Building and balancing a sustainable foodscape in the office environment – A mixed methods qualitative study

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The aim of this study was to enhance understanding of how office-based companies use and perceive the workplace environment in relation to promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits, with a particular focus on innovative companies leading the way in this area. Methods The study used a qualitative mixed-methods design. The data collection included semi-structured interviews with 11 company representatives from nine companies, a photo elicitation at three restaurants connected to the companies, and an overview of the company websites for context. The data were analysed using thematic analysis, applying the foodscape concept. Results The results showed that the companies had visions, goals, and strategies for building a sustainable foodscape. However, the companies faced challenges and goal conflicts, requiring them to balance multiple values within the foodscape’s physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces. Conclusion The office foodscape holds potential as an arena for promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits, particularly when physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces are aligned with sustainability goals. To realise this potential, companies must navigate and balance the value conflicts that arise in everyday practice. Workplace health promotion office health sustainable eating habits foodscape Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Background Out-of-home eating has been highlighted as an arena for promoting healthier eating and lifestyle patterns ( 1 ). Every day, 2.5 million office workers go to work in Sweden ( 2 ). A full-time office employee, working 40 hours per week, spends up to 50–60% of their waking hours at work ( 3 ) and usually consumes one third of their daily energy intake in the workplace ( 4 ). Office work is often characterised by physical inactivity, and office workers typically spend the majority of their working hours sitting or standing still ( 4 ), resulting in low energy expenditure. Therefore, the workplace becomes a crucial setting for promoting healthier eating habits, where a predominantly plant-based diet, combining social and environmental sustainability, is recommended ( 5 ). If a diet is to be sustainable, it must consider both health and environmental impacts ( 5 ). This presents challenges, as current food systems generate large amounts of food waste and rely on pesticides and synthetic fertilisers, thus contributing to the breaching of several planetary boundaries ( 6 , 7 ). Western diets, characterised by high consumption of animal products and energy-dense foods, increase the risk of developing non-communicable diseases and contribute to climate change and environmental degradation ( 5 ). Conversely, research indicates that a diet associated with low greenhouse gas emissions is also more nutritious, creating a win-win situation for sustainable diets ( 8 ). Scientific and policy documents such as the EAT-Lancet report ( 9 ) and the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations ( 5 ) advocate integrating health and environmental considerations into sustainable diets. This approach is also applicable to the office as a health-promoting arena, where the workplace environment can support healthier and more sustainable food choices. The workplace food environment is likely to influence employees’ eating behaviours ( 4 ). Depending on what food options are available, office workers may face challenges in making healthy food choices at vending machines, restaurants, and staff canteens, if the nutritional quality and variety is low ( 10 ). Commonly, Western diets served at commercial restaurants are energy-dense and high in fat, especially saturated fat, processed meat, red meat, sugar, and salt, and low in whole grains, fruits and vegetables. This, combined with a sedentary work life, may contribute to the burden of chronic diseases, including cancers, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and obesity ( 5 , 11 ). An unhealthy lifestyle in the workplace not only affects the health and well-being of the employees negatively but also affects the employer through reduced productivity and increased incidence of sick leave. Moreover, society bears the economic burden of higher costs for health care, medication, and sick leave benefits ( 12 – 16 ). However, the office can serve as a health-promoting arena by focusing on its built, organisational, and social environment ( 17 ). The WHO’s Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health recommends that workplaces promote healthy food options to reduce daily risk exposure ( 18 ). In addition, the European Commission’s FOOD program (Fighting Obesity through Offer and Demand) aims to enhance the nutritional quality of foods available during work hours, supplementing efforts to raise individual awareness and provide education on healthy habits ( 19 ). These two policy documents suggest that companies, restaurants, and employees have a shared responsibility for balanced nutrition at work. To facilitate changes in dietary behaviour in the workplace, it is essential to modify the physical environment, social setting, and organisational structure (20). Changes in the workplace’s physical environment (e.g. availability of healthy foods in vending machines and restaurants), organisational structure (e.g. policies such as provision of free-of-charge fruit) and social spaces for eating (e.g. the common lunchroom or cafeteria) expose a larger group of the working population to healthier options, thereby facilitating behavioural changes and public health improvements ( 20 , 21 ). When implementing changes in the food environment, we nudge employees to opt for healthier and more sustainable food choices. This can be done by providing more plant-based options on the menu, listing them in a more prominent place on the menu, and placing these dishes at the counter where customers place their orders. Such nudges have resulted in modest increases in sales as well as reductions in greenhouse gas emissions ( 22 ). Additionally, increasing the availability and variety of vegetarian options (from 25% to 50%) has been linked to an 8% rise in sales compared to a control group ( 23 ). Another effective strategy is to modify plate composition or portion sizes. For instance, Vandenbroele et al. ( 24 ) found that introducing smaller portion sizes in a retailer’s assortment led to a reduction in the total volume of meat sold compared to a control retailer. A social ecological perspective posits that health behaviours at work, such as healthy eating habits and physical activity, result from the interaction between the environment and the individual ( 25 , 26 ). According to the socio-ecological health promotion model, health behaviour is influenced by personal attributes (including psychological disposition, behaviour patterns, and genetic factors), physical environments (natural or human-made across geography, architecture, and technology), social environments (including cultural, economic, and political constructs), and multidimensional environments (which combine physical and social aspects and can be interpreted both objectively and subjectively) ( 25 ). Building on this, we have chosen to use the concept of foodscape in the context of the out-of-home eating sector ( 1 ). According to Mikkelsen ( 1 ), this type of foodscape may be defined as “the physical, organisational and sociocultural space in which clients/guests encounter meals, food and food-related issues, including health messages”. By using the foodscape concept, we are able to look at the complexity of how food and meals are intertwined in physical, social and cultural contexts in relation to our eating behaviours, from both a health and sustainability perspective ( 1 ). Previous studies have looked at the utilisation of the food environment to alter dietary behaviours among office workers. Strategies used include educating chefs and kitchen staff, providing labelling and information about healthy foods to workers, modifying menu options, and implementing salad bars ( 27 – 29 ). However, few studies have examined how to organise the food environment in office-based companies and such companies’ perceptions of how to provide healthy and sustainable food. Multi-component interventions that focus on changes in the workplace environment have shown a potential to contribute to healthy eating habits and to reduce chronic diseases ( 21 , 30 , 31 ). However, the success of these interventions relies on the foodscape and the engagement of motivated, proactive employers. Thus, the aim of this study was to enhance understanding of how office-based companies use and perceive the workplace environment in relation to promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits, with a particular focus on innovative companies leading the way in this area. Consequently, this study is expected to provide valuable insights into how workplaces can be designed to promote healthy and sustainable eating habits. Methods This study employed a qualitative mixed-methods design, combining semi-structured interviews with photo elicitation and company website information for contextual understanding. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 company representatives responsible for health promotion and/or food provision in the workplace. To enrich the data, photo elicitation was conducted at three restaurants connected to the companies, and the companies’ websites were reviewed to provide contextual background. Setting The present study is part of the Swedish research project Concepts for the Sustainable Office of the Future (SOFCO), which aims to explore how companies can support a healthy working life and lifestyle as well as contribute to sustainable development. The project was co-created with eight Swedish companies in central Sweden, operating within areas such as facility management, property and construction, coworking spaces, as well as office-related consulting and office solutions, nationally and internationally. All companies had a focus on sustainable development and should be seen as being at the forefront of building sustainable workplaces. Participants and data collection Before data collection was initiated, the study was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2021–02309). Data were collected in two cycles: cycle one between May and December 2021 during the Covid-19 pandemic, and cycle two in October 2023. In cycle one, data were also collected for another study within the project, focusing on workplace health promotion services related to physical activity and the Swedish wellness allowance. The results from that study has been published elsewhere ( 32 ). In contrast, cycle two data were collected exclusively for the present study, with the aim of deepening the insights gained in cycle one, specifically focusing on healthy and sustainable eating habits. In total, 14 potential informants were purposively sampled and contacted: 11 from partner companies and three from external companies to ensure a broad representation of food-related perspectives. An email with a brief description of the study was sent out. Three did not respond, despite reminders. The remaining informants received oral and written information about the study and gave their written informed consent. The interviews were semi-structured and conducted following the methodology described by Kvale ( 33 ). In total, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 company representatives from nine different companies: Nine company representatives in cycle one and two company representatives in cycle two. All interviews were conducted individually, except for one where the two representatives from the same company were interviewed together. In cycle one, all interviews were conducted by the second author, using Zoom or Teams, due to the Covid-19 pandemic, whereas in cycle two, all interviews were conducted in person at the informant’s workplace, with all authors participating. The informants included six women and five men, holding positions such as human resources manager, chief executive officer, country manager, sustainability manager, health and wellbeing specialist, restaurant owner, and compensation and benefits manager, see Additional file 1 for company descriptions. Companies and informants were given ID letters and informant ID numbers to ensure confidentiality. The promotion of healthy food habits, sustainability, and environmental initiatives linked to workplace health promotion, was explored using the questions presented in Table 1 and Additional file 2. Follow-up questions were posed regarding goal conflicts and challenges related to social, economic, and ecological sustainability. The questions in cycle two were more targeted and tailored to each individual informant, as they were designed to deepen the insights gained from cycle one. The interviews lasted between 26 and 48 minutes with an average time of approximately 40 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Table 1 Examples of questions from the interview guide related to workplace health promotion and food. Primary question Follow-up question What wellness initiatives or benefits do you offer your employees? Are these benefits offered during working hours? Do you have any insight into which of these benefits employees actually use? Do you have any sense of whether the benefits are used during office hours or in employees’ free time? How were the services you offer developed? Why do you offer the specific benefits that you do? Are external companies involved? If so, which ones and how? Do you offer free fruit to your employees? How is the fruit provided to employees? Is there any connection or collaboration between the company’s environmental policy/sustainability efforts and the wellness initiatives or benefits offered? Encouragement of climate-friendly and healthy food habits? The interviews were complemented with a photo elicitation, a method that integrates photos into research interviews, thereby enhancing the analysis process by combining the word-based interviews with visual data ( 34 ). Photo elicitation was conducted at three restaurants connected to the companies, on a weekday, during lunchtime: two were company restaurants and one was an independent restaurant. The three restaurants were selected to provide variation in size, type, and organisational structure, enabling comparative insights across different workplace food environments. As this is a qualitative study, depth of insight was prioritised over breadth. The photo elicitation was employed to systematically document features of the built environment identified as relevant from the interviews. Specifically, photographs were taken to visually capture and contextualise environmental aspects such as dining areas, food displays, and sustainability-related signage that informants had described as influencing workplace health promotion, sustainability and food provision. All pictures were taken by the second author using a Nikon D5200. To complement the interviews and photo-elicitation, the companies’ websites were also reviewed to provide contextual background. This included examining publicly available material such as sustainability strategies, organisational profiles, and food-related information. The purpose was to complement the interview and photo-elicitation with relevant descriptive insights, and therefore, these data were not subjected to formal qualitative analysis. Analysis Data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis ( 35 ) within the social constructionist paradigm ( 36 ). The analysis was conducted collaboratively by the first and second authors, with critical input provided by the last author. The initial phases of the analysis involved familiarisation with the data through reading and re-reading the interview transcripts and noting initial ideas. A preliminary interpretation was conducted by the second author to explore potential patterns. The first author then carried out the formal coding using Open Code, a software developed at Umeå University. All codes were kept close to the data, i.e. at the semantic level. In the next step of the analysis, the codes were grouped into three subthemes related to the provision of healthy and sustainable food in the workplace: i) Vision and goals, ii) Strategies , and iii) Challenges and goal conflicts . In the final step, these subthemes were combined with the photo elicitation material and developed into more abstract and theoretical themes. At this stage, the themes were formed in the light of the foodscape concept as defined by Mikkelsen ( 1 ), focusing on the physical, organisational and sociocultural space where food is sold and consumed. Accordingly, the office food environment as conceptualised as a “food landscape” shaped by social practices ( 37 ). As a result, subthemes i) and ii) informed the main theme Building a sustainable foodscape , while subtheme iii) formed the main theme Balancing a sustainable foodscape. The themes and subthemes are presented with illustrative examples of codes in Table 2 . Table 2 The main themes and subthemes with examples of codes. Main themes Building a sustainable foodscape Balancing a sustainable foodscape Subthemes Vision and goals Strategies Challenges and goal conflicts Examples of codes Healthy employees Provision of healthy food Must adapt to the preferences of the customers Environmentally friendly meals Use organic food Organic food is more expensive Less food waste Pay for food by weight Loss of customers Results The interviews, websites and photo elicitations illustrate the companies’ efforts to build and balance a sustainable foodscape in the office environment. The first theme, Building a sustainable foodscape , describes the companies’ visions and goals for offering healthy and sustainable meals and the strategies used to achieve this. The second theme, Balancing a sustainable foodscape , highlights the challenges and goal conflicts the companies experienced in their endeavour to harmonise the three dimensions of sustainability. The results are presented in the text below, with illustrative quotes and photos. Building a sustainable foodscape The theme Building a sustainable foodscape describes the companies’ vision and goals for serving healthy and sustainable meals in the office environment, as well as the strategies used to achieve these goals. All companies already had a focus on sustainability as part of their core activities and business strategies. Although most of the companies did not have food as their core activity, their vision and goals regarding sustainability were also applied to the food served to their employees. All dimensions of sustainability were mentioned, emphasising that the meals should be healthy and environmentally friendly while also meeting financial goals: It’s everything combined. Informant 9 All the companies carried out health promotion activities directed towards their employees, which also included the food served. One of the most common policies was to offer fresh fruit. Some companies also had policies specifying what was to be served during meetings, in the staff restaurant, cafeterias, or vending machines. These policies were implemented not only for health reasons but also for environmental and financial reasons, thus taking all sustainability perspectives into account. Examples of these policies include: less meat, no or less red meat, more fish, and more plant-based or solely vegetarian foods, as exemplified in the following quote: What we have in our food policy is that if the company pays then it must, so to speak, be vegetarian or vegan food. Of course we don’t sponsor meat consumption and things like that. Informant 3 The staff restaurants typically featured a food environment with an extensive salad buffet. One strategy used by the restaurants was to nudge their customers towards consuming more vegetables by placing the salad buffet first, as shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1. Display of the salad bar at one of the company restaurants. The main dishes were typically portioned out by the staff, which helped create a more balanced meal in terms of the amounts and proportions of the components, while also reducing waste and lowering costs. The menus typically offered at least one vegetarian option every day. During the photo elicitation, it was noted that one of the companies actively promoted the vegetarian dish with a discount as part of a sustainability campaign. Other ways of addressing the environmental dimension of sustainability included using seasonal, local, and organic produce, as well as striving to reduce food waste. Food waste mitigation methods mentioned during the interviews included offering fewer dishes, using smaller plates, not using a separate plate for the side salad, using apps to sell leftover foods, and food donations. Some restaurants also implemented a system where food is paid for by weight. Another method was to inform customers about the amount of food wasted, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Figure 2. Informing customers about the amount of food wasted at one of the company restaurants in order to encourage them to reduce food waste. Some of the companies chose to subsidise their employees’ lunches. This was either done by sponsoring part of the cost of eating in the company restaurant or by providing a voucher that employees could use to buy subsidised lunches at their preferred restaurants. One company bought lunch boxes and sold them to employees at a subsidised price. Another company subsidised weight loss treatment, although this benefit was rarely used. Typically, the companies also provided space and opportunities for employees to bring their own lunch from home, with an area where they could heat their food and eat it, as shown in Fig. 3. Figure 3. A space to heat and eat packed lunches from home, located next to where lunch is served in one of the company restaurants. Throughout the working year, the companies also provided various activities focusing on health and environmentally friendly food. Activities that had been tried included a cooking course focusing on vegetarian food, the provision of samples of vegan and organic food products, theme weeks with lectures about food, an outdoor picnic, health profile assessments of employees’ food habits, and various campaigns, such as those regarding the lunch subsidy. Some companies had also attained various certifications related to health and the environment. To communicate these visions for sustainability to employees, the companies used various methods. These included signage in the restaurant, a presence on social media, the creation of their own labelling system regarding food origin or organic production, and the use of official certifications. The latter is exemplified in Fig. 4, where one of the restaurants displayed the national label for certifying organic food production (KRAV). Figure 4. An example of how the company restaurant uses labels to highlight that the food was produced organically. Balancing a sustainable foodscape The theme Balancing a sustainable foodscape describes the challenges and conflicting goals that the companies faced when balancing the three dimensions of sustainability in the workplace foodscape. Sometimes the dimensions of sustainability aligned well, making it easier to balance. For example, by serving less beef, the companies could reduce their climate impact, promote healthier eating habits, and save money, as beef is more expensive than other protein sources. Strategies for reducing food waste also supported all three dimensions of sustainability by conserving resources. Offering fewer options resulted in less food waste but also meant fewer choices for customers. Covid-19 also led to changes, such as fewer customers using the restaurants. Generally, balancing multiple desirables proved difficult at times, resulting in goal conflicts. These could involve aesthetics, economic and legal issues, or taste preferences. For example, one of the restaurants wanted to place small plates for salad in front of the salad bar, because it looked appealing from the customer’s point of view. However, this often led to increased food waste compared to when customers put their salad directly on the large plate where the rest of the food is placed. One of these goal conflicts arose from trying to balance the company’s vision of sustainability against the employees’ preferences, out of fear of losing customers, which the restaurants cannot afford. While some informants reported having employees who wanted to make conscious decisions from a sustainability perspective, others faced challenges in this regard: Actually, we must admit that we got a bit of negative feedback in the restaurant initially, because it was too focused on vegetarian options … it was just too much, so we had to go back to a traditional dish. But when we started, there was a lot of veggie bowls and things like that. Informant 5 Adaptation to customer preferences was also evident in what was served during meetings. Despite the companies’ health policies and nudging strategies to encourage their employees to eat healthily, cake and other sugary food items were also served, as illustrated in the following quote: Of course we have fruit delivered three times a week in all offices, and it’s super appreciated. Then we have worked a lot with our supplier in terms of internal catering, and they are really trying hard to offer some healthier options, but it’s always the cream cakes that are most popular. So, we have a bit of a dilemma, and that is that it is always the PAs of the senior managers who place the orders, and then it always ends up being traditional options. But they are extremely good at alternatives, and we nudge. But I must admit that those who work for the external catering company say they have never met employees with such a sweet tooth as ours. So, as you see, it’s difficult to change! Informant 8 Cake and other sugary food items were also offered in the cafeterias, as shown in Fig. 5, where healthy and less healthy alternatives were displayed side by side. The same situation was true for staff fridges and freezers at the office, where ready-made lunches were available next to soft drinks, sweets, and ice cream. Figure 5. Cafeteria displaying a mix of healthy and less healthy foods. At other times, the customers wanted healthy options but this was not always feasible for economic reasons. A “pick and mix” offer of vegetables is good for health but also leads to more food waste, making it costly both financially and environmentally. Employees often wanted to supplement the lunch box they brought from home with a side salad, but if the salad comes in a non-recyclable disposable container, it is detrimental to the environment. Using a separate small plate for salad may also lead to problems such as more waste or people cheating by using it multiple times. Attempts at food waste mitigation, such as food donation, were not always possible to maintain due to time and cost issues, and selling leftover food on food waste apps could result in some of the food being thrown away anyway, but this time with additional packaging. The system of paying by weight was not always feasible either, as it might require remodelling the restaurant. In some cases, cash registers were on annual contracts which could not be changed at short notice, or there were concerns that customers would not return if a new concept was introduced. The higher cost of organic food, compared to conventional food, was also a barrier. The separation of a company into different business units could also result in the application of different policies. The only independent restaurant in the study had a different focus, placing more emphasis on taste, service, and the meal experience rather than health and the environment. The independent restaurant also focused more on attracting customers from outside for financial reasons. Although they had ostensibly adapted to the company’s vision of health, it was not their main priority, as exemplified in Fig. 6 and the following quote: Well, what I can say is that this health thinking… Of course, we think about balance in this. I believe the health thinking comes automatically. We don’t want to…, we don’t want to cook anything that gives people a heart attack. And I don’t think anyone benefits from that either, so that aspect disappears from our business, I might say. Of course we don’t run a health bar here. We do sell alcohol and yes… But of course, we think about balance in every dish we prepare. Informant 10 Figure 6. The interior of the independent restaurant, displaying another type of aesthetics compared to the companies’ in-house restaurants, including a display of alcoholic beverages for sale. Discussion This study aims to enhance understanding of how companies use and perceive the workplace in relation to promoting a healthy and sustainable food environment, using a social ecological perspective ( 25 ). The socio-ecological model suggests that health behaviours at work result from the interaction between the environment and the individual ( 25 , 26 ). By applying the foodscape concept and studying the physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces ( 37 ), we can gain insight into how health-promoting and sustainable the office environment is and, by modifying these spaces, facilitate improvements in dietary behaviour ( 20 , 21 ). The results showed that, despite having visions, goals and strategies for building a sustainable foodscape, the companies faced challenges and goal conflicts, requiring them to balance multiple values within the foodscape’s physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces. Physical space The physical space of the foodscape was particularly evident in the photo elicitation, showing the availability and types of foods offered, areas where food was sold and consumed, as well as the provision of utilities such as microwaves, which enabled employees to bring their own lunch to work. While the model presented by van Kasteren et al. ( 26 ) does not directly address the foodscape in the office, it underscores the significance of the physical dimension in shaping behaviours. It is important that the office environment contributes to a healthy food environment, as about one third of the daily intake is consumed in the workplace ( 4 ). The foodscape may positively affect diet, such as fruit and vegetable consumption ( 37 ). Easy access to healthy food near the workplace and nutritious options like fruit at the office have been shown to result in better food choices and potentially better metabolic health ( 30 , 38 , 39 ). It was common for the companies in the present study to offer free-of-charge fruit in the office environment. In a previous study, which also included two of the companies in this study, employees frequently documented fruit baskets and noted that having fruit available at work facilitated meeting nutritional recommendations and improving health ( 40 ). The companies included in the study typically ensured that healthy and sustainable food was available in their restaurants by offering several dishes to choose from, including plant-based options, and by serving an extensive salad buffet. However, not all customer requests could be met, as this would result in excessive food waste and costs, illustrating the difficulties in balancing the social, economic, and ecological dimensions of sustainability. Offering fewer options can result in both less serving and plate waste ( 41 ), which makes it important to find a good balance between demand and supply. The companies also provided space and opportunities for their employees to bring their own lunch from home. Allocating adequate time for meals in a clean, quiet, and comfortable eating environment, with facilities for heating food and washing up, can support healthy food habits ( 42 ). As the foodscape appears to be sensitive to income ( 37 ), the possibility of bringing one’s own lunch from home is important from a socio-economic perspective, as it is usually a cheaper option than using the company restaurant. Organisational space The organisational space of the office environments was observed mainly through the policies and benefits that were offered to employees. The previously mentioned fruit baskets were the most common policy. The company restaurants had policies on what was to be served, favouring healthier and sustainable options such as plant-based foods. The companies also nudged their employees into making healthier and more sustainable choices by actions such as placing the salad buffet first and using portioning instead of buffet-style self-service to make the meals more balanced. Various health-promoting information campaigns and activities were used to positively influence health behaviours. Thus, the companies used various policies and strategies in combination, as advised by the Nordic Council of Ministers ( 43 ), to create a supportive environment for healthier and more sustainable eating habits. Multi-component interventions aimed at modifying the workplace environment have demonstrated a potential for promoting healthy eating habits in the workplace ( 21 , 30 , 31 ). However, financial incentives are those most likely to affect food choices ( 43 ), and the companies’ subsidies of meals fall into this category of policy tools. Nudging, on the other hand, makes the healthy and sustainable food choice the easy choice and may also be effective. Provision of information is less intrusive but is generally also less efficient and should preferably be used in combination with other policy instruments ( 43 ). While information-based approaches may influence intended behaviour without necessarily changing actual behaviour, environment modifications can complement educational strategies to close the intention-behaviour gap ( 44 ). To lower the environmental impact and carbon footprint associated with food production, the restaurants used plant-based options and bought seasonal, local, and organic produce. These are also strategies that can be used to increase customer satisfaction and competitiveness ( 45 ). However, it is not guaranteed, as one company in our study reported decreased customer satisfaction in their new office restaurant due to an emphasis on plant-based options. The companies employed various strategies to convey health and environmental messages. For instance, they obtained various health and environmental certifications and used labels and signs in their restaurants as prompts and cues that might nudge customers towards more sustainable and healthier dietary choices. Previous research has shown that visual displays of healthy and sustainable food, highlighting the environmental and health impacts of food choices, placing healthy options in prominent locations, and using normative messaging can encourage sustainable behaviours ( 22 , 24 , 46 – 48 ). The companies also implemented food waste management strategies, which can further enhance the sustainability of the workplace foodscape ( 49 ). According to the food waste hierarchy framework applied within the European Union, prevention of food waste should be the highest priority, followed by re-use for human consumption ( 50 ). The food waste hierarchy was visible in the company policies practiced, with preventive measures such as offering fewer dishes, portioning, and using smaller plates, combined with food re-use efforts such as selling leftover foods and food donation programmes, although these initiatives were not without challenges. Decreasing food waste is a complex issue ( 51 ), especially as there is a need to balance multiple values within the foodscape. Our results highlighted the challenges of aligning the company's sustainability vision with employees' preferences, considering values such as being an attractive alternative, reducing food waste, and serving more plant-based options. Adding to this complexity, there are also barriers in the form of laws, regulations, and the perceived cost-benefit imbalances of building a sustainable restaurant foodscape, making it difficult to maintain sustainable practices effectively. Sociocultural space Eating in the office environment also involves a social dimension: social interaction takes place and norms and values about food are shared. Areas such as lunchrooms, restaurants, and common areas for eating touch upon the socio-cultural dimension of the model developed by van Kasteren et al. ( 26 ), emphasising workplace interactions among colleagues as a way to promote health. By providing space for eating lunch together with others, in a lunchroom or at a company restaurant, the companies enable a sociocultural space to be available to their employees. The workplace may also be an important place where both food habits and culturally valued food norms are learned through the process of socialisation ( 52 ). Depending on what is served, old food habits may be replaced by new, healthier ones. By serving plant-based foods, the office foodscape may foster a culture of health and sustainability. According to King ( 53 ), a sustainable foodscape must ensure both human and ecological health by promoting community health and considering social conditions, while at the same time ensuring sustainable food security and resilience. Therefore, sustainable foodscapes must consider not only what food is being served but also the social conditions and cultural appropriateness of the food ( 53 ). Since food choices are complex and heavily influenced by cultural and social factors ( 52 ), it may take time to change cultural norms and habits. Our study showed that there are competing values within a foodscape that must be balanced. Consequently, the informants experienced difficulties in implementing their policies. Although they envisioned serving more plant-based foods, they felt compelled towards compromise to meet employees’ preferences and avoid losing customers. One example of a situation where competing values may arise is in portioning meals to reduce meat consumption. Serving smaller portions of meat can lead to reduced meat consumption but may also negatively influence customer satisfaction ( 44 ). There was also a discrepancy between company restaurants and the one independent restaurant, as the latter prioritised taste, service, and the meal experience over health and ecological sustainability. Meeting customer preferences is complex, as customer satisfaction is influenced by several factors such as sensory properties, contextual factors, familiarity, serving location, and culture ( 54 ). Additionally, the value system of a culture comprises several subsystems such as ideological, technological, economic, educational, political, family, and mass media, which may result in conflicting values ( 52 ). This complexity may partly explain the competing values within the office foodscape. The need to balance multiple values within the office foodscape was a recurrent theme. Warde ( 55 ) has illustrated how we are often confronted with contradictory messages about food in today’s society, shown for instance in the tension between health and indulgence. While health is generally a predominant value, there is also a parallel discourse of indulgence, leading to mixed messages about eating what is good for the body versus eating for pleasure and comfort ( 55 ). These mixed messages were also evident in the office foodscape, where healthy and less healthy food items were offered side by side, and health messages coexisted with opportunities for indulgence. This was evident as cake was frequently ordered for meetings and special occasions, even when the company attempted to promote healthier alternatives. Traditionally, when there is a special occasion, the foods served are expected to differ from those served on an every-day basis ( 52 ), and cake is associated with celebrations, including in the office environment ( 40 ). Other dilemmas and contradictions that consumers face when making food choices include novelty vs. tradition, where there is a desire to explore new foods while also preferring familiar ones; economy vs. extravagance, which involves balancing budget-friendly options with a willingness to spend more on especially attractive foods; and convenience vs. care, the challenge of wanting quick and easy meals while still wanting to put effort into meal preparation ( 55 ). These mixed cultural values make food choices complex, and eating habits may therefore be resistant to change. Consequently, it is equally important to address the sociocultural space alongside the physical and organisational spaces when promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits. This study has examined the office foodscape by analysing its physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces. By analysing these three spaces separately, we can gain valuable insights into how to create a more sustainable and supportive office environment. However, it is crucial to emphasise that any foodscape must also be viewed as a whole, as these spaces are deeply interconnected and influence each other in complex ways. Understanding these spaces and their interconnections can help companies and public health initiatives implement more effective strategies for promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits. Methods discussion The data collection in cycle one took place during the Covid-19 pandemic. The Swedish authorities adopted a different approach compared to many other countries, with more voluntary measures and fewer mandatory restrictions; thus, society remained fairly open ( 56 ). However, it is important to note that part of the data collection occurred during a time when office workers were working more from home, and food provision at the office was affected by this. This study predominantly included perspectives from companies that own their own restaurants or hire a catering company for their office building. The homogeneity of informants and companies within this study limits its transferability but illustrates the use of food as part of workplace health promotion and sustainability efforts in office spaces. A limitation of the study is the relatively small number of interviews conducted. However, a strength of the study is the use of multiple data collection methods, as the integration of visual data with interview findings enabled deeper insights than words alone could provide. Future studies could incorporate more diverse cases (e.g. in the public sector) and employee perspectives on the foodscape. Additionally, enhanced data collection through workplace observations could more comprehensively examine the sociocultural space, i.e. social interactions and cultural practices, to understand their role in shaping health and sustainability within the office foodscape. Conclusion The office foodscape can serve as a health-promoting environment by leveraging physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces, while considering all dimensions of sustainability. However, companies’ visions, goals, and strategies may be hindered by the need to balance multiple and sometimes conflicting values. These findings suggest that for health promotion in the office environment to be successful, companies must find ways to balance these multiple values. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The study was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2021-02309). The informants received oral and written information about the study and gave their written informed consent. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The data generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical reasons but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research was funded by the Knowledge Foundation, Grant Number: 20200068. Authors' contributions CPO: Data collection, formal analysis, main writing of draft, review and editing of draft. OHU: Study design, data collection, preliminary analysis, partial writing of draft, review and editing of draft. KB: Funding acquisition, conceptualisation, study design, data collection, review and editing of draft. Acknowledgements Not applicable. References Mikkelsen BE. 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Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 2008;363(1492):849-61. European Commission. Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives 2008 [Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2008/98/oj. Sundin N. Sustainability of food waste prevention through food consumption 2024. Fieldhouse P. Food and nutrition: customs and culture. London: Stanley Thornes; 1998. King MC. Sustainable foodscapes: Obtaining food within resilient communities [M.E.S.]. Canada -- Ontario, CA: University of Waterloo (Canada); 2009. Rajeh C, Hunter JB, Levitsky DA, Zeineddine M, Kharroubi SA, Olabi A. Modeling the acceptance of vegetarian diets to promote sustainable food systems. Food science & nutrition. 2024;12(10):8493-9. Warde A. Consumption, food, and taste: culinary antinomies and commodity culture. London: Sage; 1997. 231 p. Ludvigsson JF. How Sweden approached the COVID-19 pandemic: Summary and commentary on the National Commission Inquiry. Acta Paediatrica. 2023;112(1):19-33. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Additionalfile1.docx Additionalfile2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 23 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 03 Oct, 2025 Editor invited by journal 24 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 24 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13372878,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDisplay of the salad bar at one of the company restaurants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/dccfd49c467962c2abd24e43.jpg"},{"id":95294146,"identity":"5183cb58-a714-44f6-9b16-f88ee0b145e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 11:49:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11316144,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInforming customers about the amount of food wasted at one of the company restaurants in order to encourage them to reduce food waste.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/4e991291e16060e1439d66a7.jpg"},{"id":95314327,"identity":"1e6e31b1-33af-47ff-96d4-2b3b2e8d16c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4229897,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA space to heat and eat packed lunches from home, located next to where lunch is served in one of the company restaurants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/46fbf5ad6d8f805c411e02be.jpg"},{"id":95314063,"identity":"6337088f-9585-42d7-95ba-2ac88ec2ec45","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:26","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7506225,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAn example of how the company restaurant uses labels to highlight that the food was produced organically.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/5f1f9ae19a9fbbee3a7b2967.jpg"},{"id":95294148,"identity":"c3e9ddc9-6e59-4d40-bf33-5c3adbcedd18","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 11:49:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8135364,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCafeteria displaying a mix of healthy and less healthy foods.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/c03d30c13fdaa4d1fcfc638b.jpg"},{"id":95314991,"identity":"fe045679-28bd-4023-aa09-d28bd526cd49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:53:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11884542,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe interior of the independent restaurant, displaying another type of aesthetics compared to the companies’ in-house restaurants, including a display of alcoholic beverages for sale.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/8a835564d315ad41119c230d.jpg"},{"id":95523699,"identity":"9e7d83cc-4505-49a4-9130-1ecc790c7cc1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-10 10:00:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":57236384,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7651474/v1/a96f6005-b25c-4dda-ac87-4f0d37af0cbd.pdf"},{"id":95314888,"identity":"ae16d76d-721b-4996-b619-267b0396247e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 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an arena for promoting healthier eating and lifestyle patterns (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Every day, 2.5\u0026nbsp;million office workers go to work in Sweden (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A full-time office employee, working 40 hours per week, spends up to 50\u0026ndash;60% of their waking hours at work (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and usually consumes one third of their daily energy intake in the workplace (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Office work is often characterised by physical inactivity, and office workers typically spend the majority of their working hours sitting or standing still (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), resulting in low energy expenditure. Therefore, the workplace becomes a crucial setting for promoting healthier eating habits, where a predominantly plant-based diet, combining social and environmental sustainability, is recommended (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIf a diet is to be sustainable, it must consider both health and environmental impacts (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This presents challenges, as current food systems generate large amounts of food waste and rely on pesticides and synthetic fertilisers, thus contributing to the breaching of several planetary boundaries (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Western diets, characterised by high consumption of animal products and energy-dense foods, increase the risk of developing non-communicable diseases and contribute to climate change and environmental degradation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, research indicates that a diet associated with low greenhouse gas emissions is also more nutritious, creating a win-win situation for sustainable diets (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Scientific and policy documents such as the EAT-Lancet report (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e) and the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) advocate integrating health and environmental considerations into sustainable diets. This approach is also applicable to the office as a health-promoting arena, where the workplace environment can support healthier and more sustainable food choices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe workplace food environment is likely to influence employees\u0026rsquo; eating behaviours (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Depending on what food options are available, office workers may face challenges in making healthy food choices at vending machines, restaurants, and staff canteens, if the nutritional quality and variety is low (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Commonly, Western diets served at commercial restaurants are energy-dense and high in fat, especially saturated fat, processed meat, red meat, sugar, and salt, and low in whole grains, fruits and vegetables. This, combined with a sedentary work life, may contribute to the burden of chronic diseases, including cancers, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and obesity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). An unhealthy lifestyle in the workplace not only affects the health and well-being of the employees negatively but also affects the employer through reduced productivity and increased incidence of sick leave. Moreover, society bears the economic burden of higher costs for health care, medication, and sick leave benefits (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13 CR14 CR15\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the office can serve as a health-promoting arena by focusing on its built, organisational, and social environment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). The WHO\u0026rsquo;s Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health recommends that workplaces promote healthy food options to reduce daily risk exposure (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the European Commission\u0026rsquo;s FOOD program (Fighting Obesity through Offer and Demand) aims to enhance the nutritional quality of foods available during work hours, supplementing efforts to raise individual awareness and provide education on healthy habits (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). These two policy documents suggest that companies, restaurants, and employees have a shared responsibility for balanced nutrition at work.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo facilitate changes in dietary behaviour in the workplace, it is essential to modify the physical environment, social setting, and organisational structure (20). Changes in the workplace\u0026rsquo;s physical environment (e.g. availability of healthy foods in vending machines and restaurants), organisational structure (e.g. policies such as provision of free-of-charge fruit) and social spaces for eating (e.g. the common lunchroom or cafeteria) expose a larger group of the working population to healthier options, thereby facilitating behavioural changes and public health improvements (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). When implementing changes in the food environment, we nudge employees to opt for healthier and more sustainable food choices. This can be done by providing more plant-based options on the menu, listing them in a more prominent place on the menu, and placing these dishes at the counter where customers place their orders. Such nudges have resulted in modest increases in sales as well as reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, increasing the availability and variety of vegetarian options (from 25% to 50%) has been linked to an 8% rise in sales compared to a control group (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Another effective strategy is to modify plate composition or portion sizes. For instance, Vandenbroele et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e) found that introducing smaller portion sizes in a retailer\u0026rsquo;s assortment led to a reduction in the total volume of meat sold compared to a control retailer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA social ecological perspective posits that health behaviours at work, such as healthy eating habits and physical activity, result from the interaction between the environment and the individual (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). According to the socio-ecological health promotion model, health behaviour is influenced by personal attributes (including psychological disposition, behaviour patterns, and genetic factors), physical environments (natural or human-made across geography, architecture, and technology), social environments (including cultural, economic, and political constructs), and multidimensional environments (which combine physical and social aspects and can be interpreted both objectively and subjectively) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Building on this, we have chosen to use the concept of foodscape in the context of the out-of-home eating sector (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). According to Mikkelsen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), this type of foodscape may be defined as \u0026ldquo;the physical, organisational and sociocultural space in which clients/guests encounter meals, food and food-related issues, including health messages\u0026rdquo;. By using the foodscape concept, we are able to look at the complexity of how food and meals are intertwined in physical, social and cultural contexts in relation to our eating behaviours, from both a health and sustainability perspective (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have looked at the utilisation of the food environment to alter dietary behaviours among office workers. Strategies used include educating chefs and kitchen staff, providing labelling and information about healthy foods to workers, modifying menu options, and implementing salad bars (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). However, few studies have examined how to organise the food environment in office-based companies and such companies\u0026rsquo; perceptions of how to provide healthy and sustainable food. Multi-component interventions that focus on changes in the workplace environment have shown a potential to contribute to healthy eating habits and to reduce chronic diseases (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). However, the success of these interventions relies on the foodscape and the engagement of motivated, proactive employers. Thus, the aim of this study was to enhance understanding of how office-based companies use and perceive the workplace environment in relation to promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits, with a particular focus on innovative companies leading the way in this area. Consequently, this study is expected to provide valuable insights into how workplaces can be designed to promote healthy and sustainable eating habits.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a qualitative mixed-methods design, combining semi-structured interviews with photo elicitation and company website information for contextual understanding. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 company representatives responsible for health promotion and/or food provision in the workplace. To enrich the data, photo elicitation was conducted at three restaurants connected to the companies, and the companies\u0026rsquo; websites were reviewed to provide contextual background.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSetting\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study is part of the Swedish research project Concepts for the Sustainable Office of the Future (SOFCO), which aims to explore how companies can support a healthy working life and lifestyle as well as contribute to sustainable development. The project was co-created with eight Swedish companies in central Sweden, operating within areas such as facility management, property and construction, coworking spaces, as well as office-related consulting and office solutions, nationally and internationally. All companies had a focus on sustainable development and should be seen as being at the forefront of building sustainable workplaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants and data collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore data collection was initiated, the study was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2021\u0026ndash;02309). Data were collected in two cycles: cycle one between May and December 2021 during the Covid-19 pandemic, and cycle two in October 2023. In cycle one, data were also collected for another study within the project, focusing on workplace health promotion services related to physical activity and the Swedish wellness allowance. The results from that study has been published elsewhere (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, cycle two data were collected exclusively for the present study, with the aim of deepening the insights gained in cycle one, specifically focusing on healthy and sustainable eating habits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn total, 14 potential informants were purposively sampled and contacted: 11 from partner companies and three from external companies to ensure a broad representation of food-related perspectives. An email with a brief description of the study was sent out. Three did not respond, despite reminders. The remaining informants received oral and written information about the study and gave their written informed consent. The interviews were semi-structured and conducted following the methodology described by Kvale (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). In total, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 company representatives from nine different companies: Nine company representatives in cycle one and two company representatives in cycle two. All interviews were conducted individually, except for one where the two representatives from the same company were interviewed together. In cycle one, all interviews were conducted by the second author, using Zoom or Teams, due to the Covid-19 pandemic, whereas in cycle two, all interviews were conducted in person at the informant\u0026rsquo;s workplace, with all authors participating. The informants included six women and five men, holding positions such as human resources manager, chief executive officer, country manager, sustainability manager, health and wellbeing specialist, restaurant owner, and compensation and benefits manager, see Additional file 1 for company descriptions. Companies and informants were given ID letters and informant ID numbers to ensure confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe promotion of healthy food habits, sustainability, and environmental initiatives linked to workplace health promotion, was explored using the questions presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Additional file 2. Follow-up questions were posed regarding goal conflicts and challenges related to social, economic, and ecological sustainability. The questions in cycle two were more targeted and tailored to each individual informant, as they were designed to deepen the insights gained from cycle one. The interviews lasted between 26 and 48 minutes with an average time of approximately 40 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExamples of questions from the interview guide related to workplace health promotion and food.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary question\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollow-up question\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat wellness initiatives or benefits do you offer your employees?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAre these benefits offered during working hours?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you have any insight into which of these benefits employees actually use?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you have any sense of whether the benefits are used during office hours or in employees\u0026rsquo; free time?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow were the services you offer developed?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhy do you offer the specific benefits that you do?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAre external companies involved? If so, which ones and how?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you offer free fruit to your employees?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow is the fruit provided to employees?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIs there any connection or collaboration between the company\u0026rsquo;s environmental policy/sustainability efforts and the wellness initiatives or benefits offered?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncouragement of climate-friendly and healthy food habits?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe interviews were complemented with a photo elicitation, a method that integrates photos into research interviews, thereby enhancing the analysis process by combining the word-based interviews with visual data (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e). Photo elicitation was conducted at three restaurants connected to the companies, on a weekday, during lunchtime: two were company restaurants and one was an independent restaurant. The three restaurants were selected to provide variation in size, type, and organisational structure, enabling comparative insights across different workplace food environments. As this is a qualitative study, depth of insight was prioritised over breadth. The photo elicitation was employed to systematically document features of the built environment identified as relevant from the interviews. Specifically, photographs were taken to visually capture and contextualise environmental aspects such as dining areas, food displays, and sustainability-related signage that informants had described as influencing workplace health promotion, sustainability and food provision. All pictures were taken by the second author using a Nikon D5200. To complement the interviews and photo-elicitation, the companies\u0026rsquo; websites were also reviewed to provide contextual background. This included examining publicly available material such as sustainability strategies, organisational profiles, and food-related information. The purpose was to complement the interview and photo-elicitation with relevant descriptive insights, and therefore, these data were not subjected to formal qualitative analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were analysed using inductive thematic analysis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e) within the social constructionist paradigm (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis was conducted collaboratively by the first and second authors, with critical input provided by the last author. The initial phases of the analysis involved familiarisation with the data through reading and re-reading the interview transcripts and noting initial ideas. A preliminary interpretation was conducted by the second author to explore potential patterns. The first author then carried out the formal coding using Open Code, a software developed at Ume\u0026aring; University. All codes were kept close to the data, i.e. at the semantic level. In the next step of the analysis, the codes were grouped into three subthemes related to the provision of healthy and sustainable food in the workplace: \u003cem\u003ei) Vision and goals, ii) Strategies\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eiii) Challenges and goal conflicts\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the final step, these subthemes were combined with the photo elicitation material and developed into more abstract and theoretical themes. At this stage, the themes were formed in the light of the \u003cem\u003efoodscape\u003c/em\u003e concept as defined by Mikkelsen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), focusing on the \u003cem\u003ephysical, organisational\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003esociocultural space\u003c/em\u003e where food is sold and consumed. Accordingly, the office food environment as conceptualised as a \u0026ldquo;food landscape\u0026rdquo; shaped by social practices (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, subthemes i) and ii) informed the main theme \u003cem\u003eBuilding a sustainable foodscape\u003c/em\u003e, while subtheme iii) formed the main theme \u003cem\u003eBalancing a sustainable foodscape.\u003c/em\u003e The themes and subthemes are presented with illustrative examples of codes in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main themes and subthemes with examples of codes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain themes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding a sustainable foodscape\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBalancing a sustainable foodscape\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubthemes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVision and goals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrategies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChallenges and goal conflicts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExamples of codes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHealthy employees\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvision of healthy food\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMust adapt to the preferences of the customers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmentally friendly meals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse organic food\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganic food is more expensive\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess food waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePay for food by weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoss of customers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe interviews, websites and photo elicitations illustrate the companies\u0026rsquo; efforts to build and balance a sustainable foodscape in the office environment. The first theme, \u003cem\u003eBuilding a sustainable foodscape\u003c/em\u003e, describes the companies\u0026rsquo; visions and goals for offering healthy and sustainable meals and the strategies used to achieve this. The second theme, \u003cem\u003eBalancing a sustainable foodscape\u003c/em\u003e, highlights the challenges and goal conflicts the companies experienced in their endeavour to harmonise the three dimensions of sustainability. The results are presented in the text below, with illustrative quotes and photos.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBuilding a sustainable foodscape\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe theme \u003cem\u003eBuilding a sustainable foodscape\u003c/em\u003e describes the companies\u0026rsquo; vision and goals for serving healthy and sustainable meals in the office environment, as well as the strategies used to achieve these goals. All companies already had a focus on sustainability as part of their core activities and business strategies. Although most of the companies did not have food as their core activity, their vision and goals regarding sustainability were also applied to the food served to their employees. All dimensions of sustainability were mentioned, emphasising that the meals should be healthy and environmentally friendly while also meeting financial goals:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt\u0026rsquo;s everything combined.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInformant 9\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the companies carried out health promotion activities directed towards their employees, which also included the food served. One of the most common policies was to offer fresh fruit. Some companies also had policies specifying what was to be served during meetings, in the staff restaurant, cafeterias, or vending machines. These policies were implemented not only for health reasons but also for environmental and financial reasons, thus taking all sustainability perspectives into account. Examples of these policies include: less meat, no or less red meat, more fish, and more plant-based or solely vegetarian foods, as exemplified in the following quote:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhat we have in our food policy is that if the company pays then it must, so to speak, be vegetarian or vegan food. Of course we don\u0026rsquo;t sponsor meat consumption and things like that.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInformant 3\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe staff restaurants typically featured a food environment with an extensive salad buffet. One strategy used by the restaurants was to nudge their customers towards consuming more vegetables by placing the salad buffet first, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFigure 1.\u003c/b\u003e Display of the salad bar at one of the company restaurants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main dishes were typically portioned out by the staff, which helped create a more balanced meal in terms of the amounts and proportions of the components, while also reducing waste and lowering costs. The menus typically offered at least one vegetarian option every day. During the photo elicitation, it was noted that one of the companies actively promoted the vegetarian dish with a discount as part of a sustainability campaign. Other ways of addressing the environmental dimension of sustainability included using seasonal, local, and organic produce, as well as striving to reduce food waste. Food waste mitigation methods mentioned during the interviews included offering fewer dishes, using smaller plates, not using a separate plate for the side salad, using apps to sell leftover foods, and food donations. Some restaurants also implemented a system where food is paid for by weight. Another method was to inform customers about the amount of food wasted, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFigure 2.\u003c/b\u003e Informing customers about the amount of food wasted at one of the company restaurants in order to encourage them to reduce food waste.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome of the companies chose to subsidise their employees\u0026rsquo; lunches. This was either done by sponsoring part of the cost of eating in the company restaurant or by providing a voucher that employees could use to buy subsidised lunches at their preferred restaurants. One company bought lunch boxes and sold them to employees at a subsidised price. Another company subsidised weight loss treatment, although this benefit was rarely used. Typically, the companies also provided space and opportunities for employees to bring their own lunch from home, with an area where they could heat their food and eat it, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFigure 3.\u003c/b\u003e A space to heat and eat packed lunches from home, located next to where lunch is served in one of the company restaurants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThroughout the working year, the companies also provided various activities focusing on health and environmentally friendly food. Activities that had been tried included a cooking course focusing on vegetarian food, the provision of samples of vegan and organic food products, theme weeks with lectures about food, an outdoor picnic, health profile assessments of employees\u0026rsquo; food habits, and various campaigns, such as those regarding the lunch subsidy. Some companies had also attained various certifications related to health and the environment. To communicate these visions for sustainability to employees, the companies used various methods. These included signage in the restaurant, a presence on social media, the creation of their own labelling system regarding food origin or organic production, and the use of official certifications. The latter is exemplified in Fig.\u0026nbsp;4, where one of the restaurants displayed the national label for certifying organic food production (KRAV).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFigure 4.\u003c/b\u003e An example of how the company restaurant uses labels to highlight that the food was produced organically.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBalancing a sustainable foodscape\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe theme \u003cem\u003eBalancing a sustainable foodscape\u003c/em\u003e describes the challenges and conflicting goals that the companies faced when balancing the three dimensions of sustainability in the workplace foodscape. Sometimes the dimensions of sustainability aligned well, making it easier to balance. For example, by serving less beef, the companies could reduce their climate impact, promote healthier eating habits, and save money, as beef is more expensive than other protein sources. Strategies for reducing food waste also supported all three dimensions of sustainability by conserving resources. Offering fewer options resulted in less food waste but also meant fewer choices for customers. Covid-19 also led to changes, such as fewer customers using the restaurants. Generally, balancing multiple desirables proved difficult at times, resulting in goal conflicts. These could involve aesthetics, economic and legal issues, or taste preferences. For example, one of the restaurants wanted to place small plates for salad in front of the salad bar, because it looked appealing from the customer\u0026rsquo;s point of view. However, this often led to increased food waste compared to when customers put their salad directly on the large plate where the rest of the food is placed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of these goal conflicts arose from trying to balance the company\u0026rsquo;s vision of sustainability against the employees\u0026rsquo; preferences, out of fear of losing customers, which the restaurants cannot afford. While some informants reported having employees who wanted to make conscious decisions from a sustainability perspective, others faced challenges in this regard:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eActually, we must admit that we got a bit of negative feedback in the restaurant initially, because it was too focused on vegetarian options \u0026hellip; it was just too much, so we had to go back to a traditional dish. But when we started, there was a lot of veggie bowls and things like that.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInformant 5\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptation to customer preferences was also evident in what was served during meetings. Despite the companies\u0026rsquo; health policies and nudging strategies to encourage their employees to eat healthily, cake and other sugary food items were also served, as illustrated in the following quote:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOf course we have fruit delivered three times a week in all offices, and it\u0026rsquo;s super appreciated. Then we have worked a lot with our supplier in terms of internal catering, and they are really trying hard to offer some healthier options, but it\u0026rsquo;s always the cream cakes that are most popular. So, we have a bit of a dilemma, and that is that it is always the PAs of the senior managers who place the orders, and then it always ends up being traditional options. But they are extremely good at alternatives, and we nudge. But I must admit that those who work for the external catering company say they have never met employees with such a sweet tooth as ours. So, as you see, it\u0026rsquo;s difficult to change!\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInformant 8\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCake and other sugary food items were also offered in the cafeterias, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5, where healthy and less healthy alternatives were displayed side by side. The same situation was true for staff fridges and freezers at the office, where ready-made lunches were available next to soft drinks, sweets, and ice cream.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFigure 5.\u003c/b\u003e Cafeteria displaying a mix of healthy and less healthy foods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt other times, the customers wanted healthy options but this was not always feasible for economic reasons. A \u0026ldquo;pick and mix\u0026rdquo; offer of vegetables is good for health but also leads to more food waste, making it costly both financially and environmentally. Employees often wanted to supplement the lunch box they brought from home with a side salad, but if the salad comes in a non-recyclable disposable container, it is detrimental to the environment. Using a separate small plate for salad may also lead to problems such as more waste or people cheating by using it multiple times. Attempts at food waste mitigation, such as food donation, were not always possible to maintain due to time and cost issues, and selling leftover food on food waste apps could result in some of the food being thrown away anyway, but this time with additional packaging. The system of paying by weight was not always feasible either, as it might require remodelling the restaurant. In some cases, cash registers were on annual contracts which could not be changed at short notice, or there were concerns that customers would not return if a new concept was introduced. The higher cost of organic food, compared to conventional food, was also a barrier. The separation of a company into different business units could also result in the application of different policies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe only independent restaurant in the study had a different focus, placing more emphasis on taste, service, and the meal experience rather than health and the environment. The independent restaurant also focused more on attracting customers from outside for financial reasons. Although they had ostensibly adapted to the company\u0026rsquo;s vision of health, it was not their main priority, as exemplified in Fig.\u0026nbsp;6 and the following quote:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWell, what I can say is that this health thinking\u0026hellip; Of course, we think about balance in this. I believe the health thinking comes automatically. We don\u0026rsquo;t want to\u0026hellip;, we don\u0026rsquo;t want to cook anything that gives people a heart attack. And I don\u0026rsquo;t think anyone benefits from that either, so that aspect disappears from our business, I might say. Of course we don\u0026rsquo;t run a health bar here. We do sell alcohol and yes\u0026hellip; But of course, we think about balance in every dish we prepare.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInformant 10\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFigure 6.\u003c/b\u003e The interior of the independent restaurant, displaying another type of aesthetics compared to the companies\u0026rsquo; in-house restaurants, including a display of alcoholic beverages for sale.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to enhance understanding of how companies use and perceive the workplace in relation to promoting a healthy and sustainable food environment, using a social ecological perspective (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). The socio-ecological model suggests that health behaviours at work result from the interaction between the environment and the individual (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). By applying the foodscape concept and studying the physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e), we can gain insight into how health-promoting and sustainable the office environment is and, by modifying these spaces, facilitate improvements in dietary behaviour (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). The results showed that, despite having visions, goals and strategies for building a sustainable foodscape, the companies faced challenges and goal conflicts, requiring them to balance multiple values within the foodscape\u0026rsquo;s physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePhysical space\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe physical space of the foodscape was particularly evident in the photo elicitation, showing the availability and types of foods offered, areas where food was sold and consumed, as well as the provision of utilities such as microwaves, which enabled employees to bring their own lunch to work. While the model presented by van Kasteren et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e) does not directly address the foodscape in the office, it underscores the significance of the physical dimension in shaping behaviours. It is important that the office environment contributes to a healthy food environment, as about one third of the daily intake is consumed in the workplace (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe foodscape may positively affect diet, such as fruit and vegetable consumption (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). Easy access to healthy food near the workplace and nutritious options like fruit at the office have been shown to result in better food choices and potentially better metabolic health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). It was common for the companies in the present study to offer free-of-charge fruit in the office environment. In a previous study, which also included two of the companies in this study, employees frequently documented fruit baskets and noted that having fruit available at work facilitated meeting nutritional recommendations and improving health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe companies included in the study typically ensured that healthy and sustainable food was available in their restaurants by offering several dishes to choose from, including plant-based options, and by serving an extensive salad buffet. However, not all customer requests could be met, as this would result in excessive food waste and costs, illustrating the difficulties in balancing the social, economic, and ecological dimensions of sustainability. Offering fewer options can result in both less serving and plate waste (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e), which makes it important to find a good balance between demand and supply.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe companies also provided space and opportunities for their employees to bring their own lunch from home. Allocating adequate time for meals in a clean, quiet, and comfortable eating environment, with facilities for heating food and washing up, can support healthy food habits (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e). As the foodscape appears to be sensitive to income (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e), the possibility of bringing one\u0026rsquo;s own lunch from home is important from a socio-economic perspective, as it is usually a cheaper option than using the company restaurant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOrganisational space\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe organisational space of the office environments was observed mainly through the policies and benefits that were offered to employees. The previously mentioned fruit baskets were the most common policy. The company restaurants had policies on what was to be served, favouring healthier and sustainable options such as plant-based foods. The companies also nudged their employees into making healthier and more sustainable choices by actions such as placing the salad buffet first and using portioning instead of buffet-style self-service to make the meals more balanced. Various health-promoting information campaigns and activities were used to positively influence health behaviours. Thus, the companies used various policies and strategies in combination, as advised by the Nordic Council of Ministers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e), to create a supportive environment for healthier and more sustainable eating habits. Multi-component interventions aimed at modifying the workplace environment have demonstrated a potential for promoting healthy eating habits in the workplace (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). However, financial incentives are those most likely to affect food choices (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e), and the companies\u0026rsquo; subsidies of meals fall into this category of policy tools. Nudging, on the other hand, makes the healthy and sustainable food choice the easy choice and may also be effective. Provision of information is less intrusive but is generally also less efficient and should preferably be used in combination with other policy instruments (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). While information-based approaches may influence intended behaviour without necessarily changing actual behaviour, environment modifications can complement educational strategies to close the intention-behaviour gap (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo lower the environmental impact and carbon footprint associated with food production, the restaurants used plant-based options and bought seasonal, local, and organic produce. These are also strategies that can be used to increase customer satisfaction and competitiveness (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). However, it is not guaranteed, as one company in our study reported decreased customer satisfaction in their new office restaurant due to an emphasis on plant-based options. The companies employed various strategies to convey health and environmental messages. For instance, they obtained various health and environmental certifications and used labels and signs in their restaurants as prompts and cues that might nudge customers towards more sustainable and healthier dietary choices. Previous research has shown that visual displays of healthy and sustainable food, highlighting the environmental and health impacts of food choices, placing healthy options in prominent locations, and using normative messaging can encourage sustainable behaviours (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR47\" citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e). The companies also implemented food waste management strategies, which can further enhance the sustainability of the workplace foodscape (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e). According to the food waste hierarchy framework applied within the European Union, prevention of food waste should be the highest priority, followed by re-use for human consumption (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e). The food waste hierarchy was visible in the company policies practiced, with preventive measures such as offering fewer dishes, portioning, and using smaller plates, combined with food re-use efforts such as selling leftover foods and food donation programmes, although these initiatives were not without challenges. Decreasing food waste is a complex issue (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e), especially as there is a need to balance multiple values within the foodscape. Our results highlighted the challenges of aligning the company's sustainability vision with employees' preferences, considering values such as being an attractive alternative, reducing food waste, and serving more plant-based options. Adding to this complexity, there are also barriers in the form of laws, regulations, and the perceived cost-benefit imbalances of building a sustainable restaurant foodscape, making it difficult to maintain sustainable practices effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSociocultural space\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEating in the office environment also involves a social dimension: social interaction takes place and norms and values about food are shared. Areas such as lunchrooms, restaurants, and common areas for eating touch upon the socio-cultural dimension of the model developed by van Kasteren et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e), emphasising workplace interactions among colleagues as a way to promote health. By providing space for eating lunch together with others, in a lunchroom or at a company restaurant, the companies enable a sociocultural space to be available to their employees.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe workplace may also be an important place where both food habits and culturally valued food norms are learned through the process of socialisation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e). Depending on what is served, old food habits may be replaced by new, healthier ones. By serving plant-based foods, the office foodscape may foster a culture of health and sustainability. According to King (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e), a sustainable foodscape must ensure both human and ecological health by promoting community health and considering social conditions, while at the same time ensuring sustainable food security and resilience. Therefore, sustainable foodscapes must consider not only what food is being served but also the social conditions and cultural appropriateness of the food (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e). Since food choices are complex and heavily influenced by cultural and social factors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e), it may take time to change cultural norms and habits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur study showed that there are competing values within a foodscape that must be balanced. Consequently, the informants experienced difficulties in implementing their policies. Although they envisioned serving more plant-based foods, they felt compelled towards compromise to meet employees\u0026rsquo; preferences and avoid losing customers. One example of a situation where competing values may arise is in portioning meals to reduce meat consumption. Serving smaller portions of meat can lead to reduced meat consumption but may also negatively influence customer satisfaction (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). There was also a discrepancy between company restaurants and the one independent restaurant, as the latter prioritised taste, service, and the meal experience over health and ecological sustainability. Meeting customer preferences is complex, as customer satisfaction is influenced by several factors such as sensory properties, contextual factors, familiarity, serving location, and culture (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the value system of a culture comprises several subsystems such as ideological, technological, economic, educational, political, family, and mass media, which may result in conflicting values (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e). This complexity may partly explain the competing values within the office foodscape.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe need to balance multiple values within the office foodscape was a recurrent theme. Warde (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e) has illustrated how we are often confronted with contradictory messages about food in today\u0026rsquo;s society, shown for instance in the tension between health and indulgence. While health is generally a predominant value, there is also a parallel discourse of indulgence, leading to mixed messages about eating what is good for the body versus eating for pleasure and comfort (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e). These mixed messages were also evident in the office foodscape, where healthy and less healthy food items were offered side by side, and health messages coexisted with opportunities for indulgence. This was evident as cake was frequently ordered for meetings and special occasions, even when the company attempted to promote healthier alternatives. Traditionally, when there is a special occasion, the foods served are expected to differ from those served on an every-day basis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e), and cake is associated with celebrations, including in the office environment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). Other dilemmas and contradictions that consumers face when making food choices include novelty vs. tradition, where there is a desire to explore new foods while also preferring familiar ones; economy vs. extravagance, which involves balancing budget-friendly options with a willingness to spend more on especially attractive foods; and convenience vs. care, the challenge of wanting quick and easy meals while still wanting to put effort into meal preparation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e). These mixed cultural values make food choices complex, and eating habits may therefore be resistant to change. Consequently, it is equally important to address the sociocultural space alongside the physical and organisational spaces when promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has examined the office foodscape by analysing its physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces. By analysing these three spaces separately, we can gain valuable insights into how to create a more sustainable and supportive office environment. However, it is crucial to emphasise that any foodscape must also be viewed as a whole, as these spaces are deeply interconnected and influence each other in complex ways. Understanding these spaces and their interconnections can help companies and public health initiatives implement more effective strategies for promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods discussion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data collection in cycle one took place during the Covid-19 pandemic. The Swedish authorities adopted a different approach compared to many other countries, with more voluntary measures and fewer mandatory restrictions; thus, society remained fairly open (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e). However, it is important to note that part of the data collection occurred during a time when office workers were working more from home, and food provision at the office was affected by this.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study predominantly included perspectives from companies that own their own restaurants or hire a catering company for their office building. The homogeneity of informants and companies within this study limits its transferability but illustrates the use of food as part of workplace health promotion and sustainability efforts in office spaces. A limitation of the study is the relatively small number of interviews conducted. However, a strength of the study is the use of multiple data collection methods, as the integration of visual data with interview findings enabled deeper insights than words alone could provide. Future studies could incorporate more diverse cases (e.g. in the public sector) and employee perspectives on the foodscape. Additionally, enhanced data collection through workplace observations could more comprehensively examine the sociocultural space, i.e. social interactions and cultural practices, to understand their role in shaping health and sustainability within the office foodscape.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe office foodscape can serve as a health-promoting environment by leveraging physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces, while considering all dimensions of sustainability. However, companies\u0026rsquo; visions, goals, and strategies may be hindered by the need to balance multiple and sometimes conflicting values. These findings suggest that for health promotion in the office environment to be successful, companies must find ways to balance these multiple values.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2021-02309). The informants received oral and written information about the study and gave their written informed consent. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical reasons but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the Knowledge Foundation, Grant Number: 20200068.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCPO:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData collection, formal analysis, main writing of draft, review and editing of draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOHU:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eStudy design, data collection, preliminary analysis, partial writing of draft, review and editing of draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKB:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFunding acquisition, conceptualisation, study design, data collection, review and editing of draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMikkelsen BE. 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Acta Paediatrica. 2023;112(1):19-33.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Workplace health promotion, office, health, sustainable eating habits, foodscape","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7651474/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7651474/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvery day, 2.5\u0026nbsp;million office workers go to work in Sweden, making the office an important arena for health promotion. The aim of this study was to enhance understanding of how office-based companies use and perceive the workplace environment in relation to promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits, with a particular focus on innovative companies leading the way in this area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study used a qualitative mixed-methods design. The data collection included semi-structured interviews with 11 company representatives from nine companies, a photo elicitation at three restaurants connected to the companies, and an overview of the company websites for context. The data were analysed using thematic analysis, applying the foodscape concept.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results showed that the companies had visions, goals, and strategies for building a sustainable foodscape. However, the companies faced challenges and goal conflicts, requiring them to balance multiple values within the foodscape\u0026rsquo;s physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe office foodscape holds potential as an arena for promoting healthy and sustainable eating habits, particularly when physical, organisational, and sociocultural spaces are aligned with sustainability goals. To realise this potential, companies must navigate and balance the value conflicts that arise in everyday practice.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Building and balancing a sustainable foodscape in the office environment – A mixed methods qualitative study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-06 11:49:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7651474/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-23T06:32:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"75554565683192670966177706462892705356","date":"2025-11-06T09:53:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T12:48:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-03T11:48:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-24T17:48:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-24T14:30:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2025-09-24T14:26:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d36879db-058d-4751-ae0e-201faf498401","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-06T11:49:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-06 11:49:29","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7651474","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7651474","identity":"rs-7651474","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}