Carbonate factory dynamics during a biocrisis (Barzakh condition), a case study of late Permian–early Triassic successions in the Persian Gulf, Iran

Carbonate factory dynamics during a biocrisis (Barzakh condition), a case study of late Permian–early Triassic successions in the Persian Gulf, Iran | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Carbonate factory dynamics during a biocrisis (Barzakh condition), a case study of late Permian–early Triassic successions in the Persian Gulf, Iran Javad Abdolmaleki, Hossain Rahimpour Bonab, Vahid Tavakoli This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6223417/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments → Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Marine environmental conditions govern carbonate sediment types through their influence on carbonate factories. These factories, the sites of carbonate production, adjust to environmental shifts by altering precipitation forms. This study examines Permian-Triassic strata in the Persian Gulf to understand how environmental changes, particularly a major biocrisis, impacted carbonate sedimentation. Thin section analysis, core data, and gamma-ray logs were utilized to reconstruct this history. During the Late Permian, a thriving tropical carbonate factory was established along the Neo-Tethys margin. Favorable environmental conditions and ample accommodation space facilitated its expansion and fostered the proliferation of diverse marine life. The Dalan Formation, characterized by grain-dominated facies, resulted, with peloids, ooids, and skeletal fragments making up the bulk of the sediment. Carbonate production was driven by both chemical precipitation and metazoan activity. The Permian-Triassic boundary extinction event profoundly impacted sedimentation. Metazoan disappearance created a ‘Barzakh condition’ in the Early Triassic, where microbial populations were no longer suppressed by metazoan predators. Increased calcium carbonate saturation and nutrient levels, likely due to upwelling and consumer removal, favored microbial carbonate factories. Consequently, the Early Triassic succession in the Persian Gulf exhibits a clear shift towards microbial-mediated carbonate sediments. This study is significant due to its focus on shallow marine settings along the Arabian Plate, a region rich in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Carbonate factory dynamics, influenced by environmental changes, impacted reservoir properties, crucial for reservoir management and development Carbonate Factory Barzakh condition Permian–Triassic boundary Biocrisis Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction Carbonate rocks are critical, hosting over half of global hydrocarbon reservoirs and numerous ore deposits. The distribution of these resources within marine carbonate formations is largely determined by sediment types, which are influenced by marine depositional environments across geological time and space. The location of carbonate platforms, from tropical to cool-water climates, alongside local environmental factors like light and nutrient availability, significantly impacts carbonate sediment production. Furthermore, sequence stratigraphy, driven by sea-level fluctuations, sediment accommodation, supply, and biotic factors, governs carbonate sedimentation (Loucks and Sarg, 1993; Sarg, 2001 ; Schlager, 2003 , 2005 ; Flugel, 2010 ; Naderi-Khujin et al. 2020 ). These factors control carbonate production modes/processes (Lowenstam and Weiner, 1989 ) and select specific carbonate producers. Ultimately, the type of carbonate factory (Wilson and Wilson, 1975 ) is defined by carbonate production modes/processes, producer types, and common occurrences within distinct climate zones (e.g., Schlager, 2003 ). Schlager, as a pioneer (Schlager, 2000 , 2003 , 2005 ), linked the carbonate factory concept with the fundamental precipitation modes/process. Marine carbonates precipitate in three modes/process: abiotic (e.g., cement, peloid and others, recently known as quasi-abiotic due to increasing evidence of biotic and microbial involvement), biotically-induced (e.g., microbialite), and biotically-controlled (fossils and bioclasts). In the geological record, such as in modern environments, these precipitation modes/process combine to form three primary carbonate production factories (benthic), including: 1- A tropical shallow-water factory characterized by biotically-controlled processes, primarily influenced by photoautotrophic producers and quasi-abiotic mechanisms, is prevalent in tropical and warm-temperate latitudes. 2- A cool-water factory that is also biotically-controlled, predominantly featuring heterotrophic producers, is more widespread in the cooler waters of high latitudes. 3- A mud-mound microbial factory that is driven by biotically-induced processes, primarily dominated by microbial activity and quasi-abiotic interactions, experienced significant proliferation following the biocrisis. (see Figs. 1 – 3 in Schlager, 2003 ; Reijmer, 2021 ; Brandano et al. 2022a ). The fourth identified system is the planktonic factory, which operates independently of benthic mechanisms and typically develops in deepwater environments. Later, Reijmer ( 2016 ) added the cold-water coral reef system as a fifth independent factory (Fig. 4 in Reijmer, 2021 ). The main controlling factors influencing the nature of the carbonate factory (steering factors) include light, nutrients, water temperature, substrate, salinity, carbonate saturation, ocean currents, upwelling, atmospheric systems, shallow water dynamics, ocean-atmosphere systems, terrestrial water and sediment inputs, and ecosystem population (Schlager, 2003 ; Pomar and Hallock, 2008 ; Reijmer, 2021 ; Brandano et al. 2022a ). Briefly, nutrient, temperature, salinity and also ecosystem community are main steering/controlling factors whereas others indirectly control the precipitation (Reijmer, 2021 , 2022; Brandano et al. 2022a , b ). Due to the dependence of carbonate sediment production on biological processes, the change and transitions among carbonate factories are often driven by biotic events and evolution (Schlager, 2003 ; Pomar and Hallock, 2008 ; Reijmer, 2021 ). One of the most notable examples is the end-Permian period. The Permian–Triassic boundary (PTB) mass extinction marks the most severe biocrisis, resulting in the decline of over 90% of marine communities, including many carbonate-producing metazoan faunas and flora. The subsequent delayed recovery extended until the early or even middle Triassic (e.g. Erwin, 1994; Pruss et al. 2006 ; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ; Haghighat et al. 2020 ; Viglietti et al. 2021 ; Brookfield et al. 2022 and references therein). The depositional environment following the biocrisis is characterized by a significant shift in carbonate production mode/process from biotically-controlled to microbially-mediated, as evidenced by the widespread presence of anachronistic facies, especially those of microbial origin (Mary and Woods, 2008 ; Woods and Baud, 2008 ; Pruss and Payne, 2009 ; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ; Kirton and Woods, 2021 ; Lehrmann et al. 2022 and many others). The Dalan and Kangan formations, Middle Permian to Early Triassic carbonate platforms, hold some of the world's largest hydrocarbon reservoirs, and are equivalent to the Khuff Formation in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the UAE (e.g., Insalaco et al. 2006 ; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2007; Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ; Tavakoli, 2017 ; Jamalian and Tavakoli, 2022 ). Encompassing the Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB), these strata provide a unique record of carbonate factory transition, making them an ideal case study. This shift in carbonate factory types, and subsequent changes in sedimentation, significantly altered the distribution of reservoir and non-reservoir layers through variations in carbonate sediment composition. For instance, a widespread microbial layer deposited post-PTB created an intra-reservoir barrier. This detailed aspect has not been previously examined in this region. Furthermore, quantitative analyses of carbonate factory production across biocrisis events remain scarce across different locations and time periods (see Payne et al. 2006 ; Lehrmann et al. 2022 ). This study's primary objective is to investigate carbonate factory production dynamics during the Permian-Triassic biocrisis, specifically the 'Barzakh condition,' within the late Permian to early Triassic successions of the Persian Gulf, Iran. By analyzing the interaction between environmental changes and the biocrisis, this research aims to clarify how these factors shaped regional carbonate sedimentation. Through comprehensive analysis of thin sections, core data, and gamma logs, the study seeks to identify dominant carbonate production modes and the types of carbonate factories that developed in response to the Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB) extinction event. Ultimately, the findings will provide critical insights into the geological history of carbonate deposits and their implications for hydrocarbon reservoir development, enhancing our understanding of marine environment evolution under extreme conditions. Geological setting The geological zones of Iran are largely a product of the Paleo- and Neo-Tethys oceans' opening and closing. During the late Paleozoic, the opening of the Neo-Tethys led to the separation of Gondwanan blocks (Cimmerian continent), including Sanandaj-Sirjan, Alborz, and Central Iran, which subsequently drifted northward (Fig. 1 , Stampfli and Borel, 2002 ; Hassanzadeh and Wernicke, 2016 ). In this newly formed ocean, two present-day areas in Iran were situated in shallow settings on opposite sides, facing each other. The Sanandaj-Sirjan area, situated at the northeastern margin of the Neo-Tethys, experienced the deposition of the Abadeh, Hambast, and Elika formations during the expansion of the carbonate platform near the equator in the Middle to Late Permian and Triassic periods. In areas such as Abadeh, the presence of thick, continuous strata has significantly attracted research attention (Figs. 1 – 3 , e.g. Heydari and Hassanzadeh, 2003 ; Shahinfar et al. 2021; Arefifard and Baud, 2022). A carbonate platform developed along the southern margin of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, resulting in the deposition of the Dalan and Kangan formations (Khuff Formation equivalent). These formations exhibit a regional distribution, extending from Saudi Arabia to the Zagros Orogen (SW-NE) and from Oman to the Levant (SE-NW) (Figs. 2 , 3 , Szabo and Kheradpir, 1978 ; Sharland et al. 2004 ; Ziegler et al. 2001; Naderi-Khujin and Tavakoli, 2023 ; Davoodi et al. 2024 ). The strong heterogeneity observed in these formations makes them of considerable interest for detailed investigation (e.g., Kaveh-Ahangar et al. 2023 ; Nafisi and Tavakoli, 2023 ; Hosseinzadeh and Tavakoli, 2024 ). The Upper Dalan and early Triassic Kangan formations are significant gas reservoirs in the Persian Gulf (e.g., Tavakoli, 2021 ). The boundary of the Upper Dalan with the underlying Nar member in the Persian Gulf is gradational, indicating a sea level transgression on the platform (Insalaco et al. 2006 ; Kolodka et al. 2012 ). The Dalan-Kangan boundary, assigned to the PTB, shows a continuous deepening-upward trend. The upper boundary of the Kangan Formation with the overlying Dashtak Formation (shaly Aghar member) is also conformable, but it is yet to be determined whether it represents a deepening or shallowing trend (Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ; Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ). Materials and methods The database comprises a 350m core from field-A (well-A) at 27°18' N, 51°22' E and a 440m core from field-B (well-B) at 27°18' N, 51°3' E, located in the central offshore Persian Gulf. A total of 2,200 thin sections were prepared for detailed core evaluation. Gamma ray logs were utilized for correlations, particularly of the Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB) and shaly/marly layers. To analyze carbonate factory production, emphasis was placed on facies composition. Facies were initially defined by texture (Dunham, 1962 ), categorized as grain-dominated (G), mud-dominated (M), and microbial bioconstruction (thrombolite and stromatolite). A refined classification, tailored to the study's objectives, focused on facies components. If microbial grains (e.g., oncoids) constituted over 25% of the grain content, the 'microbial' prefix was added (e.g., microbial mud-dominated: MM, microbial grain-dominated: MG). Detailed facies composition was documented through core analysis and microscopic examination to determine carbonate production types. These types were then quantified and categorized to identify carbonate production modes/processes and, subsequently, carbonate factory types. Sedimentary structures (bedding, cross-bedding), biogenic structures (burrowing, bioturbation), and sedimentary-biogenic structures (bioconstruction bodies) were recorded from slabbed cores. Point-counting was used for textural and compositional analysis, providing quantitative sedimentological data and enhancing accuracy. The existing sequence stratigraphic framework (Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ) was utilized for improved facies composition analysis and comparison. Following Davies and Simmons' (2018) recommendations, sequence names were updated from KS4, KS3, KS2, and KS1 (Khuff sequences 4 to 1) to P30, P40, Tr10, and Tr20. To standardize sequence stratigraphy, each sequence was named based on the strata containing the maximum flooding surface, as per Sharland et al. ( 2004 ). In the quantitative analysis, grains were attributed to microbial types when there was almost consensus on their microbial formation, such as oncoids. Additionally, some grains have been formed by rip-up processes from microbial bioconstructions or by fragmentation of other microbial grains (see Kobluk and Risk, 1977 ; Woods, 2013 ; van Oosterhout and Pöppelreiter, 2013 ; Pöppelreiter and Obermaier, 2013 ; Han et al. 2015 ; Brandner et al. 2016 ; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ; Preto et al. 2019 ; Diaz and Eberli, 2022 ; Gong et al. 2023 ). Diagenetic overprint can sometimes make it challenging to differentiate between oncoids and ooids or even between oncoids and intraclasts. Microbial components like microbial crusts or veneers that envelop and cement grains (see Shen and Xu, 2005 ; Shen and Wang, 2008 ; Mercedes-Martin et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2020 ; Naderi-Khujin and Tavakoli, 2023 ) were classified as "other microbial components," such as microbial clasts. While this type of cement can be considered as stromatolite when successively repeated, on a local and millimetric scale, it is categorized as another microbial component. In rock records, microbial evidence, such as calcimicrobes or primary microbial fabrics, can be obscured by diagenetic processes like neomorphism and dolomitization, or completely obliterated by dissolution. These processes have extensively affected the Permian and Triassic carbonate sediments in this region, leading to these components often being considered 'quasi-abiotic.' While this study's quantitative analysis adopts a conservative approach regarding microbial component percentages, significant evidence remains preserved in certain instances. Results Facies analysis Non-carbonate facies In the studied successions, anhydrite and shaly/marly facies are the non-carbonate facies (Fig. 4 a, b). Anhydrite has formed in the sabkha, evaporatic flat and hypersaline lagoon under restricted condition, in both late Permian and early Triassic environments (Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ). Anhydritic layers often occur at the top of shallowing-up cycles in association with fenestral dolomudstone and breccia. This facies is easily distinguishable with white color in the slabbed cores (Fig. 7 a). Besides, anhydrite plugging (digenetic process) is common. In the Persian Gulf, clayey layers (as shaly or marly) occur at the top of Kangan Formation. Dark appearance at the slabbed core and high gamma value are typical characteristics of this facies (Figs. 7 b, 9 ). Totally, these facies are almost devoid of fossils. Mud-dominated facies Texture and composition of components in this facies represent low energy level of the environment during deposition. Mud-dominated facies has been deposited under hypersaline conditions, often contain anhydrite nodules and are mostly dolomitic (Fig. 4 c). Micrite comprises a substantial proportion of this facies (Figs. 4 c-h). Type of bioclasts depends on depositional setting. In the restricted lagoon and embayment settings, foraminifera, gastropod and ostracod are more abundant (Fig. 4 d, e). Brachiopod, echinoderm debris and typically sponge spicule (Figs. 4 f, g) are interpreted to reflect open circulation in different settings with quiet water or below fair wheatear wave base (FWWB) or even below storm wave base (SWB). Peloids are present in minor quantities (Fig. 4 e). This facies exhibits evidence of bioturbation in many cases, particularly when salinity levels are within normal limits. Mud-dominated facies at the early Triassic strata contains fauna such as spirorbis and claraia (Fig. 4 h). Microbial mud-dominated facies This facies is texturally mud-dominated but contains microbial components. Bioclasts and bioturbation are rare. Oncoids are the dominant form of microbial grains (Fig. 4 i). However, microbial mud-dominated facies exhibit low variability in terms of texture and components. Similar to the previous facies, it has been deposited under low hydrodynamic energy condition such as lagoon and protected area in the intertidal zone. In some cases, where microbial components are obscured, it becomes challenging to distinguish them from other mud-dominated facies. This facies is predominantly observed in the Triassic strata (Fig. 8 ). Grain-dominated facies The facies is characterized by a grain-dominated texture, with a notable abundance of skeletal fragments, particularly in the Permian strata. The high diversity and frequency of Permian biota contribute to the variability of the grains. Algae, particularly green algae, are relatively abundant (Figs. 5 a, b). Foraminifera are the most frequent and diverse organisms in the Permian strata, including fusulinata, nodosariata, miliolata, and textulariata, in order of abundance. Other fossils and bioclastic fauna such as gastropods, bivalves and bryozoans are also present with minor amounts. The larger size of some skeletal grains like gastropods and bryozoans constitute significant proportions of rock volume in some cases, despite their lower frequency. Bioclastic content are good indicator of depositional setting, particularly in the Permian strata. In the shallow and restricted condition ostracod, gastropod, green algae and most of foraminifera are more abundant. In the deeper setting or upwelling area, normal marine fauna such as bryozoans, echinoderms, brachiopods and sponge spicule become abundant. At the PTB, Permian biota were wiped out. Early Triassic strata include monospecific association (low diversity e.g. one taxon) or rarely low amount of ostracod, gastropod and opportunistic fauna such as spirorbis and some species of bivalves (e.g. claraia , halobia and daonella ) or brachiopod (e.g. lingulid form ) (Figs. 5 l-n). Some problematic species (foraminifera or algae or calcimicrobe) such as Tubiphytes occurred in the Triassic strata (Fig. 5 o). Non-skeletal grains in this facies mainly include ooid, peloid and intraclast (Fig. 6 o). Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, ( 2016 ) showed that Triassic ooids have less sorting in comparison with Permian ooids and are coarser in some cases (Fig. 6 b). Cement is other important component of this facies, which often occlude inter and intraparticle pores (Fig. 5 ). Overall, grainy texture and higher ratio of cement rather than micrite indicate deposition under high energetic condition such as landward intertidal or main body of mobile shoal complex (Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ). Microbial grain-dominated facies Microbial components such as oncoid consist more than 25% of the grains (Fig. 6 e-i, Fig. 7 c, d). The facies is mainly found in the early Triassic Kangan Formation, with minor occurrences in the Permian strata, particularly in the P30 sequence (Fig. 8 , see also Fig. 4 in Esrafili‑Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2019). The facies has been frequently deposited under high-energy conditions. There are also some instances of in-situ growth (Fig. 6 e, h). Other associated grains include peloid, ooid and rarely skeletal debris. Microbial cements also occur (Fig. 6 j). Microbial bioconstruction or benthic microbial mats Microbial bioconstruction or benthic microbial mats in the studied area include thrombolite and stromatolite. Stromatolites are marked by layering appearance in thin sections (Fig. 6 k) and slabbed cores (Fig. 7 e). Automicrite (see Pomar and Hallock, 2008 ) and microbial string (consisting microbial filaments collection) constitute the major volume. Other components typically make up only a minor proportion. Thrombolite is the most distinctive microbial facies in the early Triassic strata of the region. This facies is consistent across the Arabian Plate, extending from Saudi Arabia through the Persian Gulf to the Zagros area. It is characterized by clotted fabric at microscopic, macroscopic (Fig. 6 l, thin section) and mesoscopic (Fig. 7 c, core) scales. Thrombolite primarily comprises automicrite, which, due to neomorphism, may locally display a lighter color resembling microsparite in thin sections (Fig. 6 l). This facies contains some opportunistic (survivor) fauna. Sparse pyrite is also present, likely reflecting the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria under oxygen-deficient conditions. Facies distribution in the successions The Permian succession (Upper Dalan Formation) Upper Dalan Formation is composed of two 3rd -order complete sequences of P30 and P40 and lower part of Tr10 or P30a, P30b, P30c, P40a, P40b, Tr10a and lower part of Tr10b 4th -order sequences (Fig. 8 ). In well-A, the P30a sequence overlies the anhydrite of the Nar member. This 4th-order sequence is dolomitic with sparse anhydrite nodules. The base of P30a begins with mud-dominated facies separated by an anhydritic layer. The maximum accommodation zone (MAZ) of this sequence includes grain-dominated facies dominated by ooids and intraclasts (Fig. 8 ). Passing upward mud-dominated facies reappear with fenestral fabric and mud cracks, suggesting an upper intertidal to supratidal settings. In the lower part of P30b, there is a stromatolite layer, followed by a bioclastic grain-dominated facies in the middle part, and it ends with peloidal/bioclastic mud-dominated layers. The grains are dominated by undifferentiated bioclasts. P30c is characterized by thick grain-dominated layers with limestone lithology. Prior to the MAZ and within the transgressive part of the sequence, peloids, ooids, and skeletal grains are abundant. Towards the MAZ, ooids become progressively more abundant, and open marine fauna appear. This grain-dominated layer near the MAZ gradually changes to a mud-dominated layer with open marine fauna such as sponge spicules and echinoderms. This thick symmetrical cycle continues with grain-dominated facies containing open marine fauna and ooids in the lower part of the regressive cycle of the sequence (Fig. 8 ). At the upper part of this sequence, mud-dominated facies with dolomitic lithology and mud crack and also with interlayering anhydrite represent a shallowing upward trend. At the top, this grainy facies is capped by anhydrite layer. This sequence is most important reservoir interval in the Persian Gulf (Fig. 8 ). In well-A, P40a mainly consists of a limy mud-dominated layer where peloids and bioclasts are dominant grains. At the MAZ, it evolves into a grainy facies with the same grains composition (e.g. peloids and bioclasts) but higher frequency. The sequence is capped by an anhydritic layer at the top (Fig. 8 ). P40b begins with mud-dominated at the lower part and followed by grain-dominated containing mixed shallow and open marine fauna. Upper part of this sequence is characterized by first appearance of microbial mud-dominated facies that is turned into anhydritic layer upward (Fig. 8 ). In the well-A, Tr10a includes alternation of mud-dominated and grain-dominated layers. Bioclasts and plant roots are the most biogenic components and structures, respectively. Non-skeletal grains are dominated by peloids and intraclasts (Fig. 8 ). The Permian part of Tr10b, after a thin grain-dominated layer, is followed by a thicker mud-dominated mid-ramp layer. The latest strata of the Permian are grain-dominated with open marine fauna such as echinoderms, interpreted as a seaward shoal complex located in a deepening-upward cycle. Foraminifera are still abundant (Fig. 8 ). Thin sections of lower part of P30 are not available in the well-B,. P30c is similar to that of well-A in the regressive part, which is characterized by open marine fauna at the bottom (Fig. 8 ). Toward the top, ooids become abundant and the layer is marked by bioclastic dominated facies and limestone lithology. This sequence is characterized by a stack of dolomitic mud-dominated layers, with bioclasts being the predominant grains. Eventually, the layers are capped by anhydritic layer (Fig. 8 ). In the well-B, P40a is grainier rather than that of equivalent sequence at the well-A and also contain higher open marine fauna as MAZ characterized by sponge spicule rich layer (Fig. 8 ). However, the grains in this sequence consist primarily of skeletal debris, including a mixture of species from both shallow and deeper environments. Peloids and intraclasts occur as minor allochems (Fig. 8 ). The topmost layer of this sequence is comprised of anhydrite facies. P40b starts with a mud-dominated layer. Upward, stromatolite layers appear after the anhydritic layer, followed by a microbial mud-dominated facies. The sequence, primarily dolomitic at the top, ends with a mud-dominated facies featuring mud cracks (Fig. 8 ). In well-B, Tr10a is characterized by a dominantly mud-dominated layer with abundant open marine fauna. In the upper part, i.e., the regressive part of the cycle, shallow fauna become more abundant. In the Permian part of Tr10b, a deepening-upward trend is reflected by abundant open marine fauna in both mud- and grain-dominated layers. The latest Permian fauna contains brachiopods, bryozoans, and sponge spicules (Fig. 8 ). The Triassic succession (Kangan Formation) In the well-A, Tr10b continues after PTB with azoic microbial grain-dominated layer. Then, well-known thrombolite layer appears between stromatolite layers (Fig. 8 ). Benthic microbial mats evolve into thick microbial grain-dominated layer. Following mud-dominated facies, microbial grain-dominated layer reappears, which is followed by thick stromatolites. Upper part of this sequence is marked by microbial mud-dominated layer followed by anhydritic layer. Upward, Triassic fauna become progressively more abundant but remain minor components (Fig. 8 ). In the well-A, Tr20a starts with a stromatolite and then grain- and mud-dominated layers, followed by microbial grain-dominated at the MAZ (Fig. 8 ). In the regressive part of sequence, mud-dominated and anhydrite are dominant. Tr20b is marked by grain-dominated layer at the bottom. This layer transitions into a thrombolite-like layer resembling those near the PTB. However, after this layer, most part of this sequence is composed of microbial grain-dominated, stromatolite and grain-dominated layers with an anhydrite layer at the top. Tr20c is characterized by grain-dominated and then mud-dominated facies at the lower part, stromatolite with interlayer shaly at the middle and microbial grain-dominated at the upper part. These are followed by mud-dominated facies and eventually ended with anhydritic layer (Fig. 8 ). Topmost of Tr20c sequence is characterized by the lower part of Aghar shale. In the well-B, PTB is located within microbial grain-dominated layer. Upward, stromatolite and then thrombolite appear. Such as well-A, thrombolite is overlaid by stromatolite. These are followed by thick microbial mud- and grain-dominated layers. Rare disaster forms of Triassic fauna occur (Fig. 8 ). The sequence is followed by alternation of thick stromatolite and microbial mud-dominated layers which are capped by an anhydritic layer at the top (Fig. 8 ). In the well-B, Tr20a starts with two microbial mud-dominated layers which are separated by a stromatolitic interval. After these layers, microbial grain-dominated facies is indicator of MAZ. Tr20b is characterized by thick microbial grain-dominated which becomes muddier at the middle part (Fig. 8 ). At the top, next to stromatolite layer, anhydrite caps the sequence. Sequence Tr20c starts with grain-dominated layer which is overlaid by anhydrite, followed by shaly layer and then to relative thick stromatolite layer with shale in the middle part. Top of this sequence is marked by microbial mud-dominate and grain-dominated layers. The lower part of Aghar shale is composed of shaly and stromatolitic layers (Fig. 8 ). Facies composition The Permian succession (Upper Dalan Formation) In well-A, the Permian strata (Dalan Formation) are predominantly composed of dolomite, with limestone occurring in lesser amounts (Fig. 9 a). Anhydrite is present in minor quantities. The late Permian succession in this well is mainly composed of grain-dominated layers (nearly 56%). Mud-dominated intervals make up 40% of the strata. Microbial grain-dominated and microbial bioconstruction together account for less than 5% of the rock volume (Fig. 9 a). Micrite is the most abundant component of the late Permian rocks (almost 38%). Cement contributes 18%. Peloids are the most abundant non-skeletal grains, followed by ooids. Skeletal grains constitute nearly 13% of the rock volume. The level of skeletal contribution in the late Permian strata in well-A is higher than the sum of ooids and intraclasts (Fig. 9 a). Microbial components make up less than 1.6% of the layers, with stromatolites dominating. Altogether, the late Permian succession consists of 86.18% quasi-abiotic, 12.20% biotically controlled, and 1.6% microbial-mediated modes of carbonate production (Fig. 9 a). n well-B, the analyzed parts of the Permian strata show a higher proportion of dolomitic lithology (Fig. 9 c). The frequency of grain-dominated facies is similar to those found in the equivalent intervals of well-B. Mud-dominated facies make up less than half of the whole rocks of the Permian sequences. Microbial grain-dominated and microbial bioconstruction are subordinate but slightly more than in well-A. Micrite contributes 39% (Fig. 9 c). Cements constitute more than 28% of the volume of rocks. Overall, in the late Permian strata in well-B, the carbonate component is predominantly produced by quasi-abiotic mode (around 85%), followed by biotically controlled mode (around 13%) with minor microbial-mediated mode (around 2%, Fig. 9 c). Facies composition in the early Triassic succession Early Triassic Kangan Formation in the well-A is dominantly dolomitic. Limestone consists 21.47% of the samples. Anhydrite has almost similar contribution to the late Permian samples, but shaly/marly layer constitutes 1.78% of formation (Fig. 9 b). Microbial grain-dominated constitute more than 41% of layers, followed by near 20% microbial bioconstruction and 17% grain-dominated intervals (Fig. 9 b). Mud-dominated and microbial mud-dominated layers constitute near 12.5% and 9.5% of early Triassic Kangan Formation in the well-A, respectively. Cements are most abundant contributor in these strata (about 30%). Micrite comprise only 15% of the rocks. Peloid and intraclast are the most abundant non-skeletal grains, but only with totally 10% contribution. Skeletal components constitute a slightly more than 1% of rock volume (Fig. 9 b). In summary, these sequences were predominantly formed by quasi-abiotic processes (60.14%), followed by microbial-mediated processes (38.16%), with a minor contribution from biotically-controlled processes (1.4%). In the early Triassic of well-B, dolomitic lithology makes up slightly more than half of the succession (Fig. 9 d). Limestone, anhydrite, and shaly/marly layers constitute the rest of the sequence with 37%, 4.5%, and 1.5%, respectively (Fig. 9 d). In this well, the Triassic strata are characterized by microbial grain-dominated (36.59%), microbial mud-dominated (26.68%), and microbial bioconstruction (27.4%) carbonates. Mud- and grain-dominated facies are subordinate (Fig. 9 d). Micrite and cement have nearly similar contributions (almost 23% each). Non-skeletal and skeletal grains make up less than 10% of the rock volume (Fig. 9 d). The early Triassic strata in this well are largely composed of microbial components (42.16%). Therefore, the results reveal that these strata have been significantly produced by quasi-abiotic (55.51%) and microbial-mediated (42.19%) carbonates. Components formed by biotically controlled processes constitute less than 1% (Fig. 9 d). Discussion Carbonate factory analysis in the late Permian succession In the late Permian strata of the two studied wells, the contribution of facies is nearly similar. Grain-dominated are more prevalent than mud-dominated facies. Microbial facies are minor. Except for micrite and cement, whose higher contribution is typical, ooids, peloids, and skeletal grains make up a major proportion of grains in the layers of the late Permian. The proportion of skeletal grains is higher than that of equivalent layer from some sections previously were compared Nanpanjiang basin (Insalaco et al. 2006 ) or even over Yangtze platform in southern China. The two former regions were located near the equator and provided favorable conditions for organisms to thrive (Payne et al. 2006 ; Lehrmann et al. 2022 ). Generally, in the late Permian, in the southern margin of the neo-Tethys, carbonate production was quasi-abiotic and biotically-controlled. Carbonate production modes/process, carbonate producers and carbonate production types (carbonate components) indicate prolific tropical carbonate factory (Schlager, 2003 ; Reijmer, 2021 ) has operated during that time and place, such as elsewhere in Arabian Plate (e.g. Weidlich and Bernecker, 2010 ; Kolodka et al. 2012 ; Forke et al. 2013 ). However, anhydrite layers reflect the temporary suffocated of the carbonate factory during hypersaline condition in which formation of sulfate precursor has been overcame to the carbonate’s components (Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ). The components of the Permian strata exhibit some differences across the sequences. The shoal/barrier complex in the lower Dalan Formation (Guadalupian) was less extensive than in the upper Dalan Formation, due to a low-developed (in terms of height and width) mobile shoal body (Kolodka et al. 2012 ; see Lower and upper Dalan sequences in Abdolmaleki et al. 2016 ). P30 is characterized by higher frequency of grain contributions, especially ooids and skeletal types. The skeletal compositions of this sequence indicate that chloroforam associations have predominated over most of the sequence. Near the possible MAZ, mixed chloroforam and bryonoderm-extended associations progressively become dominant (Beauchamp et al. 1994, Flugel, 2010 ). These associations suggest a transition from a tropical to a temperate climate condition. Based on the facies, lithology, types of components, as well as the paleolatitude and paleogeographic setting of the southern margin of Neo-Tethys (Fig. 1 ), it is more likely that this distribution can also be attributed to upwelling and/or open marine conditions in a tropical climate paleoenvironment (Beauchamp et al. 1994, Schlager, 2003 ; Reijmer et al. 2012 a, b; Flugel, 2010 ; Reijmer, 2021 ). Therefore, faunal composition has periodically been modulated by sea level changes, ocean circulation, and nutrient levels, which have created a fertile environment for living organisms during this sequence. After Guadalupian-Lopingian boundary, metazoan reefs and large-shelled fusulines and bivalves underwent a drastic lost (Davydov and Arefifard, 2007 ; Isozaki et al. 2007 ; Kaiho et al. 2023 ). This lead to reduce CaCO 3 sinking from marine environment (see Groves et al. 2003 ; Groves and Calner, 2004 ; Payne et al. 2006 ; Pomar and Hallock, 2008 ; Forke et al. 2013 ; Li et al. 2015 ). Presence of high value of CaCO 3 (supersaturation condition), warm temperature, high salinity level accompanies with sufficient accommodation space and energetic environment were established of tropical carbonate factory and then supplied and forced to produce large volume of ooid. The situation changed during P40 sequences. Ooid production was largely stopped and mud-dominated facies becomes dominate. Microbial facies appeared (see also first appearance of oncoidal facies in the Fig. 4 in Esrafili‑Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2019). In some strata, bryonoderm-extended associations flourished, while shoal and grain-dominated samples had not yet formed, indicating a possible effect of intense upwelling without the establishment of a deep setting. The disturbance in grain production, the appearance of microbial components, and the blooming of bryonoderm-extended associations suggest a disturbance in the ocean that may have been a prelude for the PTB extinction event. It is worth noting that the upwelling of deep water has been linked to a possible extinction mechanism for the Wuchiapingian-Changhsingian boundary (almost correlatable with the Julfian-Dorashamian boundary/JDB in the Tethyan regions) (Wei et al. 2021 ). Although upwelling hampered the operation of a tropical carbonate factory, it did not lead to the development of a significant cool-water or microbial carbonate factory. Likely, a local cool-water carbonate factory was established, but metazoan and foraminifera populations were not replaced by microbial carbonate factories, as evidenced by the presence of high bioclastic content and heavily bioturbated intervals in P40. Blooms of species from the fusulinata class, such as paradagmarita and dagmarita species, occurred in P40. Carbonate factory revolution in early Triassic Early Triassic succession of the Persian Gulf is characterized by dramatic increase of microbial-mediated carbonate production mode (Fig. 9 ). Microbial components are most important constituent of this strata, while other grains contribution is minor. Carbonate producers and carbonate production process all suggest that productive microbial carbonate factory has operated in the southern margin of Neo-Tethys Ocean during Early Triassic. The temporary shutdown of the carbonate factory has occurred during the deposition of anhydrite and shaly/marly facies. Dominate biota in the late Permian strata are shown in the Fig. 10 . Most of the biota (both fauna and flora) were diminished at the PTB (e.g., Erwin, 1994; Pruss et al. 2006 ; Chen and Benton, 2012 ; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ; Viglietti et al. 2021 ; Brookfield et al. 2022 and references therein). The contribution of carbonate components produced by biotically-controlled processes in the Early Triassic is nearly equal to that produced by microbial-mediated processes in the Late Permian strata. During early Triassic, microbial components became abundant and microbial facies proliferated over the platform. Most of microbial facies were subordinated in the late Permian strata. Thrombolite as unique microbial facies which was absent in Permian, suddenly prevailed over the platform after PTB. This microbial facies occurs from inner to outer ramp, harbingering a revolutionary turnover in the operation of the carbonate factory. Carbonate factory switch (often from tropical) to microbial in the early Triassic is a globally widespread phenomena (e.g. Schlager, 2003 ; Mary and Woods, 2008 ; Woods and Baud, 2008 ; Pruss and Payne, 2009 ; Li et al. 2011 , 2015 ; Woods, 2013 ; Kershaw, 2015 , 2017 ; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ; Lehrmann et al. 2022 ; Kirton and Woods, 2021 ; Pei et al. 2022 and many others). For proliferation of microbial facies (or microbial ecosystem blooming) some conditions are necessary, including: 1- CaCO 3 supersaturation; 2- sufficient nutrient; and 3- vacant ecological niches (e.g. Riding, 2000 ; Dupraz et al. 2004 , 2009 ; Riding and Liang, 2005 ; Dupraz and Visscher, 2005 ; Riding and Virgone, 2010; Riding and Tomas, 2006 , Riding et al. 2019 ). Seemingly, all of these have been ideally provided for early Triassic. Both the production and lack of consumption of CaCO 3 favored supersaturation conditions in the early Triassic. The PTB and early Triassic periods were characterized by high levels of CO 2 in both the atmosphere and the ocean, which were injected by the Siberian Traps. This has been hypothesized as the most important factor leading to the PTB mass extinction and delayed recovery, by promoting ocean stratification, global warming, and anoxic conditions (Heydari and Hassanzadeh, 2003 ; Grice et al. 2005 ; Fraiser and Bottjer, 2007 ; Knoll et al. 2007 ; Payne et al. 2010 ; Clapham and Payne, 2011 ; Bond and Wignall, 2010 ; Brennecka et al. 2011 ; Joachimski et al. 2012 ; Bond and Grasby, 2017 ). Global warming can increase evaporation and saturation level of CaCO 3 in the water. After submarine carbonate dissolution by acidification of seawater, during their overshoot (consequence), CaCO 3 saturation has been enhanced in some intervals of early Triassic (see Heydari and Hassanzadeh, 2003 , Payne et al. 2006 ; Heydari et al. 2008 ; Kump et al. 2009 ; Kershaw et al. 2012 ; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ). Other source of supersaturation is upwelling of deep alkaline water during PTB and early Triassic (e.g. Kershaw et al. 1999 , 2007 ; Woods et al. 1999 ; Grotzinger and Knoll, 1995 ; Algeo et al. 2007 ). Also, early Triassic is marked by enhance chemical weathering and increasing run-off and riverine input to the oceans which were caused by acid raining in uncovered lands (die-off of terrestrial vegetation by PTB mass extinction), which are evidenced by increasing trend of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and fine terrigenous sediment in the area and elsewhere (e.g. Korte et al. 2003 ; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2009 ; Algeo and Twitchett, 2010 ; Algeo et al. 2011 ; Sun et al. 2012 ; Tavakoli and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2012 ; Viglietti et al. 2017 ; Li et al. 2019 ; Mujal et al. 2018 ; Zhu et al. 2022 ). Input of ions such as Ca 2+ cause supersaturation condition. In other hand, extinction of biota at the PTB and delayed recovery throughout the early Triassic (Groves et al. 2003 ; Riding and Liang, 2005 ; Pruss et al. 2006 ; Riding, 2006 ; Riding and Tomas, 2006 ; Baud et al. 2007 ; Riding et al. 2019 ) were caused elimination of a major consumer of CaCO 3 (major CaCO 3 sinking), resulting facilitated the supersaturation condition. Both the production and limited consumption of nutrients created ideal conditions for microbial blooming in the Early Triassic. Increasing of riverine input and upwelling of nutrient rich deep water have enhanced nutrient level (Xie et al. 2005 ; Algeo and Twitchett, 2010 ; Woods, 2013 ; Grasby et al. 2016 ; Lehrmann et al. 2022 ; Knies et al. 2022 ). Meanwhile, absence of metazoan makes microbe to be exclusive dominate consumer. Last but not least, vacant ecological niches are necessary for both microbe blooming and microbial component production and preservation (e.g. Riding, 2000 ; Riding and Liang, 2005 ; Dupraz and Visscher, 2005 ; Mata and Bottjer, 2012 ; Riding et al. 2019 ; Mays et al. 2021 ). Metazoans with two significant barriers prevent microbial proliferation, including: 1- bioturbation and grazing; 2- competition for similar ecospace and resource (as aforementioned, CaCO 3 and nutrient). Altogether, likely vacant ecological niches or free ecospace was most important controlling (steering) factor for microbial facies proliferation (Fig. 11 ). Absence of eukaryotes particularly invertebrate and typically metazoans alone is sufficient for microbes to bloom and their productions to proliferate in the environment. Riding et al. ( 2019 ) ascertained absence of metazoan is more important than other factors. In the modern environments, also absence of or limitation for metazoan is both necessary and sufficient for microbial proliferation (Garcia-Pichel et al. 2004 ; Mata and Bottjer, 2012 ; Riding et al. 2019 ; Mays et al. 2021 ). After only those of extinction in which metazoan frequency and bioturbation level were more reduced, commonly microbial production were more abundant (Mata and Bottjer, 2012 ; Riding et al. 2019 ). In the late Permian and also in some cases in the early Triassic under inhospitable stressing condition for living of metazoan (such as hypersaline condition), microbial component and facies such as stromatolite prevailed (Wu et al. 2014 ; Bagherpour et al. 2017 ). Modern microbial facies are mostly formed in hypersaline lakes and marine lagoons where extreme conditions due to high saline levels prevent animals from grazing (Mata and Bottjer, 2012 ; Riding et al. 2019 ; Mays et al. 2021 ; Petrescu and Ungureanu, 2021). Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli ( 2016 ) applied the concept of "Barzakh," meaning the "world between death and the redevelopment of life," to the early Triassic period to describe the harsh conditions that hindered the recovery of metazoans after the mass extinction. This concept can also be extended to encompass all conditions that are inhospitable for eukaryotes (typically marine metazoans) while being suitable and even favorable for microbes. Therefore, this concept can be considered a synonym for the microbial carbonate factory, at least. It may even be interchangeable because other factories such as tropical, cool-water, and others have names that reflect the conditions under which they operate, not necessarily their dominant carbonate producer (refer to Fig. 11 ). Barzakh, or a condition with the absence of eukaryotes, is a suitable environment in which the so-called microbial carbonate factory operates. A proposal for updated reversion of the carbonate factory classification scheme In our framework (in this study), the latest proposals by Reijmer ( 2021 ) have been revised and finalized (Fig. 11 ). One of the updated elements includes the inclusion of "microbes/bacteria" as carbonate producers, reflecting recent studies that highlight the significant role of these microorganisms in carbonate production (see Riding, 2000 ; Perri and Spadafora, 2001; Dupraz et al. 2004 ; Riding and Liang, 2005 ; Eberli et al. 2019 ; Dai et al. 2022 ; Diaz and Eberli, 2022 ). One other change rather than previous version is highlighting and discrimination of two separated mechanism of microbial activity in carbonate production i.e., “microbially-induced” and “microbially-influenced” (proposed by Dupraz et al. 2009 based on geomicrobiological insight). Giving to the role of microbe and their two basic mechanisms on carbonate production, term of “microbially-mediated” (Dupraz et al. 2004 ) can be preferred instead of the “biotically-induced” to not be confused with biotically-controlled. Hence, the term "microbially-mediated" encompasses both "microbially-induced" (resulting from interactions between microbial activity and the surrounding environment) and "microbially-influenced" (mineralization occurring in response to external environmental factors, involving extracellular polymeric substances or EPS) (Dupraz et al. 2004 , 2009 ; Riding and Liang, 2005 ; Eberli et al. 2019 ; Dai et al. 2022 ; Diaz and Eberli, 2022 ). Last is the consideration of "Barzakh" as a synonym for the "microbial factory," as this factory predominates after mass extinctions. Barzakh refers to the condition following a mass extinction, during delayed recovery, creating an environment between death and the redevelopment of life that is inhospitable for eukaryotes but favorable for microbes (see Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016 ). According to the discussion presented in this paper, another revision involves considering "free ecospace" as a primary controlling factor for the operation of the microbial carbonate factory after the loss or establishment of inhospitable conditions for eukaryotes (typically metazoans), a factor that is not as critical for the other carbonate factories (Fig. 11 , Riding, 2000 ; Mata and Bottjer, 2012 ; Yang et al. 2011 ; Riding et al. 2019 ). Conclusions In the Late Permian, ideal conditions on the southern margin of the Neo-Tethys supported the development of a thriving tropical carbonate factory. This included abundant CaCO₃ supply, warm tropical conditions, optimal salinity levels, a favorable environment for metazoans, and sufficient accommodation space for sediment accumulation. Micrite and cement were dominant in these strata, with skeletal, peloid, and ooid grains being other important components. In the late Permian tropical carbonate factory, the dominant carbonate production modes/process were quasi-abiotic and biotically controlled, with chloroforam associations being the dominant carbonate producers. In the early Triassic, a Barzakh condition was established in the depositional environment following the PTB mass extinction, where marine eukaryotes (typically metazoans) were killed and did not recover until the top of the formation. The absence or extremely low frequency and diversity of metazoans were the most significant factors leading to the operation of the microbial carbonate factory in the carbonate platform. Metazoans, through grazing, bioturbation, and consumption of resources (CaCO 3 and nutrients), prevented microbial activity and their carbonate production. However, during the early Triassic, in addition to free ecospace, CaCO 3 supersaturation (due to input, upwelling, and overshoot of acidification) and sufficient nutrients available (due to input and upwelling) were ideal for the widespread operation of the global microbial carbonate factory. In the early Triassic carbonate factory, the dominant carbonate production modes were quasi-abiotic and microbially mediated, with microbial populations being the dominant carbonate producers. Declarations Acknowledgements With great respect, we thank Yas Arghavani for her supports. Many thanks are given to Zakiyeh Imani Jam, who was always with us in all stages of the research. We would like to thank Dr. Payman Rezaee, Dr. Hossein Gholamalian and Dr. Gholamreza Ghadami from university of Hormozgan for their insightful guidance and suggestions at the beginning and in the research process. We are grateful to Dr. John J. G. Reijmer, Dr. Mara Diaz, Dr. Marco Brandano, and Dr. Julien Michel for helpful comments. Data availability statement All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION IN THE MANUSCRIPT Javad Abdolmaleki: Contributed to the conceptualization of the study, provided the existing sequence stratigraphic framework utilized in the analysis, participated in the geological interpretation of the data, and contributed to the writing and review of the manuscript. Hossain Rahimpour-Bonab: Conceived and designed the study, supervised the data acquisition (core analysis, thin section preparation and microscopic examination), led the interpretation of carbonate factory dynamics and their relationship to the biocrisis, and was the primary author responsible for drafting and revising the manuscript. Vahid Tavakoli: Assisted with the data acquisition (core analysis, thin section preparation), performed gamma-ray log analysis and correlation, contributed to the geological interpretation of the data, and assisted in the preparation of figures and the review of the manuscript. References Abdolmaleki, J., Tavakoli, V. (2016). Anachronistic facies in the early Triassic successions of the Persian Gulf and its palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 446 , 213-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.01.031 Abdolmaleki, J., Tavakoli, V., Asadi-Eskandar, A. (2016). 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(2010). Biotic carbonate precipitation inhibited during the Early Triassic at the rim of the Arabian Platform (Oman). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 308(1-2) , 129-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.08.014 Wilson, J.L., Wilson, J.L. (1975). Principles of carbonate sedimentation. Carbonate Facies in Geologic History , pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1306/CE34551C1 Woods, A.D. (2013). Microbial ooids and cortoids from the Lower Triassic (Spathian) Virgin Limestone, Nevada, USA: evidence for an Early Triassic microbial bloom in shallow depositional environments. Global and Planetary Change, 105 , 91-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.07.011 Woods, A.D., Baud, A. (2008). Anachronistic facies from a drowned Lower Triassic carbonate platform: Lower member of the Alwa Formation (Ba'id Exotic), Oman Mountains. Sedimentary Geology, 209(1-4) , 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2008.06.002 Woods, A.D., Bottjer, D.J., Mutti, M., Morrison, J. (1999). Lower Triassic large sea-floor carbonate cements: their origin and a mechanism for the prolonged biotic recovery from the end-Permian mass extinction. Geology, 27(7) , 645-648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027%3C0645:LTLSFC%3E2.3.CO;2 Wu, Y.S., Yu, G.L., Li, R.H., Song, L.R., Jiang, H.X., Riding, R., Liu, L.J., Liu, D.Y., Zhao, R. (2014). Cyanobacterial fossils from 252 Ma old microbialites and their environmental significance. Scientific reports, 4(1) , p. 3820. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03820 Xie, S., Pancost, R.D., Yin, H., Wang, H., Evershed, R.P. (2005). Two episodes of microbial change coupled with Permo/Triassic faunal mass extinction. Nature, 434(7032) , 494-497. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03396 Yang, H., Chen, Z.Q., Wang, Y., Tong, J., Song, H., Chen, J. (2011). Composition and structure of microbialite ecosystems following the end-Permian mass extinction in South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 308(1-2) , 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.029 Yang, H., Chen, Z.Q., Wang, Y., Tong, J., Song, H., Chen, J. (2011). Composition and structure of microbialite ecosystems following the end-Permian mass extinction in South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 308(1-2) , 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.029 Ying, B. A. I., Ping, L. U. O., Shi, W. A. N. G., Chuanmin, Z., Xiufen, Z. H. A. I., Shan, W., & Zongyu, Y. (2017). Structure characteristics and major controlling factors of platform margin microbial reef reservoirs: A case study of Xiaoerbulak Formation, Lower Cambrian, Aksu area, Tarim Basin, NW China. Petroleum Exploration and Development, 44(3) , 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(17)30044-7 Yu, X., Xiang, F., Su, Z., Zhang, D., Lash, G. G., Yang, K., & You, W. (2021). Miniaturized trace fossils in microbialites from the Cambrian Series 2 Qingxudong Formation in the Panshi area, eastern Guizhou, China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 576 , 110514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110514 Zhang, X. Y., Wang, W. Q., Yuan, D. X., Zhang, H., & Zheng, Q. F. (2020). Stromatolite-dominated microbialites at the Permian–Triassic boundary of the Xikou section on South Qinling Block, China. Palaeoworld, 29(1) , 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palwor.2019.05.009 Zhu, D., Liu, Q., Wang, J., Hu, G., & Ding, Q. (2022). Transition of seawater conditions favorable for development of microbial hydrocarbon source–Reservoir assemblage system in the Precambrian. Precambrian Research, 374 , 106649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106649 Ziegler, M. (2001). Late Permian to Holocene Palaeofacies Evolution of the Arabian Plate and its Hydrocarbon Occurrences. GeoArabia, 6(3) , 445–504. https://doi.org/10.2113/geoarabia0603445 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 06 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 06 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 20 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 17 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6223417","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":452777795,"identity":"91f01ffd-9d65-47a1-ba11-10f43b204743","order_by":0,"name":"Javad Abdolmaleki","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Hormozgan","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Javad","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdolmaleki","suffix":""},{"id":452777796,"identity":"d6748b40-f384-4597-bced-dc8c18606450","order_by":1,"name":"Hossain Rahimpour Bonab","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3647-2897","institution":"Curtin University Bentley Campus: Curtin University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hossain","middleName":"Rahimpour","lastName":"Bonab","suffix":""},{"id":452777797,"identity":"421b7be9-f00b-405a-8e90-2f93aa691d86","order_by":2,"name":"Vahid Tavakoli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tehran University: University of Tehran","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vahid","middleName":"","lastName":"Tavakoli","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-14 03:38:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6223417/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6223417/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-026-00700-w","type":"published","date":"2026-04-02T15:57:39+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82583829,"identity":"d0cb717a-8683-4e63-ac79-fb604530015d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:51:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":343535,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of the Persian Gulf and the studied area. \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Map of Iran and main sedimentary-structure zones. \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e Paleogeographic map.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/380b78fa0f663250e0bfd0ce.jpeg"},{"id":82582310,"identity":"bc6c797c-f5de-4ed0-a9ec-17a8339f0aa5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:43:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":188771,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeneralized model of Permian (and Triassic) carbonate platform model of southern margin of Neo-Tethys (modified from Insalaco et al. 2009).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/a1954c75b8638a3fe7d8d044.jpeg"},{"id":82584921,"identity":"06b5e64e-9a8f-4538-b524-aabf3dd905ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:59:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":753733,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eChronostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic frameworks of Late Permian (Dalan Formation) and Early Triassic (Kangan Formation) and their equivalent in the southern area in the Arabian Plate and the northern area in the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone (SS, Abadeh).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/24a343992b50f2c6fa50a929.jpeg"},{"id":82582316,"identity":"a0764275-8252-4f67-b1f7-607f00209307","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:43:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":896650,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImages of thin sections from non-carbonate and carbonate mud-dominated facies. \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Anhydrite. \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003eShaly to marly facies. \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e Mud-dominated facies with anhydrite nodules (black arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e Mud-dominated facies with sparse skeletal component (Foraminifera, red arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e Mud dominated facies with skeletal (red arrows), intraclast (blue arrow) and Peloid (yellow arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e Mud dominated with Brachiopod debris (green arrow). \u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e Mud-dominated facies with abundant Sponge spicule (green arrows). \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e Mud-dominated facies with Triassic opportunistic fauna of \u003cem\u003eSpirorbis\u003c/em\u003e (annelid, yellow arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003eMud dominated facies with microbial component (oncoid).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/9d2bd615b7f8b56029e9f1e5.jpeg"},{"id":82584922,"identity":"09d0a18d-099d-44a7-87f0-9094d011b8bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:59:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1390049,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComposition of the skeletal components of grain-dominated facies. \u003cstrong\u003ea, b\u003c/strong\u003eAbundant green Algae. \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e green Algae (orange arrow) and Foraminifera (red arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e Echinoderm debris (green arrow) and Foraminifera (red arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e green Algae (orange arrow) and Foraminifera (red arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003eAbundant Foraminifera (red arrows). \u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e green Algae (orange arrow) and Foraminifera (red arrows). \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e Echinoderm debris (green arrow) and green Algae (orange arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003e Gastropod (green arrows). \u003cstrong\u003ej\u003c/strong\u003e Bivalve (green arrow) and Foraminifera (red arrow). \u003cstrong\u003ek\u003c/strong\u003e Bryozoan. \u003cstrong\u003el\u003c/strong\u003eabundant \u003cem\u003eClaraia\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003em\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eDaonella\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eHalobia\u003c/em\u003e (violet arrows) and \u003cem\u003eSpirorbis\u003c/em\u003e (annelid, yellow arrows). \u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eLingulid form\u003c/em\u003e (black arrow). \u003cstrong\u003eo\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eTubiphytes\u003c/em\u003e (white arrow)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/ddf7c2d169f7d517bbaeee0c.jpeg"},{"id":82583830,"identity":"b4faaa7f-0788-4540-aed1-30f36c048bcb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:51:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1356425,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNon-skeletal and microbial components of grain-dominated facies. \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e A general view of non-skeletal grain in grain-dominated facies of Late Permian strata, comprising ooid (red arrows), intraclast (blue arrows) and peloid (green arrows). \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003eA general view of non-skeletal grain in grain-dominated facies of Early Triassic strata, consisting ooid (red arrows) and peloid (green arrows). Some of the ooid are coarse, so called giant ooid. \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e Oncoid. \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e Oncoid (red arrow), intraclast (blue arrow) and microbial filamentous encrusting (orange arrow). \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e Oncoid (yellow arrows) and ooid (red arrows). Some of grains (such as up-left) likely are clump or encrusting grains that formed by in-situ growing or accretion of some grain such as benthic-ooid which are coalesced to each other in microbial facies. See hemispheroid outline and multi-coring which likely remain of ooid cortex. This is an example of in-situ microbial grain formation (see also Kazmierczak et al. 1996; Riding and Tomas 2006; Mei 2011; Mei et al. 2020). \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e Oncoid (center). See also some clotted/peloidal fabric with subangular to angular, reniform and kidney shapes grain which are possible \u003cem\u003eRenalcis\u003c/em\u003e-like group calcimicrobes (see Jiang et al. 2008; Kershaw 2017; Latif et al. 2019; Yu et al. 2021; Gong et al. 2023). \u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e Oncoid (yellow arrow) and intraclast (blue arrows). Note oncoids have concentric lamina and a slightly more regular form. \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003eOncoid (yellow arrow), ooid (red arrow), intraclast (blue arrows). See clotted/peloidal fabric (likely containing calcimicrobe) in intraclast (black arrow in the large, flat shape and pebble size intraclast) reflecting rip-up clast from microbial facies substrate. It can also formed by in-situ formation of microbial lamina with geopetal fabric which covered and cemented by microbial crust in the gravity-defying texture (see also Riding et al. 1991; Lehrmann 1999; Riding 2000; Shen and Xu 2005; Shen and Wang 2008; Ying et al. 2017; Carniti et al. 2023). Such as these evidences prove microbial origin of some intraclasts or perhaps intraclast-like components in the Early Triassic. \u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003eIntraclast (blue arrows), oncoid (yellow arrow), microbial encrust/crus (orang arrow). \u003cstrong\u003ej\u003c/strong\u003e Microbial cement in form of crust or veneer which enveloped and covered and cemented a clotted/peloidal fabric patch which likely dominated by calcimicrobe (black arrow, likely \u003cem\u003eRenalcis\u003c/em\u003e group, see given references in image of F). \u003cstrong\u003ek\u003c/strong\u003e Typical stromatolite with obvious lamination and string of microbial filament possible cyanobacterial. \u003cstrong\u003el \u003c/strong\u003eThrombolite with distinc clotted fabric with Triassic fauna (\u003cem\u003espirorbis\u003c/em\u003e, gray arrows) and pyrite (white arrows).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/c67e6659c80a087fd840a974.jpeg"},{"id":82582319,"identity":"397c7834-39f5-43f5-b5b6-000042456ea0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:43:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":699941,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImage of slabbed core from various facies. \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Anhydrite. \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e Shaly/marly. \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003eMicrobial grain-dominated with giant ooid and oncoid. \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e Microbial grain-dominated with coarse intraclast. See clotted thrombolite (benthic microbial mat) at the lower part of image and their similar appearance with rip-up clast or coarse flat intraclast, reflecting possible intimate genetic link. \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e Stromatolite. \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e Thrombolite.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/9c98811677b07bf9d5eba7cb.jpeg"},{"id":82583835,"identity":"1eca332e-325a-4b01-a0d5-6c7b4d2e6620","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:51:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":662714,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eChronostratigraphic, sequence and lithology and also as well as facies composition and temporal distribution of the late Permian (upper Dalan Formation) - early Triassic (Kangan Formation) in the two field-a (Well-a) and Field-b (Well-b) in the Persian Gulf (southern of the neo-Tethys).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/004202e3916d8ee36f5b0298.jpeg"},{"id":82583832,"identity":"bce37b70-fc7b-4f43-9747-4d9620bb72dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:51:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":282169,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eQuantitative facies analysis in the late Permian and early Triassic in the Persian Gulf (Permian–-Triassic platform-interior of the southern of the neo-Tethys). Pie diagrams representative frequency of: lithology (left), facies (midst) and carbonate production modes (right). Histogram illustrates facies composition. A (in lithology): anhydrite, D: dolomite, L: limestone, LD: limy dolomite, DL: dolomitic limestone, MD: marly dolomite, ML: marly limestone, MLD: marly limy dolomite, MDL: marly dolomitic limestone, M/C/Sh: marl to claystone/shale. M (in facies): mud-dominated, MM: microbial mud-dominated, G: grain dominated, MG: microbial grain-dominated, MB: Microbial bioconstruct (bioherm and biostrome). A (in carbonate production modes): quasi-abiotic, BC: biotically-controlled, MM (in carbonate production modes): microbialy-mediated.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/8257db59a167c1da73f70908.jpeg"},{"id":82583831,"identity":"a18fc07d-6d91-485f-8272-bc1bc115e1e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:51:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":98062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAbundance of skeletal grains (dominate living biota in that times) in the studied section. At the PTB, near 75 % of biota were killed and did not recover until top of Kangan Formation. The ecosystem of Early Triassic Barzakh condition were characterized by impoverished eukaryotes community and proliferated microbial population.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/5dd67abe2e1d316aff7dfcc9.jpeg"},{"id":82582333,"identity":"62a09222-e82a-4be8-a23e-42b3e7834354","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:43:41","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":225028,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUpdated reversion of the carbonate factory classification scheme, for comparison see Figs. 1,3 in Schlager (2003) and Fig 4. in Reijmer (2021). For more detailed updated items refer to introduction and discussion in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/990e2a65924e1b83170ade40.jpeg"},{"id":106344439,"identity":"b59779d0-543e-4138-b117-7de9c04ec3a3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:14:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7485659,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6223417/v1/e5586e1b-d9e4-42e3-b191-0e54441adf53.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Carbonate factory dynamics during a biocrisis (Barzakh condition), a case study of late Permian–early Triassic successions in the Persian Gulf, Iran","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCarbonate rocks are critical, hosting over half of global hydrocarbon reservoirs and numerous ore deposits. The distribution of these resources within marine carbonate formations is largely determined by sediment types, which are influenced by marine depositional environments across geological time and space. The location of carbonate platforms, from tropical to cool-water climates, alongside local environmental factors like light and nutrient availability, significantly impacts carbonate sediment production. Furthermore, sequence stratigraphy, driven by sea-level fluctuations, sediment accommodation, supply, and biotic factors, governs carbonate sedimentation (Loucks and Sarg, 1993; Sarg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Flugel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Naderi-Khujin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These factors control carbonate production modes/processes (Lowenstam and Weiner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) and select specific carbonate producers. Ultimately, the type of carbonate factory (Wilson and Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR129\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e) is defined by carbonate production modes/processes, producer types, and common occurrences within distinct climate zones (e.g., Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchlager, as a pioneer (Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), linked the carbonate factory concept with the fundamental precipitation modes/process. Marine carbonates precipitate in three modes/process: abiotic (e.g., cement, peloid and others, recently known as quasi-abiotic due to increasing evidence of biotic and microbial involvement), biotically-induced (e.g., microbialite), and biotically-controlled (fossils and bioclasts). In the geological record, such as in modern environments, these precipitation modes/process combine to form three primary carbonate production factories (benthic), including: 1- A tropical shallow-water factory characterized by biotically-controlled processes, primarily influenced by photoautotrophic producers and quasi-abiotic mechanisms, is prevalent in tropical and warm-temperate latitudes. 2- A cool-water factory that is also biotically-controlled, predominantly featuring heterotrophic producers, is more widespread in the cooler waters of high latitudes. 3- A mud-mound microbial factory that is driven by biotically-induced processes, primarily dominated by microbial activity and quasi-abiotic interactions, experienced significant proliferation following the biocrisis. (see Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e in Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Brandano et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e). The fourth identified system is the planktonic factory, which operates independently of benthic mechanisms and typically develops in deepwater environments. Later, Reijmer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) added the cold-water coral reef system as a fifth independent factory (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e in Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The main controlling factors influencing the nature of the carbonate factory (steering factors) include light, nutrients, water temperature, substrate, salinity, carbonate saturation, ocean currents, upwelling, atmospheric systems, shallow water dynamics, ocean-atmosphere systems, terrestrial water and sediment inputs, and ecosystem population (Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Pomar and Hallock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Brandano et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e). Briefly, nutrient, temperature, salinity and also ecosystem community are main steering/controlling factors whereas others indirectly control the precipitation (Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, 2022; Brandano et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the dependence of carbonate sediment production on biological processes, the change and transitions among carbonate factories are often driven by biotic events and evolution (Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Pomar and Hallock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). One of the most notable examples is the end-Permian period. The Permian\u0026ndash;Triassic boundary (PTB) mass extinction marks the most severe biocrisis, resulting in the decline of over 90% of marine communities, including many carbonate-producing metazoan faunas and flora. The subsequent delayed recovery extended until the early or even middle Triassic (e.g. Erwin, 1994; Pruss et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Haghighat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Viglietti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR126\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Brookfield et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and references therein). The depositional environment following the biocrisis is characterized by a significant shift in carbonate production mode/process from biotically-controlled to microbially-mediated, as evidenced by the widespread presence of anachronistic facies, especially those of microbial origin (Mary and Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Woods and Baud, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR131\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Pruss and Payne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kirton and Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lehrmann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and many others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Dalan and Kangan formations, Middle Permian to Early Triassic carbonate platforms, hold some of the world's largest hydrocarbon reservoirs, and are equivalent to the Khuff Formation in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the UAE (e.g., Insalaco et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2007; Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR121\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Jamalian and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Encompassing the Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB), these strata provide a unique record of carbonate factory transition, making them an ideal case study. This shift in carbonate factory types, and subsequent changes in sedimentation, significantly altered the distribution of reservoir and non-reservoir layers through variations in carbonate sediment composition. For instance, a widespread microbial layer deposited post-PTB created an intra-reservoir barrier. This detailed aspect has not been previously examined in this region. Furthermore, quantitative analyses of carbonate factory production across biocrisis events remain scarce across different locations and time periods (see Payne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Lehrmann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study's primary objective is to investigate carbonate factory production dynamics during the Permian-Triassic biocrisis, specifically the 'Barzakh condition,' within the late Permian to early Triassic successions of the Persian Gulf, Iran. By analyzing the interaction between environmental changes and the biocrisis, this research aims to clarify how these factors shaped regional carbonate sedimentation. Through comprehensive analysis of thin sections, core data, and gamma logs, the study seeks to identify dominant carbonate production modes and the types of carbonate factories that developed in response to the Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB) extinction event. Ultimately, the findings will provide critical insights into the geological history of carbonate deposits and their implications for hydrocarbon reservoir development, enhancing our understanding of marine environment evolution under extreme conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGeological setting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe geological zones of Iran are largely a product of the Paleo- and Neo-Tethys oceans' opening and closing. During the late Paleozoic, the opening of the Neo-Tethys led to the separation of Gondwanan blocks (Cimmerian continent), including Sanandaj-Sirjan, Alborz, and Central Iran, which subsequently drifted northward (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, Stampfli and Borel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR118\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Hassanzadeh and Wernicke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In this newly formed ocean, two present-day areas in Iran were situated in shallow settings on opposite sides, facing each other. The Sanandaj-Sirjan area, situated at the northeastern margin of the Neo-Tethys, experienced the deposition of the Abadeh, Hambast, and Elika formations during the expansion of the carbonate platform near the equator in the Middle to Late Permian and Triassic periods. In areas such as Abadeh, the presence of thick, continuous strata has significantly attracted research attention (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, e.g. Heydari and Hassanzadeh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Shahinfar et al. 2021; Arefifard and Baud, 2022). A carbonate platform developed along the southern margin of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, resulting in the deposition of the Dalan and Kangan formations (Khuff Formation equivalent). These formations exhibit a regional distribution, extending from Saudi Arabia to the Zagros Orogen (SW-NE) and from Oman to the Levant (SE-NW) (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Szabo and Kheradpir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR120\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Sharland et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Ziegler et al. 2001; Naderi-Khujin and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Davoodi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The strong heterogeneity observed in these formations makes them of considerable interest for detailed investigation (e.g., Kaveh-Ahangar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nafisi and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Hosseinzadeh and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Upper Dalan and early Triassic Kangan formations are significant gas reservoirs in the Persian Gulf (e.g., Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR122\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The boundary of the Upper Dalan with the underlying Nar member in the Persian Gulf is gradational, indicating a sea level transgression on the platform (Insalaco et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Kolodka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The Dalan-Kangan boundary, assigned to the PTB, shows a continuous deepening-upward trend. The upper boundary of the Kangan Formation with the overlying Dashtak Formation (shaly Aghar member) is also conformable, but it is yet to be determined whether it represents a deepening or shallowing trend (Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe database comprises a 350m core from field-A (well-A) at 27\u0026deg;18' N, 51\u0026deg;22' E and a 440m core from field-B (well-B) at 27\u0026deg;18' N, 51\u0026deg;3' E, located in the central offshore Persian Gulf. A total of 2,200 thin sections were prepared for detailed core evaluation. Gamma ray logs were utilized for correlations, particularly of the Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB) and shaly/marly layers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo analyze carbonate factory production, emphasis was placed on facies composition. Facies were initially defined by texture (Dunham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e), categorized as grain-dominated (G), mud-dominated (M), and microbial bioconstruction (thrombolite and stromatolite). A refined classification, tailored to the study's objectives, focused on facies components. If microbial grains (e.g., oncoids) constituted over 25% of the grain content, the 'microbial' prefix was added (e.g., microbial mud-dominated: MM, microbial grain-dominated: MG).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetailed facies composition was documented through core analysis and microscopic examination to determine carbonate production types. These types were then quantified and categorized to identify carbonate production modes/processes and, subsequently, carbonate factory types. Sedimentary structures (bedding, cross-bedding), biogenic structures (burrowing, bioturbation), and sedimentary-biogenic structures (bioconstruction bodies) were recorded from slabbed cores. Point-counting was used for textural and compositional analysis, providing quantitative sedimentological data and enhancing accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe existing sequence stratigraphic framework (Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) was utilized for improved facies composition analysis and comparison. Following Davies and Simmons' (2018) recommendations, sequence names were updated from KS4, KS3, KS2, and KS1 (Khuff sequences 4 to 1) to P30, P40, Tr10, and Tr20. To standardize sequence stratigraphy, each sequence was named based on the strata containing the maximum flooding surface, as per Sharland et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the quantitative analysis, grains were attributed to microbial types when there was almost consensus on their microbial formation, such as oncoids. Additionally, some grains have been formed by rip-up processes from microbial bioconstructions or by fragmentation of other microbial grains (see Kobluk and Risk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR130\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; van Oosterhout and P\u0026ouml;ppelreiter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; P\u0026ouml;ppelreiter and Obermaier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Han et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Brandner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Preto et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Diaz and Eberli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Gong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Diagenetic overprint can sometimes make it challenging to differentiate between oncoids and ooids or even between oncoids and intraclasts. Microbial components like microbial crusts or veneers that envelop and cement grains (see Shen and Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR116\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Shen and Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR117\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Mercedes-Martin et al. 2014; Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR139\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Naderi-Khujin and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) were classified as \"other microbial components,\" such as microbial clasts. While this type of cement can be considered as stromatolite when successively repeated, on a local and millimetric scale, it is categorized as another microbial component.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn rock records, microbial evidence, such as calcimicrobes or primary microbial fabrics, can be obscured by diagenetic processes like neomorphism and dolomitization, or completely obliterated by dissolution. These processes have extensively affected the Permian and Triassic carbonate sediments in this region, leading to these components often being considered 'quasi-abiotic.' While this study's quantitative analysis adopts a conservative approach regarding microbial component percentages, significant evidence remains preserved in certain instances.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFacies analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNon-carbonate facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the studied successions, anhydrite and shaly/marly facies are the non-carbonate facies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e a, b). Anhydrite has formed in the sabkha, evaporatic flat and hypersaline lagoon under restricted condition, in both late Permian and early Triassic environments (Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Anhydritic layers often occur at the top of shallowing-up cycles in association with fenestral dolomudstone and breccia. This facies is easily distinguishable with white color in the slabbed cores (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea). Besides, anhydrite plugging (digenetic process) is common. In the Persian Gulf, clayey layers (as shaly or marly) occur at the top of Kangan Formation. Dark appearance at the slabbed core and high gamma value are typical characteristics of this facies (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Totally, these facies are almost devoid of fossils.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMud-dominated facies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTexture and composition of components in this facies represent low energy level of the environment during deposition. Mud-dominated facies has been deposited under hypersaline conditions, often contain anhydrite nodules and are mostly dolomitic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec). Micrite comprises a substantial proportion of this facies (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec-h). Type of bioclasts depends on depositional setting. In the restricted lagoon and embayment settings, foraminifera, gastropod and ostracod are more abundant (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed, e). Brachiopod, echinoderm debris and typically sponge spicule (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ef, g) are interpreted to reflect open circulation in different settings with quiet water or below fair wheatear wave base (FWWB) or even below storm wave base (SWB). Peloids are present in minor quantities (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ee). This facies exhibits evidence of bioturbation in many cases, particularly when salinity levels are within normal limits. Mud-dominated facies at the early Triassic strata contains fauna such as \u003cem\u003espirorbis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eclaraia\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eh).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMicrobial mud-dominated facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis facies is texturally mud-dominated but contains microbial components. Bioclasts and bioturbation are rare. Oncoids are the dominant form of microbial grains (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ei). However, microbial mud-dominated facies exhibit low variability in terms of texture and components. Similar to the previous facies, it has been deposited under low hydrodynamic energy condition such as lagoon and protected area in the intertidal zone. In some cases, where microbial components are obscured, it becomes challenging to distinguish them from other mud-dominated facies. This facies is predominantly observed in the Triassic strata (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGrain-dominated facies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe facies is characterized by a grain-dominated texture, with a notable abundance of skeletal fragments, particularly in the Permian strata. The high diversity and frequency of Permian biota contribute to the variability of the grains. Algae, particularly green algae, are relatively abundant (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea, b). Foraminifera are the most frequent and diverse organisms in the Permian strata, including fusulinata, nodosariata, miliolata, and textulariata, in order of abundance. Other fossils and bioclastic fauna such as gastropods, bivalves and bryozoans are also present with minor amounts. The larger size of some skeletal grains like gastropods and bryozoans constitute significant proportions of rock volume in some cases, despite their lower frequency. Bioclastic content are good indicator of depositional setting, particularly in the Permian strata. In the shallow and restricted condition ostracod, gastropod, green algae and most of foraminifera are more abundant. In the deeper setting or upwelling area, normal marine fauna such as bryozoans, echinoderms, brachiopods and sponge spicule become abundant. At the PTB, Permian biota were wiped out. Early Triassic strata include monospecific association (low diversity e.g. one taxon) or rarely low amount of ostracod, gastropod and opportunistic fauna such as \u003cem\u003espirorbis\u003c/em\u003e and some species of bivalves (e.g. \u003cem\u003eclaraia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ehalobia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003edaonella\u003c/em\u003e) or brachiopod (e.g. \u003cem\u003elingulid form\u003c/em\u003e) (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003el-n). Some problematic species (foraminifera or algae or calcimicrobe) such as Tubiphytes occurred in the Triassic strata (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eo). Non-skeletal grains in this facies mainly include ooid, peloid and intraclast (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eo). Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) showed that Triassic ooids have less sorting in comparison with Permian ooids and are coarser in some cases (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb). Cement is other important component of this facies, which often occlude inter and intraparticle pores (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, grainy texture and higher ratio of cement rather than micrite indicate deposition under high energetic condition such as landward intertidal or main body of mobile shoal complex (Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMicrobial grain-dominated facies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicrobial components such as oncoid consist more than 25% of the grains (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ee-i, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ec, d). The facies is mainly found in the early Triassic Kangan Formation, with minor occurrences in the Permian strata, particularly in the P30 sequence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, see also Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e in Esrafili‑Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2019). The facies has been frequently deposited under high-energy conditions. There are also some instances of in-situ growth (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ee, h). Other associated grains include peloid, ooid and rarely skeletal debris. Microbial cements also occur (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ej).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMicrobial bioconstruction or benthic microbial mats\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrobial bioconstruction or benthic microbial mats in the studied area include thrombolite and stromatolite. Stromatolites are marked by layering appearance in thin sections (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ek) and slabbed cores (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ee). Automicrite (see Pomar and Hallock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and microbial string (consisting microbial filaments collection) constitute the major volume. Other components typically make up only a minor proportion. Thrombolite is the most distinctive microbial facies in the early Triassic strata of the region. This facies is consistent across the Arabian Plate, extending from Saudi Arabia through the Persian Gulf to the Zagros area. It is characterized by clotted fabric at microscopic, macroscopic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003el, thin section) and mesoscopic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ec, core) scales. Thrombolite primarily comprises automicrite, which, due to neomorphism, may locally display a lighter color resembling microsparite in thin sections (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003el). This facies contains some opportunistic (survivor) fauna. Sparse pyrite is also present, likely reflecting the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria under oxygen-deficient conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFacies distribution in the successions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Permian succession (Upper Dalan Formation)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper Dalan Formation is composed of two 3rd -order complete sequences of P30 and P40 and lower part of Tr10 or P30a, P30b, P30c, P40a, P40b, Tr10a and lower part of Tr10b 4th -order sequences (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn well-A, the P30a sequence overlies the anhydrite of the Nar member. This 4th-order sequence is dolomitic with sparse anhydrite nodules. The base of P30a begins with mud-dominated facies separated by an anhydritic layer. The maximum accommodation zone (MAZ) of this sequence includes grain-dominated facies dominated by ooids and intraclasts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Passing upward mud-dominated facies reappear with fenestral fabric and mud cracks, suggesting an upper intertidal to supratidal settings. In the lower part of P30b, there is a stromatolite layer, followed by a bioclastic grain-dominated facies in the middle part, and it ends with peloidal/bioclastic mud-dominated layers. The grains are dominated by undifferentiated bioclasts. P30c is characterized by thick grain-dominated layers with limestone lithology. Prior to the MAZ and within the transgressive part of the sequence, peloids, ooids, and skeletal grains are abundant. Towards the MAZ, ooids become progressively more abundant, and open marine fauna appear.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis grain-dominated layer near the MAZ gradually changes to a mud-dominated layer with open marine fauna such as sponge spicules and echinoderms. This thick symmetrical cycle continues with grain-dominated facies containing open marine fauna and ooids in the lower part of the regressive cycle of the sequence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). At the upper part of this sequence, mud-dominated facies with dolomitic lithology and mud crack and also with interlayering anhydrite represent a shallowing upward trend. At the top, this grainy facies is capped by anhydrite layer. This sequence is most important reservoir interval in the Persian Gulf (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn well-A, P40a mainly consists of a limy mud-dominated layer where peloids and bioclasts are dominant grains. At the MAZ, it evolves into a grainy facies with the same grains composition (e.g. peloids and bioclasts) but higher frequency. The sequence is capped by an anhydritic layer at the top (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). P40b begins with mud-dominated at the lower part and followed by grain-dominated containing mixed shallow and open marine fauna. Upper part of this sequence is characterized by first appearance of microbial mud-dominated facies that is turned into anhydritic layer upward (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the well-A, Tr10a includes alternation of mud-dominated and grain-dominated layers. Bioclasts and plant roots are the most biogenic components and structures, respectively. Non-skeletal grains are dominated by peloids and intraclasts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The Permian part of Tr10b, after a thin grain-dominated layer, is followed by a thicker mud-dominated mid-ramp layer. The latest strata of the Permian are grain-dominated with open marine fauna such as echinoderms, interpreted as a seaward shoal complex located in a deepening-upward cycle. Foraminifera are still abundant (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThin sections of lower part of P30 are not available in the well-B,. P30c is similar to that of well-A in the regressive part, which is characterized by open marine fauna at the bottom (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Toward the top, ooids become abundant and the layer is marked by bioclastic dominated facies and limestone lithology. This sequence is characterized by a stack of dolomitic mud-dominated layers, with bioclasts being the predominant grains. Eventually, the layers are capped by anhydritic layer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the well-B, P40a is grainier rather than that of equivalent sequence at the well-A and also contain higher open marine fauna as MAZ characterized by sponge spicule rich layer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). However, the grains in this sequence consist primarily of skeletal debris, including a mixture of species from both shallow and deeper environments. Peloids and intraclasts occur as minor allochems (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe topmost layer of this sequence is comprised of anhydrite facies. P40b starts with a mud-dominated layer. Upward, stromatolite layers appear after the anhydritic layer, followed by a microbial mud-dominated facies. The sequence, primarily dolomitic at the top, ends with a mud-dominated facies featuring mud cracks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn well-B, Tr10a is characterized by a dominantly mud-dominated layer with abundant open marine fauna. In the upper part, i.e., the regressive part of the cycle, shallow fauna become more abundant. In the Permian part of Tr10b, a deepening-upward trend is reflected by abundant open marine fauna in both mud- and grain-dominated layers. The latest Permian fauna contains brachiopods, bryozoans, and sponge spicules (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Triassic succession (Kangan Formation)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the well-A, Tr10b continues after PTB with azoic microbial grain-dominated layer. Then, well-known thrombolite layer appears between stromatolite layers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Benthic microbial mats evolve into thick microbial grain-dominated layer. Following mud-dominated facies, microbial grain-dominated layer reappears, which is followed by thick stromatolites. Upper part of this sequence is marked by microbial mud-dominated layer followed by anhydritic layer. Upward, Triassic fauna become progressively more abundant but remain minor components (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the well-A, Tr20a starts with a stromatolite and then grain- and mud-dominated layers, followed by microbial grain-dominated at the MAZ (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). In the regressive part of sequence, mud-dominated and anhydrite are dominant. Tr20b is marked by grain-dominated layer at the bottom. This layer transitions into a thrombolite-like layer resembling those near the PTB. However, after this layer, most part of this sequence is composed of microbial grain-dominated, stromatolite and grain-dominated layers with an anhydrite layer at the top. Tr20c is characterized by grain-dominated and then mud-dominated facies at the lower part, stromatolite with interlayer shaly at the middle and microbial grain-dominated at the upper part. These are followed by mud-dominated facies and eventually ended with anhydritic layer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Topmost of Tr20c sequence is characterized by the lower part of Aghar shale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the well-B, PTB is located within microbial grain-dominated layer. Upward, stromatolite and then thrombolite appear. Such as well-A, thrombolite is overlaid by stromatolite. These are followed by thick microbial mud- and grain-dominated layers. Rare disaster forms of Triassic fauna occur (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The sequence is followed by alternation of thick stromatolite and microbial mud-dominated layers which are capped by an anhydritic layer at the top (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the well-B, Tr20a starts with two microbial mud-dominated layers which are separated by a stromatolitic interval. After these layers, microbial grain-dominated facies is indicator of MAZ. Tr20b is characterized by thick microbial grain-dominated which becomes muddier at the middle part (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). At the top, next to stromatolite layer, anhydrite caps the sequence. Sequence Tr20c starts with grain-dominated layer which is overlaid by anhydrite, followed by shaly layer and then to relative thick stromatolite layer with shale in the middle part. Top of this sequence is marked by microbial mud-dominate and grain-dominated layers. The lower part of Aghar shale is composed of shaly and stromatolitic layers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFacies composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Permian succession (Upper Dalan Formation)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn well-A, the Permian strata (Dalan Formation) are predominantly composed of dolomite, with limestone occurring in lesser amounts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea). Anhydrite is present in minor quantities. The late Permian succession in this well is mainly composed of grain-dominated layers (nearly 56%). Mud-dominated intervals make up 40% of the strata. Microbial grain-dominated and microbial bioconstruction together account for less than 5% of the rock volume (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea). Micrite is the most abundant component of the late Permian rocks (almost 38%). Cement contributes 18%. Peloids are the most abundant non-skeletal grains, followed by ooids. Skeletal grains constitute nearly 13% of the rock volume. The level of skeletal contribution in the late Permian strata in well-A is higher than the sum of ooids and intraclasts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea). Microbial components make up less than 1.6% of the layers, with stromatolites dominating. Altogether, the late Permian succession consists of 86.18% quasi-abiotic, 12.20% biotically controlled, and 1.6% microbial-mediated modes of carbonate production (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en well-B, the analyzed parts of the Permian strata show a higher proportion of dolomitic lithology (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ec). The frequency of grain-dominated facies is similar to those found in the equivalent intervals of well-B. Mud-dominated facies make up less than half of the whole rocks of the Permian sequences. Microbial grain-dominated and microbial bioconstruction are subordinate but slightly more than in well-A. Micrite contributes 39% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ec). Cements constitute more than 28% of the volume of rocks. Overall, in the late Permian strata in well-B, the carbonate component is predominantly produced by quasi-abiotic mode (around 85%), followed by biotically controlled mode (around 13%) with minor microbial-mediated mode (around 2%, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFacies composition in the early Triassic succession\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly Triassic Kangan Formation in the well-A is dominantly dolomitic. Limestone consists 21.47% of the samples. Anhydrite has almost similar contribution to the late Permian samples, but shaly/marly layer constitutes 1.78% of formation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eb). Microbial grain-dominated constitute more than 41% of layers, followed by near 20% microbial bioconstruction and 17% grain-dominated intervals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eb). Mud-dominated and microbial mud-dominated layers constitute near 12.5% and 9.5% of early Triassic Kangan Formation in the well-A, respectively. Cements are most abundant contributor in these strata (about 30%). Micrite comprise only 15% of the rocks. Peloid and intraclast are the most abundant non-skeletal grains, but only with totally 10% contribution. Skeletal components constitute a slightly more than 1% of rock volume (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eb). In summary, these sequences were predominantly formed by quasi-abiotic processes (60.14%), followed by microbial-mediated processes (38.16%), with a minor contribution from biotically-controlled processes (1.4%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the early Triassic of well-B, dolomitic lithology makes up slightly more than half of the succession (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ed). Limestone, anhydrite, and shaly/marly layers constitute the rest of the sequence with 37%, 4.5%, and 1.5%, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ed). In this well, the Triassic strata are characterized by microbial grain-dominated (36.59%), microbial mud-dominated (26.68%), and microbial bioconstruction (27.4%) carbonates. Mud- and grain-dominated facies are subordinate (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ed). Micrite and cement have nearly similar contributions (almost 23% each). Non-skeletal and skeletal grains make up less than 10% of the rock volume (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ed). The early Triassic strata in this well are largely composed of microbial components (42.16%). Therefore, the results reveal that these strata have been significantly produced by quasi-abiotic (55.51%) and microbial-mediated (42.19%) carbonates. Components formed by biotically controlled processes constitute less than 1% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ed).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbonate factory analysis in the late Permian succession\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the late Permian strata of the two studied wells, the contribution of facies is nearly similar. Grain-dominated are more prevalent than mud-dominated facies. Microbial facies are minor. Except for micrite and cement, whose higher contribution is typical, ooids, peloids, and skeletal grains make up a major proportion of grains in the layers of the late Permian. The proportion of skeletal grains is higher than that of equivalent layer from some sections previously were compared Nanpanjiang basin (Insalaco et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) or even over Yangtze platform in southern China. The two former regions were located near the equator and provided favorable conditions for organisms to thrive (Payne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Lehrmann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Generally, in the late Permian, in the southern margin of the neo-Tethys, carbonate production was quasi-abiotic and biotically-controlled. Carbonate production modes/process, carbonate producers and carbonate production types (carbonate components) indicate prolific tropical carbonate factory (Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) has operated during that time and place, such as elsewhere in Arabian Plate (e.g. Weidlich and Bernecker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR128\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Kolodka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Forke et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). However, anhydrite layers reflect the temporary suffocated of the carbonate factory during hypersaline condition in which formation of sulfate precursor has been overcame to the carbonate\u0026rsquo;s components (Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe components of the Permian strata exhibit some differences across the sequences. The shoal/barrier complex in the lower Dalan Formation (Guadalupian) was less extensive than in the upper Dalan Formation, due to a low-developed (in terms of height and width) mobile shoal body (Kolodka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; see Lower and upper Dalan sequences in Abdolmaleki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). P30 is characterized by higher frequency of grain contributions, especially ooids and skeletal types. The skeletal compositions of this sequence indicate that chloroforam associations have predominated over most of the sequence. Near the possible MAZ, mixed chloroforam and bryonoderm-extended associations progressively become dominant (Beauchamp et al. 1994, Flugel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). These associations suggest a transition from a tropical to a temperate climate condition. Based on the facies, lithology, types of components, as well as the paleolatitude and paleogeographic setting of the southern margin of Neo-Tethys (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), it is more likely that this distribution can also be attributed to upwelling and/or open marine conditions in a tropical climate paleoenvironment (Beauchamp et al. 1994, Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Reijmer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea, b; Flugel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Reijmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, faunal composition has periodically been modulated by sea level changes, ocean circulation, and nutrient levels, which have created a fertile environment for living organisms during this sequence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter Guadalupian-Lopingian boundary, metazoan reefs and large-shelled fusulines and bivalves underwent a drastic lost (Davydov and Arefifard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Isozaki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Kaiho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This lead to reduce CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e sinking from marine environment (see Groves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Groves and Calner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Payne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Pomar and Hallock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Forke et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Presence of high value of CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (supersaturation condition), warm temperature, high salinity level accompanies with sufficient accommodation space and energetic environment were established of tropical carbonate factory and then supplied and forced to produce large volume of ooid.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe situation changed during P40 sequences. Ooid production was largely stopped and mud-dominated facies becomes dominate. Microbial facies appeared (see also first appearance of oncoidal facies in the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e in Esrafili‑Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2019). In some strata, bryonoderm-extended associations flourished, while shoal and grain-dominated samples had not yet formed, indicating a possible effect of intense upwelling without the establishment of a deep setting. The disturbance in grain production, the appearance of microbial components, and the blooming of bryonoderm-extended associations suggest a disturbance in the ocean that may have been a prelude for the PTB extinction event. It is worth noting that the upwelling of deep water has been linked to a possible extinction mechanism for the Wuchiapingian-Changhsingian boundary (almost correlatable with the Julfian-Dorashamian boundary/JDB in the Tethyan regions) (Wei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR127\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Although upwelling hampered the operation of a tropical carbonate factory, it did not lead to the development of a significant cool-water or microbial carbonate factory. Likely, a local cool-water carbonate factory was established, but metazoan and foraminifera populations were not replaced by microbial carbonate factories, as evidenced by the presence of high bioclastic content and heavily bioturbated intervals in P40. Blooms of species from the fusulinata class, such as paradagmarita and dagmarita species, occurred in P40.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbonate factory revolution in early Triassic\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly Triassic succession of the Persian Gulf is characterized by dramatic increase of microbial-mediated carbonate production mode (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Microbial components are most important constituent of this strata, while other grains contribution is minor. Carbonate producers and carbonate production process all suggest that productive microbial carbonate factory has operated in the southern margin of Neo-Tethys Ocean during Early Triassic. The temporary shutdown of the carbonate factory has occurred during the deposition of anhydrite and shaly/marly facies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDominate biota in the late Permian strata are shown in the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e. Most of the biota (both fauna and flora) were diminished at the PTB (e.g., Erwin, 1994; Pruss et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Chen and Benton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Viglietti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR126\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Brookfield et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and references therein). The contribution of carbonate components produced by biotically-controlled processes in the Early Triassic is nearly equal to that produced by microbial-mediated processes in the Late Permian strata. During early Triassic, microbial components became abundant and microbial facies proliferated over the platform. Most of microbial facies were subordinated in the late Permian strata. Thrombolite as unique microbial facies which was absent in Permian, suddenly prevailed over the platform after PTB. This microbial facies occurs from inner to outer ramp, harbingering a revolutionary turnover in the operation of the carbonate factory. Carbonate factory switch (often from tropical) to microbial in the early Triassic is a globally widespread phenomena (e.g. Schlager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Mary and Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Woods and Baud, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR131\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Pruss and Payne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR130\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Kershaw, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lehrmann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kirton and Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and many others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor proliferation of microbial facies (or microbial ecosystem blooming) some conditions are necessary, including: 1- CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e supersaturation; 2- sufficient nutrient; and 3- vacant ecological niches (e.g. Riding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Dupraz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Liang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Dupraz and Visscher, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Virgone, 2010; Riding and Tomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Seemingly, all of these have been ideally provided for early Triassic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth the production and lack of consumption of CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e favored supersaturation conditions in the early Triassic. The PTB and early Triassic periods were characterized by high levels of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in both the atmosphere and the ocean, which were injected by the Siberian Traps. This has been hypothesized as the most important factor leading to the PTB mass extinction and delayed recovery, by promoting ocean stratification, global warming, and anoxic conditions (Heydari and Hassanzadeh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Grice et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Fraiser and Bottjer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Knoll et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Payne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Clapham and Payne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Bond and Wignall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Brennecka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Joachimski et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Bond and Grasby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Global warming can increase evaporation and saturation level of CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e in the water. After submarine carbonate dissolution by acidification of seawater, during their overshoot (consequence), CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e saturation has been enhanced in some intervals of early Triassic (see Heydari and Hassanzadeh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Payne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Heydari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Kump et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Kershaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Other source of supersaturation is upwelling of deep alkaline water during PTB and early Triassic (e.g. Kershaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Woods et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR132\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Grotzinger and Knoll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Algeo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Also, early Triassic is marked by enhance chemical weathering and increasing run-off and riverine input to the oceans which were caused by acid raining in uncovered lands (die-off of terrestrial vegetation by PTB mass extinction), which are evidenced by increasing trend of \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr and fine terrigenous sediment in the area and elsewhere (e.g. Korte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Algeo and Twitchett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Algeo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR119\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Tavakoli and Rahimpour-Bonab, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR123\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Viglietti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR125\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mujal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR140\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Input of ions such as Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e cause supersaturation condition. In other hand, extinction of biota at the PTB and delayed recovery throughout the early Triassic (Groves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Liang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Pruss et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Riding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Tomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Baud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) were caused elimination of a major consumer of CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (major CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e sinking), resulting facilitated the supersaturation condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth the production and limited consumption of nutrients created ideal conditions for microbial blooming in the Early Triassic. Increasing of riverine input and upwelling of nutrient rich deep water have enhanced nutrient level (Xie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR134\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Algeo and Twitchett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR130\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Grasby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lehrmann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Knies et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, absence of metazoan makes microbe to be exclusive dominate consumer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLast but not least, vacant ecological niches are necessary for both microbe blooming and microbial component production and preservation (e.g. Riding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Liang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Dupraz and Visscher, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Mata and Bottjer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mays et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Metazoans with two significant barriers prevent microbial proliferation, including: 1- bioturbation and grazing; 2- competition for similar ecospace and resource (as aforementioned, CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and nutrient).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAltogether, likely vacant ecological niches or free ecospace was most important controlling (steering) factor for microbial facies proliferation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Absence of eukaryotes particularly invertebrate and typically metazoans alone is sufficient for microbes to bloom and their productions to proliferate in the environment. Riding et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) ascertained absence of metazoan is more important than other factors. In the modern environments, also absence of or limitation for metazoan is both necessary and sufficient for microbial proliferation (Garcia-Pichel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Mata and Bottjer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mays et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). After only those of extinction in which metazoan frequency and bioturbation level were more reduced, commonly microbial production were more abundant (Mata and Bottjer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In the late Permian and also in some cases in the early Triassic under inhospitable stressing condition for living of metazoan (such as hypersaline condition), microbial component and facies such as stromatolite prevailed (Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR133\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bagherpour et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Modern microbial facies are mostly formed in hypersaline lakes and marine lagoons where extreme conditions due to high saline levels prevent animals from grazing (Mata and Bottjer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mays et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Petrescu and Ungureanu, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbdolmaleki and Tavakoli (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) applied the concept of \"Barzakh,\" meaning the \"world between death and the redevelopment of life,\" to the early Triassic period to describe the harsh conditions that hindered the recovery of metazoans after the mass extinction. This concept can also be extended to encompass all conditions that are inhospitable for eukaryotes (typically marine metazoans) while being suitable and even favorable for microbes. Therefore, this concept can be considered a synonym for the microbial carbonate factory, at least. It may even be interchangeable because other factories such as tropical, cool-water, and others have names that reflect the conditions under which they operate, not necessarily their dominant carbonate producer (refer to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Barzakh, or a condition with the absence of eukaryotes, is a suitable environment in which the so-called microbial carbonate factory operates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eA proposal for updated reversion of the carbonate factory classification scheme\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our framework (in this study), the latest proposals by Reijmer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) have been revised and finalized (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). One of the updated elements includes the inclusion of \"microbes/bacteria\" as carbonate producers, reflecting recent studies that highlight the significant role of these microorganisms in carbonate production (see Riding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Perri and Spadafora, 2001; Dupraz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Liang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Eberli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Diaz and Eberli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). One other change rather than previous version is highlighting and discrimination of two separated mechanism of microbial activity in carbonate production i.e., \u0026ldquo;microbially-induced\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;microbially-influenced\u0026rdquo; (proposed by Dupraz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e based on geomicrobiological insight). Giving to the role of microbe and their two basic mechanisms on carbonate production, term of \u0026ldquo;microbially-mediated\u0026rdquo; (Dupraz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) can be preferred instead of the \u0026ldquo;biotically-induced\u0026rdquo; to not be confused with biotically-controlled. Hence, the term \"microbially-mediated\" encompasses both \"microbially-induced\" (resulting from interactions between microbial activity and the surrounding environment) and \"microbially-influenced\" (mineralization occurring in response to external environmental factors, involving extracellular polymeric substances or EPS) (Dupraz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Riding and Liang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Eberli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Diaz and Eberli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLast is the consideration of \"Barzakh\" as a synonym for the \"microbial factory,\" as this factory predominates after mass extinctions. Barzakh refers to the condition following a mass extinction, during delayed recovery, creating an environment between death and the redevelopment of life that is inhospitable for eukaryotes but favorable for microbes (see Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). According to the discussion presented in this paper, another revision involves considering \"free ecospace\" as a primary controlling factor for the operation of the microbial carbonate factory after the loss or establishment of inhospitable conditions for eukaryotes (typically metazoans), a factor that is not as critical for the other carbonate factories (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, Riding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Mata and Bottjer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Yang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR135\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Riding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the Late Permian, ideal conditions on the southern margin of the Neo-Tethys supported the development of a thriving tropical carbonate factory. This included abundant CaCO₃ supply, warm tropical conditions, optimal salinity levels, a favorable environment for metazoans, and sufficient accommodation space for sediment accumulation. Micrite and cement were dominant in these strata, with skeletal, peloid, and ooid grains being other important components. In the late Permian tropical carbonate factory, the dominant carbonate production modes/process were quasi-abiotic and biotically controlled, with chloroforam associations being the dominant carbonate producers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the early Triassic, a Barzakh condition was established in the depositional environment following the PTB mass extinction, where marine eukaryotes (typically metazoans) were killed and did not recover until the top of the formation. The absence or extremely low frequency and diversity of metazoans were the most significant factors leading to the operation of the microbial carbonate factory in the carbonate platform. Metazoans, through grazing, bioturbation, and consumption of resources (CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and nutrients), prevented microbial activity and their carbonate production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, during the early Triassic, in addition to free ecospace, CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e supersaturation (due to input, upwelling, and overshoot of acidification) and sufficient nutrients available (due to input and upwelling) were ideal for the widespread operation of the global microbial carbonate factory. In the early Triassic carbonate factory, the dominant carbonate production modes were quasi-abiotic and microbially mediated, with microbial populations being the dominant carbonate producers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith great respect, we thank Yas Arghavani for her supports. Many thanks are given to Zakiyeh Imani Jam, who was always with us in all stages of the research. We would like to thank Dr. Payman Rezaee, Dr. Hossein Gholamalian and Dr. Gholamreza Ghadami from university of Hormozgan for their insightful guidance and suggestions at the beginning and in the research process. We are grateful to Dr. John J. G. Reijmer, Dr. Mara Diaz, Dr. Marco Brandano, and Dr. Julien Michel for helpful comments.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUTHORS CONTRIBUTION IN THE MANUSCRIPT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJavad Abdolmaleki:\u003c/strong\u003e Contributed to the conceptualization of the study, provided the existing sequence stratigraphic framework utilized in the analysis, participated in the geological interpretation of the data, and contributed to the writing and review of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHossain Rahimpour-Bonab:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceived and designed the study, supervised the data acquisition (core analysis, thin section preparation and microscopic examination), led the interpretation of carbonate factory dynamics and their relationship to the biocrisis, and was the primary author responsible for drafting and revising the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVahid Tavakoli:\u003c/strong\u003e Assisted with the data acquisition (core analysis, thin section preparation), performed gamma-ray log analysis and correlation, contributed to the geological interpretation of the data, and assisted in the preparation of figures and the review of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdolmaleki, J., Tavakoli, V. 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Late Permian to Holocene Palaeofacies Evolution of the Arabian Plate and its Hydrocarbon Occurrences. \u003cem\u003eGeoArabia, 6(3)\u003c/em\u003e, 445\u0026ndash;504. https://doi.org/10.2113/geoarabia0603445\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"palaeobiodiversity-and-palaeoenvironments","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pbpe","sideBox":"Learn more about [Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments](https://www.springer.com/journal/12549)","snPcode":"12549","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pbpe/default2.aspx","title":"Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Carbonate Factory, Barzakh condition, Permian–Triassic boundary, Biocrisis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6223417/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6223417/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMarine environmental conditions govern carbonate sediment types through their influence on carbonate factories. These factories, the sites of carbonate production, adjust to environmental shifts by altering precipitation forms. This study examines Permian-Triassic strata in the Persian Gulf to understand how environmental changes, particularly a major biocrisis, impacted carbonate sedimentation. Thin section analysis, core data, and gamma-ray logs were utilized to reconstruct this history. During the Late Permian, a thriving tropical carbonate factory was established along the Neo-Tethys margin. Favorable environmental conditions and ample accommodation space facilitated its expansion and fostered the proliferation of diverse marine life. The Dalan Formation, characterized by grain-dominated facies, resulted, with peloids, ooids, and skeletal fragments making up the bulk of the sediment. Carbonate production was driven by both chemical precipitation and metazoan activity. The Permian-Triassic boundary extinction event profoundly impacted sedimentation. Metazoan disappearance created a \u0026lsquo;Barzakh condition\u0026rsquo; in the Early Triassic, where microbial populations were no longer suppressed by metazoan predators. Increased calcium carbonate saturation and nutrient levels, likely due to upwelling and consumer removal, favored microbial carbonate factories. Consequently, the Early Triassic succession in the Persian Gulf exhibits a clear shift towards microbial-mediated carbonate sediments. This study is significant due to its focus on shallow marine settings along the Arabian Plate, a region rich in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Carbonate factory dynamics, influenced by environmental changes, impacted reservoir properties, crucial for reservoir management and development\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Carbonate factory dynamics during a biocrisis (Barzakh condition), a case study of late Permian–early Triassic successions in the Persian Gulf, Iran","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 06:43:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6223417/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T18:55:09+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-06T15:20:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-20T06:56:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments","date":"2025-03-18T00:29:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"palaeobiodiversity-and-palaeoenvironments","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pbpe","sideBox":"Learn more about [Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments](https://www.springer.com/journal/12549)","snPcode":"12549","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pbpe/default2.aspx","title":"Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"beaafc37-b9f7-4e09-9932-d2f14fb88137","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:08:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6223417","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-026-00700-w","journal":{"identity":"palaeobiodiversity-and-palaeoenvironments","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-02 15:57:39","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 2nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 06:43:35","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12549-026-00700-w","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-026-00700-w","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6223417","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6223417","identity":"rs-6223417","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}