Item-response theoretical examinations of a lot of bullshit: Evaluations of measures of bullshit production and reception

Abstract Scholars developed and probed measures of individual receptivity to and production of ambiguous, empty, or otherwise deceptive information that is intended to gain advantages or avoid disadvantages (so-called bullshit ). All recent endeavors to scale development and evaluation were limited to classical test theory, but no study has yet applied item response theory (IRT). In a sample of 525 participants, most of the items of the Bullshit Receptivity Scale , the Scientific Bullshit Receptivity Scale , and the Bullshitting Frequency Scale revealed appropriate IRT properties in the polytomous graded response model . However, in some cases, sufficient information could be obtained only within relatively narrow spectra, or gaps of obtainable information occurred along the spectra. Furthermore, bullshit and real information statements did not function equally well. Last, statistical concerns with frequently employed bullshit sensitivity scores were discussed and recommendations for further efforts concerning item development were expressed.