 ( 5 ), 302. Afolabi, J. A., et al. (2020). Natural radioactivity in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria: A study of thorium distribution. Journal of Radiation Protection, 40 ( 2 ), 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncaa118 Mannan, M. A., et al. (2020). Assessment of natural radioactivity levels in different regions: Health and environmental implications. International Journal of Environmental Health, 15 ( 4 ), 1–15. Akinloye, M. K., et al. (2018). Radiological risk assessment in Southwestern Nigeria: Health implications and safety limits. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, 57 ( 1 ), 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00411-017-0735-7 Siddiqui, M. A., et al. (2020). Health risks associated with high uranium and thorium concentrations in soil and groundwater in Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42 ( 6 ), 2005–2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00457-w World Health Organization (WHO). (2006). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva . United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). (2008). Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. United Nations, New York . El-Taher, A., Uosif, M. A. M., & Orabi, A. A. (2016). Assessment of natural radioactivity levels and radiation hazards due to geological formation at Qena, Egypt. Journal of Taibah University for Science, 10 ( 3 ), 296–306. Ramachandran, R., & Nair, K. M. (2004). Natural radioactivity in the Kolar Gold Fields of India. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 109 ( 3 ), 257–262. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6422191","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":455578534,"identity":"901df725-0ed5-418b-9866-d454dbb1d962","order_by":0,"name":"Abdussamad Amofe Adeyemi","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Verity Geosolution Limited","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdussamad","middleName":"Amofe","lastName":"Adeyemi","suffix":""},{"id":455578535,"identity":"ce55deb0-8794-4141-b09d-79fd602b89d2","order_by":1,"name":"Muyiwa Micheal Orosun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muyiwa","middleName":"Micheal","lastName":"Orosun","suffix":""},{"id":455578536,"identity":"3590e699-b85c-432a-8099-c9cf465122f0","order_by":2,"name":"Naheem Banji Salawu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"BS Geophysical and Consultancy (Nigeria)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Naheem","middleName":"Banji","lastName":"Salawu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-10 17:08:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6422191/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6422191/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82629123,"identity":"830ae190-d115-4495-bc9f-513d4501928e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:24:45","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147008,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Kwara State by Local Government Areas.\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cem\u003eSource: Akanbi (2015), \"Geospatial Mapping of Common Waterborne Diseases in Kwara State, Nigeria\". Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Health, 10(3), 45–58.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/1fefb19b248d44946c4d1d29.png"},{"id":82629422,"identity":"0d457e87-72db-4c09-a916-f91b989ccb0c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:32:45","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":492639,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePotassium distribution map across Kwara State\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/6baf55f1bfe29ee3c42097c9.png"},{"id":82629130,"identity":"de314021-98db-455d-9218-e565fa26592c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:24:45","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":492746,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThorium distribution map accross Kwara State\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/32c2094c9d332f25efd74bf2.png"},{"id":82629124,"identity":"d8f80ab2-5426-4d56-aab4-01d6945720ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:24:45","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2215040,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUranium distribution map accross Kwara State\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/82779470b7928af0c6598096.png"},{"id":82629128,"identity":"a61f2cb0-9740-4ee4-8150-e399b56e8e36","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:24:45","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":486681,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePotassium ratio thorium map\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/3f491b0445d6f09a8263dde3.png"},{"id":82629134,"identity":"78707a5f-2dca-47b7-8c0b-1dae0db60473","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:24:45","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":556005,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUranium ratio thorium map\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/a3aed10317479df38723b9cc.png"},{"id":82629129,"identity":"43acc913-7991-49f1-a1c7-b4a666fe84f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:24:45","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":741304,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTenary map of Kwara State\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/f28a902714a2c39c2996749a.png"},{"id":82631104,"identity":"50775ce3-e301-40d4-bdc8-fa3d5a57d78b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 13:48:47","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4869874,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6422191/v1/c2491fe9-bcef-4cdc-be01-70c5c4458e1a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Geospatial Distributions of Natural Radioactivity in Kwara State, Nigeria Using Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometry Data","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGeophysical exploration plays a crucial role in assessing subsurface physical properties, utilizing techniques such as seismic, electrical, electromagnetic, gravitational, magnetic, and gamma ray spectrometry (Smith, 2020). These methods provide detailed insights into subsurface stratigraphy, identify anomalies, and optimize borehole locations, enhancing the efficiency of geological investigations (Johnson, 2019). Specifically, gamma ray spectrometry measures gamma ray emissions from subsurface elements to determine material composition and density, supporting the assessment of radioelements (Johnson, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the utility of geophysical methods for detailed evaluation of subsurface geology in Kwara State, Nigeria. several studies have emphasized varying techniques and outcomes in understanding the region's geology. For instance, Salawu et al. (2023) used aeromagnetic methods to investigate the subsurface structure of Ilorin, revealing dominant E-W structures that suggest tectonic influences in the area. Similarly, Olatunji et al. (2022) employed resistivity imaging to assess aquifer potentials in the southern part of Kwara State, identifying high-yield zones with significant groundwater potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, there is a lack of regional data on natural radioactivity distributions in Kwara State, Nigeria. This gap limits the understanding of potential health risks, geological characterization, and environmental impacts associated with natural radioelements such as potassium, thorium, and uranium. To address this gap, this study employs gamma ray spectrometry to provide comprehensive data on natural radioactivity and its implications in the region. The study on gamma ray spectrometry in Kwara State is significant for environmental impact assessment, resource management, radiation exposure assessment, urban planning and land use, environmental conservation, community awareness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to delineate variations in radionuclide concentrations, specifically potassium, thorium, and uranium, in Kwara State., This is to assess the environmental and health implications of detected radionuclides and provide recommendations for sustainable land use and resource management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSource: Akanbi (2015), \"Geospatial Mapping of Common Waterborne Diseases in Kwara State, Nigeria\". Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Health, 10\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003e45\u0026ndash;58.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 The study Area","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study area is located in Kwara State, Northcentral Nigeria. It is characterized by a diverse geological setting comprising ancient basement complex rocks and sedimentary formations. The basement complex rocks in the study area are primarily Precambrian in age, consisting of granite, gneiss, and schist (Oyawoye, 1972). These rocks are known for their structural complexities, including faults, folds, and shear zones, which are often associated with mineralization.. The sedimentary formations overlaying the basement complex are mainly Cretaceous to Quaternary in age, comprising sandstones, shales, and lateritic soils (Kogbe, 1989).. These formations contribute to the region's diverse topography and influence the distribution of waterways. The geological setting of Kwara State has a direct impact on the concentration and distribution of radioactive elements such as potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th). These elements are naturally occurring in various rock types and their concentrations can vary significantly based on the geological history and processes that have affected the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe airborne gamma spectrometry data of Kwara State was obtained from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency. The data is part of a World Bank-supported scheme under the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP), aimed at improving the understanding of Nigeria's geology and mineral resources through high-resolution geophysical surveys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data was acquired using airborne geophysical surveys conducted at low altitudes, with sensors mounted on aircraft to measure gamma radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. The surveys captured spatial variations in the concentrations of natural radionuclides, including potassium (K), thorium (Th), and uranium (U). This technique provides a non-invasive method for mapping the geochemical properties of the surface, offering insights into the underlying geology and potential environmental hazards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe acquired data was processed and analyzed using Oasis Montaj software a widely used geophysical interpretation tool. Gridding techniques were applied to create thematic maps for each radionuclide, illustrating their spatial distribution across Kwara State. The ternary map was also generated to visualize the combined contributions of potassium, thorium, and uranium, allowing for the identification of high-risk areas with elevated natural radioactivity (El-Taher et al., 2016; Akinloye et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.This methodology ensures a comprehensive evaluation of the radiometric data, providing valuable information for environmental monitoring, land use planning, and public health interventions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 presents the potassium distribution map across Kwara State.. The magenta color signifies areas with a notably high potassium concentration, surpassing 2.20%,. Conversely, the blue regions indicate low potassium levels, falling within the range of 0\u0026ndash;0.30%. The green areas reflect a moderately elevated concentration, ranging from 0.33 to 0.55%. The yellowish shades represent concentrations ranging from 0.55 to 0.83%, showing a slightly higher level of potassium. It's important to note that Ilorin and Afon stand out on the map with a high potassium concentration. This information underscores the spatial distribution of potassium and its relative proportions to other radiometric elements in the region\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e provides an overview of thorium distribution throughout Kwara State. The map employs distinct colors to represent varying thorium concentrations. The magenta hue designates areas with an exceptionally high thorium concentration, measuring 19.0 ppm and above. Notably, this high concentration of thorium (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) contrasts with the levels of potassium (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). In the orange-colored regions, thorium concentrations are considered high, falling within the range of 15.7 ppm to 17.1 ppm. Yellow areas indicate a slightly elevated thorium concentration, ranging from 10.0 ppm to 13.4 ppm, while the green regions represent thorium levels ranging from 6.7 ppm to 9.8 ppm. In Nigeria, a study by \u003cem\u003eAfolabi et al. (2020)\u003c/em\u003e in the Niger Delta region found thorium concentrations ranging from 4.2 ppm to 15.3 ppm, with some areas reaching around 16 ppm. These levels are somewhat lower than those observed in Kwara State, particularly in the high concentration zones (19.0 ppm and above). This suggests that Kwara State might have regions with a higher natural radiological footprint compared to other parts of Nigeria, such as the Niger Delta. Similarly, \u003cem\u003eAkinloye et al. (2019)\u003c/em\u003e reported thorium concentrations in Ogun State ranging from 5.0 ppm to 14.5 ppm. These values are lower than those found in Kwara State, particularly in the high and moderate concentration zones, indicating that Kwara may be more radiologically active. Comparing these concentrations to international data, a study by \u003cem\u003eEl-Taher et al. (2016)\u003c/em\u003e in Egypt revealed thorium concentrations in the Qena Governorate ranging from 1.8 ppm to 10.0 ppm, much lower than those observed in Kwara State. This suggests that Kwara State, particularly in areas with concentrations above 19.0 ppm, may have a more pronounced natural radioactivity than certain regions outside Africa. Furthermore, the Kolar Gold Fields in India, studied by \u003cem\u003eRamachandran \u0026amp; Nair (2004)\u003c/em\u003e, reported thorium concentrations between 10.0 ppm and 25.0 ppm. This places some areas of Kwara State in a similar range, indicating that the state may have comparable or even slightly higher thorium concentrations than certain thorium-rich regions globally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays the uranium distribution across Kwara State. The magenta shade indicates regions with an exceptionally high uranium concentration, measuring 4.2 ppm and above. Notably, this high uranium concentration is in contrast to potassium and thorium levels. Conversely, the blue regions on the map signify very low uranium concentrations when compared to thorium and potassium, ranging from 0 ppm to 1.5 ppm. Green areas represent uranium concentrations ranging from 1.7 ppm to 2.4 ppm, while yellow regions denote uranium levels between 2.7 ppm and 3.2 ppm. In contrast, the orange regions highlight uranium concentrations ranging from 3.5 ppm to 4.0 ppm. It's worth noting that areas such as Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin exhibit a high uranium concentration, as indicated on the map. When comparing these uranium concentrations to other regions, the findings in Kwara State align with global trends in uranium distribution. For example, a study conducted by \u003cem\u003eAkinloye et al. (2019)\u003c/em\u003e in southwestern Nigeria reported uranium concentrations ranging from 1.0 ppm to 3.5 ppm, with some regions exceeding 4.0 ppm. This suggests that the higher uranium concentrations observed in Kwara State (over 4.2 ppm) are comparatively significant, highlighting the potential for elevated radiological risk in specific areas.. In contrast, uranium levels reported in other African countries such as Niger and Namibia, two well-known uranium-rich regions, provide a wider range of concentrations. \u003cem\u003eEl-Taher et al. (2016)\u003c/em\u003e in their study of uranium concentrations in Egypt found values ranging from 0.5 ppm to 10.0 ppm, with some areas in Egypt\u0026rsquo;s Eastern Desert reaching as high as 9.8 ppm. While some areas in Kwara State (Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin) show concentrations comparable to these high uranium levels, it is still on the lower end of the spectrum when compared to major uranium mining regions globally. These comparisons underscore the significance of uranium concentrations in Kwara State, indicating that certain areas, particularly Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin, could be associated with higher radiation levels relative to other parts of Nigeria and other global uranium-bearing regions. These color-coded representations offer valuable insights into the spatial distribution of uranium and its relative proportions to other radiometric elements in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 5 in this context illustrates the distribution of potassium and thorium throughout Kwara State, with a clear inverse relationship between the two elements. The map employs a color scheme to represent various potassium-to-thorium ratios. Regions colored in magenta indicate a notably high potassium concentration alongside a markedly low thorium concentration. In these areas, the potassium-to-thorium ratio exceeds 0.325% per ppm. Conversely, the blue regions on the map signify a very high thorium concentration paired with a notably low potassium concentration. Within these zones, potassium-to-thorium ratios range from 0% per ppm to 0.036% per ppm. The green-colored areas denote potassium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.045% per ppm to 0.093% per ppm, while the yellow regions represent ratios falling within the range of 0.095% per ppm to 0.15% per ppm. In contrast, orange-shaded regions illustrate potassium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.205% per ppm to 0.30% per ppm. Importantly, certain areas, namely Ilorin, Afon, Aremu, and Ojoku, exhibit a very high potassium concentration and a very low thorium concentration, as highlighted on the map. Meanwhile, Agbamu, Ira, and Oro display a very high thorium concentration paired with a notably low uranium concentration. These color-coded representations offer insights into the spatial distribution of potassium and thorium, emphasizing their inverse correlation and relative proportions in different regions of Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e provides an overview of the distribution of uranium and thorium across Kwara State, showcasing their inverse relationship. The map uses a color scheme to represent various uranium-to-thorium ratios. In regions shaded magenta, there is a notably high uranium concentration coupled with a markedly low thorium concentration. In these areas, the uranium-to-thorium ratio exceeds 0.44. Conversely, the blue regions on the map signify a very high thorium concentration paired with a notably low uranium concentration. Within these zones, uranium-to-thorium ratios range from 0 to 0.16. The green-colored areas denote uranium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.18 to 0.24, while the yellow regions represent ratios falling within the range of 0.25 to 0.31. In contrast, orange-shaded regions illustrate uranium-to-thorium ratios ranging from 0.34 to 0.40. Notably, certain areas, including Ilorin, Oro, and Omupo, exhibit a very high uranium concentration and a very low thorium concentration, as highlighted on the map. These color-coded representations offer insights into the spatial distribution of uranium and thorium, emphasizing their inverse correlation and relative proportions in different regions of Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Tenary map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) illustrates the distribution of radiometric elements (eU, eTh, and K) throughout Kwara State. Notably, there is a pronounced high potassium concentration (indicated with red colour), particularly in the northwestern part of the map, which stands in contrast to the lower levels of thorium and uranium in this area. The black region in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2 signifies the safest area with the lowest radioactivity levels. Numerous studies have shown that low levels of natural radioactivity typically present no significant health risks. For instance, studies by \u003cem\u003eMannan et al. (2020)\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAkinloye et al. (2018)\u003c/em\u003e have demonstrated that natural radioactivity levels within established safety thresholds do not pose a threat to human health or the environment. These studies emphasize that radiation levels commonly encountered in regions with low to moderate concentrations of radioactive elements such as potassium, thorium, and uranium are generally considered safe. The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for radiation exposure also support this, asserting that low doses of natural radiation, like those found in the environment, typically result in minimal health impacts (\u003cem\u003eUNSCEAR, 2008\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the white region denotes the most hazardous zone, characterized by extremely high concentrations of thorium, potassium, and uranium.. One notable study by \u003cem\u003eSiddiqui et al. (2020)\u003c/em\u003e examined the combined impact of high levels of uranium and thorium in soils and groundwater in parts of Pakistan. The research revealed that regions with high concentrations of these elements exhibited an increased incidence of lung and bone cancers, attributed to prolonged exposure to radon gas, a decay product of uranium. Similar findings were observed in \u003cem\u003eAkinloye et al. (2018)\u003c/em\u003e, where high concentrations of uranium and thorium in certain areas of Nigeria were linked to elevated radiation hazard indices. These elements, in combination, can result in a significant radiation dose to local populations, increasing the potential for radiation-related illnesses. The \u003cem\u003eWorld Health Organization (WHO, 2006)\u003c/em\u003e also supports this, stating that prolonged exposure to elevated levels of uranium, thorium, and potassium can lead to kidney damage, lung cancer, and other long-term health effects. Uranium and thorium decay to produce radon, a colorless, odorless radioactive gas that can accumulate in poorly ventilated areas, further heightening the health risks. In addition, high potassium concentrations, although generally less hazardous, can contribute to overall radiation exposure when found in combination with these other elements, amplifying the risk of ionizing radiation. In the context of this study, the \u003cb\u003ewhite region\u003c/b\u003e in the \u003cb\u003eTernary map (\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e, which denotes the most hazardous zone, is characterized by extremely high concentrations of thorium, potassium, and uranium. This combination of elements poses significant health risks, including radiation sickness, increased cancer risk, and potential genetic mutations, particularly for residents living in or near these high-risk zones. The potential for exposure to radon gas in such areas further exacerbates the health implications, making it critical for regulatory measures to be implemented in areas with elevated levels of these radioactive elements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the green area on the map indicates a high thorium concentration relative to potassium and uranium, while the blue region represents a high uranium concentration compared to potassium and thorium. These observations from the Tenary map provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of radiometric elements across Kwara State, highlighting areas of potential environmental and health concern, as well as safe zones. Discuss previous studies that have used Tenary map for health assessment. One significant study by \u003cem\u003eEl-Taher et al. (2016)\u003c/em\u003e used a ternary map to assess the radiological hazards in the Qena Governorate of Egypt. The study focused on the distribution of thorium, uranium, and potassium in soil and water, and used the ternary map to highlight areas with high concentrations of these elements. The map was instrumental in identifying regions with elevated radiation risks, which were then correlated with an increased incidence of cancer and other radiation-related diseases. This study underscored the importance of using ternary. Similarly, \u003cem\u003eAkinloye et al. (2019)\u003c/em\u003e employed a ternary map to study the radiological risks in Southwestern Nigeria. The ternary diagram helped to visualize the relationship between thorium, uranium, and potassium concentrations in various soil and rock samples. Their findings revealed areas with high uranium concentration, which were associated with increased radiation exposure and a higher risk of lung cancer in nearby populations. This study demonstrated the utility of ternary maps in identifying not only high-risk areas but also regions where public health measures such as radon monitoring and mitigation are necessary. maps in health risk assessment, as they visually communicate the combined effects of these radioactive elements, providing valuable information for public health interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 Conclusion and Future Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the series of radiometric element distribution maps presented in this research provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of the spatial distribution of uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K) across Kwara State. The results offer valuable insights into the variations in radioactivity levels and the relationships between these elements within the region. Figure\u0026nbsp;2 shows a distinctive concentration of potassium in the northwestern part of the Kwara State, with lower levels of thorium and uranium in the same area. The color-coded legend helps identify areas of varying radioactivity risk, from the safest (black) to the most hazardous (white), as well as areas with specific element dominance (green for thorium, blue for uranium). These observations highlight potential environmental and health concerns in certain regions while identifying relatively safe zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigures 2, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e provide more focused views of potassium, thorium, and uranium distributions, respectively. The magenta regions in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2 demonstrate significantly high potassium levels, particularly in Ilorin and Afon, relative to thorium and uranium. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, magenta regions indicate exceptionally high thorium concentrations, notably in contrast to the other elements. Conversely, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e reveals magenta regions with exceptionally high uranium levels in areas like Agbamu, Ira, Oro, and Ilorin. These maps emphasize the specific spatial variations of each element within Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 5 highlights the inverse relationship between potassium and thorium, with magenta areas displaying high potassium and low thorium concentrations, while blue areas represent the opposite. This map showcases how certain regions, like Ilorin and Afon, have a distinct potassium dominance over thorium.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e emphasizes the inverse relationship between uranium and thorium, with magenta regions indicating high uranium and low thorium levels. This map highlights areas such as Ilorin, Oro, and Omupo with high uranium dominance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows a distinctive concentration of potassium in the northwestern part of the Kwara State, with lower levels of thorium and uranium in the same area. The color-coded legend helps identify areas of varying radioactivity risk, from the safest (black) to the most hazardous (white), as well as areas with specific element dominance (green for thorium, blue for uranium). These observations highlight potential environmental and health concerns in certain regions while identifying relatively safe zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture recommendations include conducting detailed geological studies in areas with exceptionally high concentrations of radiometric elements to better understand the underlying geological processes responsible for their distribution. It is also essential to perform environmental impact assessments in regions with high radioactivity levels, particularly in areas with an imbalance of these elements, to assess potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Health surveillance programs should be initiated in areas with high radioactivity concentrations, focusing on populations at risk of exposure to ionizing radiation. Public awareness should be raised about the radioactivity levels in Kwara State and the potential health and environmental implications, educating residents about safety measures to minimize exposure. Additionally, the potential economic significance of these radiometric elements, such as uranium mining or soil enrichment for agriculture, should be explored while ensuring strict safety and environmental regulations are in place. Establishing a long-term monitoring system to track changes in radiometric element concentrations and assess their impact over time is also recommended, enabling timely responses to any emerging issues. These radiometric element distribution maps provide a valuable foundation for scientific research, environmental management, and public health considerations in Kwara State. Future actions should aim to balance the potential benefits and risks associated with these elements while safeguarding the well-being of the local population and the environment. This work serves as guide for future ground investigation within Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding: No funding was received for this study\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCONFLICT-OF-INTEREST STATEMENT\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to declare\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe radiometric data utilized in this research was obtained by M.M. from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA). The initial draft of the manuscript was prepared by A.A., while the data analysis and figure generation were jointly conducted by N.B. and A.A. All authors contributed to the manuscript's revision and refinement, with M.M. providing the final critical review and approving the version submitted for publication.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmith, R. (2020). Geophysical exploration techniques for subsurface physical property assessment. Geophysics, \u003cem\u003e85\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e), 85\u0026ndash;96.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJohnson, P. (2019). Optimizing borehole locations through geophysical methods. Geophysics, \u003cem\u003e84\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e), 47\u0026ndash;58.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSalawu, M. O., et al. (2023). Aeromagnetic Investigation of the Subsurface Structure of Ilorin, Nigeria: Tectonic Implications. 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Assessment of natural radioactivity levels and radiation hazards due to geological formation at Qena, Egypt. Journal of Taibah University for Science, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e), 296\u0026ndash;306.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRamachandran, R., \u0026amp; Nair, K. M. (2004). Natural radioactivity in the Kolar Gold Fields of India. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, \u003cem\u003e109\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e), 257\u0026ndash;262.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Environment](https://www.springer.com/44274/)","snPcode":"44274","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44274/3","title":"Discover Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gamma ray spectrometry, Potassium, Uranium, Thorium, Kwara State, Natural radioactivity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6422191/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6422191/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to delineate variations in radionuclide concentrations, specifically potassium, thorium, and uranium, in Kwara State, Nigeria. The study employs gamma ray spectrometry data to provide comprehensive information on natural radioactivity and its implications in the region. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the spatial distribution of radiometric elements across the region,.The result from the interpretation of the airborne radiometric data highlights areas of potential environmental and health concern, as well as safe zones. Specifically, the northwestern part of the study area shows high levels of thorium and uranium concentrations, These elevated levels suggest potential environmental and health concerns, including increased radiation exposure risks, necessitating targeted monitoring and mitigation measures in these zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results presented in this study provide a valuable foundation for scientific research, environmental management, and public health considerations in this region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work serves as guide for future ground investigation within Kwara State, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Geospatial Distributions of Natural Radioactivity in Kwara State, Nigeria Using Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometry Data","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 13:24:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6422191/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-26T19:55:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-11T09:25:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T16:11:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T16:10:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-27T02:32:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-22T06:02:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-18T17:10:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"237351193226055163076590749742742789416","date":"2025-05-14T09:10:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-14T06:36:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"205157933940423630705731784397673803229","date":"2025-05-12T18:21:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"290381503654222661174711998120164809576","date":"2025-05-11T07:05:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"308936552650892594121739388692019665656","date":"2025-05-09T09:02:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"30557799640027516379718874557255786761","date":"2025-05-08T23:20:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"175445698399215091991576717146912305530","date":"2025-05-08T16:53:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"216379332961249493189404256634759387565","date":"2025-05-08T15:54:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-08T15:46:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T09:26:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T09:15:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Environment","date":"2025-04-10T17:00:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Environment](https://www.springer.com/44274/)","snPcode":"44274","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44274/3","title":"Discover Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f710e6bd-77ad-4dd5-9e48-aebc9b0148b5","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-08T06:54:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 13:24:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6422191","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6422191","identity":"rs-6422191","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}