From Culture to Metagenomics: Evolution of Methodologies and Workflows in the Study of Oral Microbiota of Venomous Snakes

Venomous snakes constitute ecologically significant and medically relevant organisms due to the risks associated with their bites, which frequently result in complex secondary infections. The oral microbiota of these reptiles plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of such infections; however, its diversity and clinical implications remain insufficiently characterized. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the oral microbiota of snakes, tracing the methodological evolution from traditional culture-dependent techniques to advanced culture-independent approaches, including next-generation sequencing and metagenomics. The analysis highlights the transformative impact of these technologies on bacterial diversity identification and antimicrobial resistance gene detection. Environmental factors, captivity conditions, and venom composition significantly influence microbial community structure and resistance profiles. These complex interactions are essential for improving clinical management of snakebite infections, informing empirical antibiotic therapy protocols, and guiding antivenom production strategies. Additionally, the potential of snake oral microbiota as a source of novel bioactive compounds represents an emerging area of bioprospecting research. This review demonstrates the necessity for integrative, multidisciplinary approaches to fully elucidate the ecological and biomedical significance of oral microbial communities in venomous snakes.