Assessing heavy metals and developing a fingerprint for Mahikeng paints using ICP-MS analysis: implications for environmental health

Assessing heavy metals and developing a fingerprint for Mahikeng paints using ICP-MS analysis: implications for environmental health | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessing heavy metals and developing a fingerprint for Mahikeng paints using ICP-MS analysis: implications for environmental health S. F. Olukotun, S. O. O. John, T. G. Kupi, O. F. Oladejo, J. Mathuthu, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013484/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Despite global efforts to mitigate lead in paints, studies reveal persisting lead levels above safety thresholds in household paints in many nations. Alongside lead, other heavy metals (HMs) in paints pose health risks. The study aims to assess lead content and heavy metals levels, and develop a fingerprint for paints in Mahikeng, the capital of North West Province, South Africa, using ICP-MS analysis. We purchased and analyzed 30 paint samples from Mahikeng. The most prominent and nontoxic elements detected are Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Carbon (C), Aluminum (Al), and Phosphorus (P). Lead concentrations ranged from 0 ppm to 4.17 ppm, below South Africa's 600 ppm MPLL. Other HMs detected included Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Antimony (Sb), Mercury (Hg), as well as radionuclides Barium (Ba), Strontium (Sr), Thorium (Th), and Uranium (U). Their concentrations range from 0 ppm to 810.57 ppm, with most elements found at relatively low levels. The obtained Pb isotopic ratios and rare earth elements (REE) patterns were used to develop a fingerprint. These findings offer insights into the environmental health implications of lead and heavy metals contamination by the paints, as well as the identification of their sources. This research contributes to sustainable cities and communities by promoting responsible consumption and production practices, enhancing quality education on environmental health, and supporting good health and well-being through the reduction of hazardous exposures. Lead Heavy metals (HMs) Paints ICP-MS analysis South Africa Environmental health Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction The harmful impacts of lead on human health, particularly in children, have reduced the justification for the extensive use of lead-based paints, despite their advantages in durability, color stability, and moisture resistance. Children are at a higher susceptibility to lead poisoning because they tend to put their hands in their mouths more frequently, have a faster breathing rate, and possess a more absorbent digestive system compared to adults (Ahamed & Siddiqui, 2007 ). Children's exposure to lead (Pb) through paints has been a worldwide concern for the past fifty years. Although regulatory and safety measures for paint manufacturers, as well as litigation promoting lead-free paints, have been in place for over half a century, lead-based paints continue to be widely used around the globe (Ewers et al., 2011 ; Njati & Maguta, 2019 ; Megertu & Bayissa, 2020 ). Researchers have traditionally focused on lead (Pb) levels in paints, but few studies have shown that paints also contain other heavy metals (HMs) (Muluneh et al., 2023 ; Turner & Filella, 2023 ). Therefore, it is crucial to determine the levels of these other heavy metals in paints due to their harmful effects on human health. Heavy metals present considerable health risks to humans, especially when found in high concentrations in the environment. This study aligns with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3 (good health and well-being) and 11 (sustainable cities and communities) by addressing the health and environmental impacts of heavy metals in paints, promoting responsible consumption and production (SDG 12) practices, and contributing to the creation of sustainable and healthy living environments. Heavy metals (HMs) are naturally occurring elements characterized by an atomic number (Z) greater than 20 and a density exceeding 5 g/cm³ (Shi et al., 2019 ). Based on this definition, there are 51 HMs in the periodic table (Ali & Khan, 2018 ). Numerous scientific publications and governmental records have documented studies and regulations concerning heavy metals. These include their sources in the environment, transport, bioaccumulation in biota, as well as their toxicity and harmful effects on living organisms, including humans (Abd Elnabi et al., 2023 ). The ecosystem's natural and human-induced sources of heavy metals (HMs) are steadily growing, leading to increased environmental accumulation. Human exposure to these metals has surged, mainly due to twentieth-century industrial activities. The bioaccumulation of HMs leads to various toxic effects on tissues and organs (Abd Elnabi et al., 2023 ; Oladejo et al., 2021 ). Two major environmental chemical disasters of the twentieth century, Minamata disease and the Donana mining catastrophe, were associated with the release of heavy metals into the environment (Ali & Khan, 2017 ). Heavy metals can become highly toxic when interacting with various environmental elements such as water, soil, and air (Mitra et al., 2022 ). Paints are major contributors to environmental heavy metal pollution, including lead, especially within residential settings (Ewers et al., 2011 ; Megertu & Bayissa, 2020 ; O’Connor et al., 2018 ). Figure 1 shows the principal pathway of heavy metals to man (Abd Elnabi et al., 2023 ). Studies have shown that several heavy metals (HMs) can persist in the environment for extended periods. For instance, cadmium (Cd) can persist in soil for 75 to 380 years, mercury (Hg) for 500 to 1000 years, and copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb) for 1000 to 3000 years (Wu et al., 2022 ). Excessive heavy metals in soil can upset the ecological balance and spread to other environmental compartments, including the atmosphere and water bodies. This poses risks to animals and humans through the food chain, inhalation, drinking water, and direct contact (Lu et al., 2015 ). The heavy metals lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) are common pollutants largely released from diverse industrial activities. Even though their atmospheric concentrations are low, they contribute to soil deposition and accumulation. These elements remain in the environment and can bioaccumulate within food chains. Lead exposure, in particular, is associated with various health hazards, including hypertension, anemia, and impaired reproductive, respiratory, nervous, and immune system functions. Children exposed to lead may suffer from a dose-dependent decrease in brain volume, resulting in lower academic performance and intelligence levels, with these effects potentially continuing into adulthood (Fatmi et al., 2017 ; Mazumdar et al., 2011 ). Lead poisoning can result in cognitive impairments, neurological issues, difficulties with focus, behavioral challenges, and excessive activity in infants. Blood tests are used to evaluate blood lead levels (BLL) in children, which is a valuable technique for diagnosing lead exposure (Ladele et al., 2019 ; Naranjo et al., 2020 ). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2012), it is estimated that more than 800 million children have blood lead levels (BLLs) exceeding 5 µg/dL, which is considered a standard reference level. Nevertheless, the most recent information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates that no level of lead in blood is deemed safe (CDC, 2024). South Africa is one of the few African countries that has tightened its regulations regarding lead in paints. Since 2009, the Hazardous Substances Act of South Africa has established a maximum permissible lead level (MPLL) of 600 ppm of lead in household paint. Figure 2 displays a map of African countries with and without lead paint regulations as of December 2021 (WHO, 2021 ). This regulatory action aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 4 (quality education) by ensuring that children are protected from lead exposure, which can have detrimental effects on their cognitive development and academic performance. Additionally, cadmium exposure is associated with damage to the kidneys and bones, and it is classified as a possible human carcinogen, notably increasing the risk of lung cancer. While mercury is harmful in both its inorganic forms and elemental, it is particularly concerning in its organic compounds, such as methylmercury. Methylmercury accumulates in the food chain, especially in predatory fish from lakes and oceans, and represents a major pathway for human exposure (Abd Elnabi et al., 2023 ; Briffa et al., 2020 ; Jadaa & Mohammed, 2023 ; Kafayat Kehinde Lawal et al., 2021; Mahurpawar, 2015 ; Mitra et al., 2022 ). This study assesses the lead and other heavy metals (HMs) content in South African paints using ICP-MS to understand their environmental impact and enhance future traceability. It innovatively uses lead isotopic ratios and REE patterns to create paint fingerprints, aiding traceability when necessary. Lead isotopic ratios can trace the sources of lead pollution in the environment, helping identify potential contamination sources and understand lead pathways. Additionally, examining the REE pattern normalized to chondrite values provides insights into environmental pollution origins. Comparing these patterns with known sources allows scientists to pinpoint pollution sources, aiding environmental protection (Moody et al., 2014 ). The research contributes to understanding the chemical composition of South African paints, highlighting their compliance with regulations and offering insights into environmental health. The findings enhance paint traceability efforts, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental safety. Materials and methods Sampling, samples’ preparation and samples’ digestion We visited major building hardware shops in Mahikeng, the capital of North West Province, South Africa, where we purchased commonly used six (6) brands of paint (labelled as SF-A – SF-F), and three brands of paint tints (labelled as SF-G – SF-I). We sampled the bright colors of each brand, having 30 samples, labelled as SF-A1, 2, 3…. SF-I1, 2, 3… respectively. Figure 3 presents the picture of the purchased paints and paint tints. A single-use clean stirrer was used to thoroughly stir each paint in its can. Subsequently, a single-use clean brush was used to apply each sample to clean pre-labelled polycarbonate plastic (A4 size). The applied samples were dried at room temperature, then each sample was scraped and placed in an individual labelled zip-lock plastic bag. Each paint scraping was digested at 95 o C in a heated block for 15 minutes with 1.25 mL of HCl acid, then allowed to cool for 5 minutes. It was subsequently heated at 95°C for 15 minutes with 1.25 mL of HNO 3 acid (Kambarami et al., 2022 ; Siddiqui et al., 2023 ). It was allowed to cool and then diluted to a final volume of 50 mL. ICP-MS measurement Each final solution was analyzed for total Pb content, other heavy metals (HMs) levels, REE elements and Pb isotopic ratio using PerkinElmer NexION 2000 ICP-MS spectrometer at CARST in North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, South Africa. ICP-MS determines the concentration of particular elements in a solution. In ICP-MS, the components of the sample are broken down into their atomic forms as a result of ionization in the argon plasma, which operates at temperatures ranging from approximately 6000 to 8000 K (Perkin, 2011; Wilschefski & Baxter, 2019 ). The positively charged ions are picked from the plasma and directed into the vacuum chamber of the mass spectrometer. Within the vacuum chamber, the charged ions are separated by filters before being detected and measured. Each sample is analyzed in two runs, with each run lasting approximately 60 seconds. The TotalQuant method, along with PerkinElmer Pure Plus NexION Dual Detector Calibration Solution standard, was used to enhance the analytical accuracy of the results. Calibration for TotalQuant was performed using 200 µg/L concentrations of Al, Ba, Ce, Co, Cu, In, Li, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Tb, U, and Zn (John et al., 2024 ). For quality control purposes, replicate samples were analyzed alongside the standard and blank solutions (Kamunda et al., 2016 , 2018 ). Figure 3 shows the flowchart of the sample preparation and analysis. Results and discussion Table 1 outlines the concentrations of the most prominent elements found in the samples. Figure 4 displays the lead concentration of each sample, excluding Sample SF-C3, which exhibited the highest concentration at 4.17 ppm. Table 2 lists other heavy metals (HMs) and some radionuclides detected in the samples. Additionally, Fig. 5 depicts the conventional plot of 208 Pb/ 206 Pb versus 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ratios for the samples, while Figs. 6 , 7 , and 8 show the REE patterns normalized to chondrite for various sample groups. Lead (Pb) and other heavy metals (HMs) concentration Among the 30 analyzed samples, the most prominent and nontoxic elements detected are Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Carbon (C), Aluminum (Al), and Phosphorus (P), with their concentrations ranging from 0 ppm to 584.74 ppm, 0.04 ppm to 171.78 ppm, 2.49 ppm to 14.95 ppm, 0 ppm to 3.67 ppm, and 0 ppm to 1.80 ppm, respectively. Table 1 shows the concentration range and the samples with the highest value for each of the elements. The lead concentrations found in the samples range from 0 ppm to 4170 ppb, with a mean concentration of 139.79 ppb, and a median of 0.2 ppb, and sample SF-C3 having the highest concentration of 4.17 ppm. These concentrations are comfortably well below the 600 ppm Maximum Permissible Lead Levels (MPLL) allowed in paints in South Africa. Figure 4 shows the lead concentration of each of the samples, except for Sample SF-C3, which has the highest concentration of 4.17 ppm. This finding is consistent with the results of a study on six paints manufactured in South Africa and used in Botswana (Kambarami et al., 2022 ). Kambarami et al. ( 2022 ) reported on the lead (Pb) concentrations in paint samples from Zimbabwe and Botswana. In Zimbabwe, 70% of the samples had Pb levels exceeding 90 ppm, 60% were over 600 ppm, and 20% surpassed 10,000 ppm, with an average concentration of 4863 ppm, a median of 6900 ppm, and a maximum of 12,000 ppm. These concentrations significantly exceed the limits set by the World Health Organization and the United Nations. Conversely, in Botswana, the 19 samples tested were all below the laboratory detection limit, and of the seven brands analyzed, six were produced in South Africa, where a 600-ppm lead limit for paint is enforced. The low lead concentration in the paints may reflect the efforts of various agencies such as the South African Paint Manufacturing Association (SAPMA), the South African Medical Research Council, and the promulgation of legislation in 2010 to control the use of lead in paint (Mathee, 2014 ; SAPMA, 2022 ). However, while the detected lead concentrations in the paints are lower than the MPLL, no BLL is considered safe. In the analysis of the samples, it was found that besides lead (Pb), the samples also contained several other heavy metals (HMs). These heavy metals included Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Antimony (Sb), Mercury (Hg), Barium (Ba), Strontium (Sr), Thorium (Th), and Uranium (U). Table 2 details the concentrations of various heavy metals (HMs) and radionuclides found in the samples. Beryllium (Be) exhibited a low mean concentration of 0.016 ppm, with a maximum value of 0.09 ppm in sample SF-G1. Chromium (Cr) showed significant variability, with a mean concentration of 52.636 ppm and a peak of 810.57 ppm in sample SF-C3. Nickel (Ni) also varied widely, averaging 17.317 ppm and reaching 322.27 ppm in sample SF-F1. Arsenic (As) levels were generally low, averaging 0.113 ppm and maxing out at 0.76 ppm in sample SF-D2. Cadmium (Cd) and Antimony (Sb) presented mean concentrations of 0.034 ppm and 0.660 ppm, respectively, with notable peaks in sample SF-C3. Mercury (Hg) levels were consistently low across all samples. Barium (Ba) and Strontium (Sr) showed broader ranges, with maximum concentrations of 516.44 ppm and 90.44 ppm, respectively. Thorium (Th) and Uranium (U) were present in low concentrations, with maximum values of 0.86 ppm and 0.45 ppm. The variability in these concentrations highlights localized contamination and suggests the need for targeted remediation in areas with high levels of specific elements. This analysis of heavy metals is important, as these elements, even at low levels, can have significant environmental and health implications. Understanding their presence and concentrations in the samples can help in assessing potential risks and implementing appropriate mitigation measures. Table 1 The most prominent elements in the samples s/n Element Concentration range (ppm) Mean concentration (ppm) Median (ppm) Sample with Highest Value 1 Nitrogen (N) 0–27866.06 3219.173 ± 864.941 2673.758 SF-H1 2 Calcium (Ca) 0–584.74 90.509 ± 28.423 10.454 SF-H1 3 Iron (Fe) 0.04–171.78 13.427 ± 6.739 0.590 SF-G6 4 Carbon (C) 2.49–14.95 6.541 ± 0.595 5.403 SF-F1 5 Aluminum (Al) 0–3.67 1.067 ± 0.181 0.626 SF-C1 6 Phosphorus (P) 0–1.80 0.287 ± 0.079 0.113 SF-D2 . Table 2 Other heavy metals (HMs) and some radionuclides found in the samples s/n Toxic Element Concentration Range (ppm) Mean Concentration (ppm) Median (ppm) Sample with Maximum Value 1 Beryllium (Be) 0–0.09 0.016 ± 0.005 0.000 SF-G1 2 Chromium (Cr) 2.02–810.57 52.636 ± 28.735 3.380 SF-C3 3 Nickel (Ni) 0–322.27 17.317 ± 11.287 0.195 SF-F1 4 Arsenic (As) 0–0.76 0.113 ± 0.027 0.050 SF-D2 5 Cadmium (Cd) 0–0.49 0.034 ± 0.018 0.000 SF-C3 6 Antimony (Sb) 0–19.27 0.660 ± 0.064 0.000 SF-C3 7. Mercury (Hg) 0–0.02 0.010 ± 0.001 0.010 SF-A1 8 Barium (Ba) 0.01–516.44 33.821 ± 20.273 1.035 SF-I5 9 Strontium (Sr) 0–90.44 18.058 ± 4.449 5.355 SF-C3 10 Thorium (Th) 0–0.86 0.223 ± 0.050 0.070 SF-G5 11 Uranium (U) 0–0.45 0.139 ± 0.014 0.135 SF-G4 Fingerprint development Figure 5 displays the conventional plot of 208 Pb/ 206 Pb versus 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ratios for the samples. The plot reveals variations in the ratios of different lead isotopes ( 207 Pb and 208 Pb) to the common lead isotope 206 Pb, which are crucial for environmental studies aiming to understand the sources and histories of lead in the samples. These variations indicate diverse lead sources or processes that have influenced the lead isotopic composition in the samples. For instance, samples with higher 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ratios may have different sources or histories compared to those with lower ratios. Notably, Sample SF-H3 exhibits extremely high isotopic ratios (5.399 for 207 Pb/ 206 Pb and 6.264 for 208 Pb/ 206 Pb), suggesting a unique lead source or a process that significantly altered its lead isotopic composition. By comparing these ratios with known values from different lead sources, it is possible to potentially identify the origins of the lead, aiding in tracing the sources of lead pollution in the environment. The correlation coefficient of the trend line is 0.92. The normalized Rare Earth Element (REE) concentrations in the samples (SF-A1 to SF-I5) can offer valuable insights into the geological and environmental conditions of the sampled locations (Moody et al., 2014 ). The REE concentrations in these samples exhibit diverse patterns, reflecting the complex interplay of geological processes and environmental factors. In Fig. 6 , samples SF-A1 and SF-A2 show low concentrations of most REEs, while SF-A3 and SF-A4 exhibit higher concentrations (enrichment) of Nd compared to the other samples. With slight variations in cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), and neodymium (Nd) concentrations. These samples suggest a similar geochemical signature, possibly indicating a common source. The REE concentrations in samples SF-B1, SF-B2, and SF-B3 of Fig. 7 show similar patterns, with relatively low concentrations across most REEs. However, there are slight variations in the concentrations of certain elements, indicating potential differences in the source or geological processes affecting these samples. Samples SF-C1, SF-C2, and SF-C3 exhibit varying concentrations of REEs, with SF-C3 showing slightly higher concentrations of Ce, Pr, and Nd compared to the other two samples. These variations suggest different geochemical conditions or sources for these samples. Samples SF-D1 to SF-D4 show varying patterns in REE concentrations, with SF-D1 and SF-D2 exhibiting higher concentrations of La, Ce, Pr, and Nd compared to SF-D3 and SF-D4. This indicates potential enrichment of these Light REE elements in SF-D1 and SF-D2, as in Fig. 7 . In Fig. 8 , samples SF-E1, SF-F1, SF-G1 to SF-G6, SF-H1 to SF-H3, and SF-I1 to SF-I5 also exhibit distinct patterns in REE concentrations, indicating a wide range of geological and environmental influences across the sampled locations. Figure 6 , 7 , and 8 display the normalized Rare Earth Element (REE) plots for three brands of paint samples, showing a consistent pattern among each brand's samples, with Nd, Gd and Tb, and Gd anomalies, respectively. The HREE (Tb – Lu) are not enriched nor depleted in all samples. Conclusion The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the environmental and health implications of lead and other heavy metals (HMs) in household paints. The study reveals that lead concentrations in the analyzed samples from South Africa are below the Maximum Permissible Lead Levels (MPLL), as mandated by the South Africa’s Hazardous Substances Act. This indicates compliance with regulatory measures and reflects the effectiveness of initiatives aimed at reducing lead exposure. Furthermore, the study highlights the presence of other HMs in paints, including Beryllium, Chromium, Nickel, Arsenic, Cadmium, Antimony, Mercury, as well as some radionuclide, Barium, Strontium, Thorium, and Uranium. While they were found at relatively low levels in the samples, their presence underscores the importance of monitoring and regulating HMs in paints to protect human health and the environment. The development of fingerprints using lead isotopic ratios and Rare Earth Element (REE) patterns is a novel approach that enhances traceability efforts and provides valuable information on the sources of lead and other HMs in paints. By comparing these patterns with known sources, it is possible to identify potential contamination sources and understand the pathways of heavy metal pollution. Overall, the study emphasizes the need for continued monitoring and regulation of heavy metals in paints to ensure environmental and human health protection. The findings can inform policy-making and regulatory efforts to reduce heavy metal exposure and enhance environmental sustainability. It highlights the need for sustainable practices in paint manufacturing and usage to reduce the environmental and health impacts of heavy metals. Declarations All authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on "Ethical responsibilities of Authors" as found in the Instructions for Authors Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests Funding This research was conducted under the Postdoctoral Research Fellowship (PDRF) with funding from the NWU PDRF Fund NW.1G01487 Author Contribution SFO: Conceptualization, sample collection and preparation, methodology, data analysis, result interpretation, manuscript writing; SOOJ: Sample collection and preparation, methodology, content review; TGK: Guidance, methodology, ICP-MS analysis, content review; OFO: Sample collection and preparation (other African countries), content review; JM: Sample collection and preparation; HOS: Sample collection and preparation (other African countries), content review; MM: funding acquisition, recruitment, supervision, sample collection, methodology, results analysis, content review. Acknowledgments The authors thank the entire staff of Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, South Africa under the Directorship of Prof. Hellen Drummond. CARST admin officer Ms. Monde Kakula and Technologist Ms. Desiree Mokgele are also highly appreciated. References Abd Elnabi, M. K., Elkaliny, N. E., Elyazied, M. M., Azab, S. H., Elkhalifa, S. A., Elmasry, S., Mouhamed, M. S., Shalamesh, E. M., Alhorieny, N. A., Abd Elaty, A. E., Elgendy, I. M., Etman, A. E., Saad, K. E., Tsigkou, K., Ali, S. S., Kornaros, M., & Mahmoud, Y. A. G. (2023). Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Recent Advances in Their Removal: A Review. Toxics, 11 (7). https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11070580 Ahamed, M., & Siddiqui, M. K. J. (2007). Environmental lead toxicity and nutritional factors. Clinical Nutrition, 26 (4), 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2007.03.010 Ali, H., & Khan, E. (2017). Environmental chemistry in the twenty-first century. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 15 (2), 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0601-3 Ali, H., & Khan, E. (2018). What are heavy metals? Long-standing controversy over the scientific use of the term ‘heavy metals’–proposal of a comprehensive definition. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 100 (1), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2017.1413652 Briffa, J., Sinagra, E., & Blundell, R. (2020). Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon, 6 (9), e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691 Ewers, L., Scott Clark, C., Peng, H., Roda, S. M., Menrath, B., Lind, C., & Succop, P. (2011). Lead levels in new residential enamel paints in Taipei, Taiwan and comparison with those in mainland China. Environmental Research, 111 (6), 757–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2011.05.011 Fatmi, Z., Sahito, A., Ikegami, A., Mizuno, A., Cui, X., Mise, N., Takagi, M., Kobayashi, Y., & Kayama, F. (2017). Lead exposure assessment among pregnant women, newborns, and children: Case study from Karachi, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14 (4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14040413 Jadaa, W., & Mohammed, H. (2023). Heavy Metals – Definition, Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Releasing into Ecosystems, Toxicity, and Removal Methods – An Overview Study. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 24 (6), 249–271. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/162955 John, S. O. O., Olukotun, S. F., Kupi, G. T., & Mathuthu, M. (2024). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and physicochemical parameters in natural mineral bottled drinking water using ICP – MS in South Africa. Applied Water Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02267-3 Kafayat Kehinde Lawal, Ike Kenneth Ekeleme, Chinemerem Martin Onuigbo, Victor Okezie Ikpeazu, & Smart Obumneme Obiekezie. (2021). A review on the public health implications of heavy metals. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 10 (3), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2021.10.3.0249 Kambarami, R. A., Coulter, L. L., Mudawarima, L. C., Kandawasvika, G., Rafferty, J., Donaldson, C., & Stewart, B. (2022). Lead levels of new solvent-based household paints in Zimbabwe and Botswana: A preliminary study. African Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine, 14 (1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v14i1.3486 Kamunda, C., Mathuthu, M., & Madhuku, M. (2016). Health risk assessment of heavy metals in soils from witwatersrand gold mining basin, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13 (7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13070663 Kamunda, C., Mathuthu, M., & Madhuku, M. (2018). Potential human risk of dissolved heavy metals in gold mine waters of Gauteng Province, South Africa. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, 10 (6), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.5897/jtehs2018.0422 Ladele, J. I., Fajolu, I. B., & Ezeaka, V. C. (2019). Determination of lead levels in maternal and umbilical cord blood at birth at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital, Lagos. PLoS ONE, 14 (2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211535 Lu, Y., Song, S., Wang, R., Liu, Z., Meng, J., Sweetman, A. J., Jenkins, A., Ferrier, R. C., Li, H., Luo, W., & Wang, T. (2015). Impacts of soil and water pollution on food safety and health risks in China. Environment International, 77 , 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.12.010 Mahurpawar, M. (2015). Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Healtheffects of Heavy Metals on Human Health. International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, 3 (9SE), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v3.i9se.2015.3282 Mathee, A. (2014). Towards the prevention of lead exposure in South Africa: Contemporary and emerging challenges. NeuroToxicology, 45 , 220–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2014.07.007 Mazumdar, M., Bellinger, D. C., Gregas, M., Abanilla, K., Bacic, J., & Needleman, H. L. (2011). Low-level environmental lead exposure in childhood and adult intellectual function: A follow-up study. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, 10 (1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-24 Megertu, D. G., & Bayissa, L. D. (2020). Heavy metal contents of selected commercially available oil-based house paints intended for residential use in Ethiopia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27 (14), 17175–17183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08297-z Mitra, S., Chakraborty, A. J., Tareq, A. M., Emran, T. Bin, Nainu, F., Khusro, A., Idris, A. M., Khandaker, M. U., Osman, H., Alhumaydhi, F. A., & Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Impact of heavy metals on the environment and human health: Novel therapeutic insights to counter the toxicity. Journal of King Saud University - Science, 34 (3), 101865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101865 Moody, K. J., Grant, P.., & Hutcheon, I. D. (2014). Nuclear Forensic Analysis ( 2nd ed.) . CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b17863 Muluneh, E. Y., Mekonnen, M. L., & Debebe, S. E. (2023). Determination of Lead(II) and Cadmium(II) in Selected Commercially Available Water-Based Paints of Ethiopia by Anodic Stripping Voltammetry Using a Bismuth-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode. ChemistrySelect, 8 (30). https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202300963 Naranjo, V. I., Hendricks, M., & Jones, K. S. (2020). Lead Toxicity in Children: An Unremitting Public Health Problem. Pediatric Neurology, 113 , 51–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.08.005 Njati, S. Y., & Maguta, M. M. (2019). Lead-based paints and children’s PVC toys are potential sources of domestic lead poisoning – A review. Environmental Pollution, 249 , 1091–1105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.062 O’Connor, D., Hou, D., Ye, J., Zhang, Y., Ok, Y. S., Song, Y., Coulon, F., Peng, T., & Tian, L. (2018). Lead-based paint remains a major public health concern: A critical review of global production, trade, use, exposure, health risk, and implications. Environment International, 121 (July), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.052 Oladejo, O. F., Ogundele, L. T., Inuyomi, S. O., Olukotun, S. F., Fakunle, M. A., & Alabi, O. O. (2021). Heavy metals concentrations and naturally occurring radionuclides in soils affected by and around a solid waste dumpsite in Osogbo metropolis, Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193 (11). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09480-6 Perkin, E. (2004–2011). (2011). ICP-Mass Spectrometry, Tehnical Note.USA. Accessed 13 March 2024 . www.perkinelmer.com SAPMA. (2022). No Title . https://www.sapma.org.za/about-sapma/index Siddiqui, D.-A., Coulter, L., Loudon, C., & Fatmi, Z. (2023). ‘The brighter the worse’: Lead content of commercially available solvent-based paints intended for residential use in Pakistan. F1000Research , 12 , 166. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.128909.1 Shi, W., Zhang, Y., Chen, S., Polle, A., Rennenberg, H., & Luo, Z. Bin. (2019). Physiological and molecular mechanisms of heavy metal accumulation in nonmycorrhizal versus mycorrhizal plants. Plant Cell and Environment, 42 (4), 1087–1103. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.13471 Turner, A., & Filella, M. (2023). Lead and chromium in European road paints. Environmental Pollution, 316 (P1), 120492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120492 WHO. (2021). Update on the global status of legal limits on lead in paint, December 2021 . https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978924005002 Wilschefski, S. C., & Baxter, M. R. (2019). Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry: Introduction to Analytical Aspects. Clinical Biochemist Reviews, 40 (3), 115–133. https://doi.org/10.33176/AACB-19-00024 World Health Organization (WHO). (2012). The Toxic Truth Children’s Exposure to Lead Pollution Undermines a Generation of Future Potential . 232 Wu, Z., Zhang, D., Xia, T., & Jia, X. (2022). Characteristics, sources and risk assessments of heavy metal pollution in soils of typical chlor-alkali residue storage sites in northeastern China. PLoS ONE, 17 (9 9), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273434 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5013484","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":357134306,"identity":"aae9b062-5894-49e1-b881-0df73c0bc7d8","order_by":0,"name":"S. F. Olukotun","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABB0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdgZmCIP58AEgKcEPYkvg1cIM0pIAZLClgUgJyQYStOQYgPiEtfAz8xgbfPxxOE++jefjg59tFkCXMR+8zcNwx64BhxbJZh7jxBkJh4sNjvFuNuxtkwC6jC3ZmofhWTIuLQaHeYwP8yQcTtwg37tNgrdNos7gAI+ZNA/D4WRcDoNrmd/G80zyL9AW+wP83whqSQZpaTjGwyYNtEXCgAHIAGqxw6VFspmt2HBGWnrihmNsxsYy5yQkJA6zGVvOMTicgEsLP3vzZokPNtZAhzE/fPimrE6Cv7354Y03FYftcWnBAsCpwYAhsYEEPRBAii2jYBSMglEwvAEAlcFNHJHJ0vsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"S.","middleName":"F.","lastName":"Olukotun","suffix":""},{"id":357134310,"identity":"cdb38ce7-29cd-4913-95c6-849b4331b3c4","order_by":1,"name":"S. O. O. John","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"S.","middleName":"O. O.","lastName":"John","suffix":""},{"id":357134311,"identity":"1e4a48cb-1c25-4854-bd7f-81fd2b5d30b4","order_by":2,"name":"T. G. Kupi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"T.","middleName":"G.","lastName":"Kupi","suffix":""},{"id":357134312,"identity":"ff377a02-1587-4a85-b091-ea1bf24d1ffb","order_by":3,"name":"O. F. Oladejo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Osun State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"O.","middleName":"F.","lastName":"Oladejo","suffix":""},{"id":357134313,"identity":"bca7cdc9-15dd-48dc-b54a-34ac90626767","order_by":4,"name":"J. Mathuthu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"J.","middleName":"","lastName":"Mathuthu","suffix":""},{"id":357134315,"identity":"3c4fb69e-cff5-431f-9218-ed004d8bf2d9","order_by":5,"name":"H. O. Shittu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"H.","middleName":"O.","lastName":"Shittu","suffix":""},{"id":357134316,"identity":"36446aea-2f33-44a2-9476-1eedb81f8dc2","order_by":6,"name":"M. Mathuthu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M.","middleName":"","lastName":"Mathuthu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-01 15:01:27","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013484/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013484/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":66201717,"identity":"1dab434e-3224-4010-98cf-4299c54c9b70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:37:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":678790,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA principal pathway of HMs to humans (Abd Elnabi et al., 2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/e2d23dea2bda55013859ba8b.jpeg"},{"id":66201332,"identity":"8212ab79-1608-45a7-a0fe-796c4166fa21","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:29:33","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":480418,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of African nations with and without lead paint regulations as of December 2021 (WHO, 2021)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/14c684279bc478d2f0d40275.png"},{"id":66200153,"identity":"c2323969-38ed-4736-bdd8-2c6bb972d273","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:21:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1552272,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe flowchart of the samples’ preparation and analysis.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/ba66b2fbab6175b5198cbad6.jpeg"},{"id":66200156,"identity":"22811501-516d-43b9-be0e-3d5c0748d365","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:21:33","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9106,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShows the lead concentration of each of the samples, except Sample SF-C3 and SF-D3 with concentration value of 4.17 ppm and 0.012 ppm, respectively\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/d7be586a2c8c37eceb757fe5.png"},{"id":66200151,"identity":"bbd316ff-40fa-4583-8fba-dc59f77e1b1e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:21:33","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7529,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe average Pb isotopic ratios of measured samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/6016e9a7181834938282617f.png"},{"id":66201329,"identity":"fb6f5ed4-7ef0-41eb-9fb3-f4a28ed6d9a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:29:33","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eREE pattern normalised to chondrite for SF-A1 - 4 samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/b4548c95be540d3cf12bbbe3.png"},{"id":66201713,"identity":"821c134b-1f16-443f-ba1d-f54dbaaecba7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:37:33","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25112,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eREE pattern normalised to chondrite for SF-G1 - 5 samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/a5e8aaf9a4c27923cc876e08.png"},{"id":66202443,"identity":"ce3d5f10-f240-4cdc-bfb8-59fb51c1d84f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 15:45:33","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25401,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eREE pattern normalised to chondrite for SF-I1 to SF-I5 samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/b24286a188a57f086cfacdb4.png"},{"id":69915905,"identity":"b706ff92-a2d8-4df6-a82a-d6b04ab4de84","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 14:32:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3379489,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5013484/v1/9c85188d-edb7-4ab2-b586-a8194452ccb9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessing heavy metals and developing a fingerprint for Mahikeng paints using ICP-MS analysis: implications for environmental health","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe harmful impacts of lead on human health, particularly in children, have reduced the justification for the extensive use of lead-based paints, despite their advantages in durability, color stability, and moisture resistance. Children are at a higher susceptibility to lead poisoning because they tend to put their hands in their mouths more frequently, have a faster breathing rate, and possess a more absorbent digestive system compared to adults (Ahamed \u0026amp; Siddiqui, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Children's exposure to lead (Pb) through paints has been a worldwide concern for the past fifty years. Although regulatory and safety measures for paint manufacturers, as well as litigation promoting lead-free paints, have been in place for over half a century, lead-based paints continue to be widely used around the globe (Ewers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Njati \u0026amp; Maguta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Megertu \u0026amp; Bayissa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearchers have traditionally focused on lead (Pb) levels in paints, but few studies have shown that paints also contain other heavy metals (HMs) (Muluneh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Turner \u0026amp; Filella, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it is crucial to determine the levels of these other heavy metals in paints due to their harmful effects on human health. Heavy metals present considerable health risks to humans, especially when found in high concentrations in the environment. This study aligns with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3 (good health and well-being) and 11 (sustainable cities and communities) by addressing the health and environmental impacts of heavy metals in paints, promoting responsible consumption and production (SDG 12) practices, and contributing to the creation of sustainable and healthy living environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy metals (HMs) are naturally occurring elements characterized by an atomic number (Z) greater than 20 and a density exceeding 5 g/cm\u0026sup3; (Shi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Based on this definition, there are 51 HMs in the periodic table (Ali \u0026amp; Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous scientific publications and governmental records have documented studies and regulations concerning heavy metals. These include their sources in the environment, transport, bioaccumulation in biota, as well as their toxicity and harmful effects on living organisms, including humans (Abd Elnabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ecosystem's natural and human-induced sources of heavy metals (HMs) are steadily growing, leading to increased environmental accumulation. Human exposure to these metals has surged, mainly due to twentieth-century industrial activities. The bioaccumulation of HMs leads to various toxic effects on tissues and organs (Abd Elnabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Oladejo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Two major environmental chemical disasters of the twentieth century, Minamata disease and the Donana mining catastrophe, were associated with the release of heavy metals into the environment (Ali \u0026amp; Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Heavy metals can become highly toxic when interacting with various environmental elements such as water, soil, and air (Mitra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Paints are major contributors to environmental heavy metal pollution, including lead, especially within residential settings (Ewers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Megertu \u0026amp; Bayissa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; O\u0026rsquo;Connor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the principal pathway of heavy metals to man (Abd Elnabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies have shown that several heavy metals (HMs) can persist in the environment for extended periods. For instance, cadmium (Cd) can persist in soil for 75 to 380 years, mercury (Hg) for 500 to 1000 years, and copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb) for 1000 to 3000 years (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Excessive heavy metals in soil can upset the ecological balance and spread to other environmental compartments, including the atmosphere and water bodies. This poses risks to animals and humans through the food chain, inhalation, drinking water, and direct contact (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe heavy metals lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) are common pollutants largely released from diverse industrial activities. Even though their atmospheric concentrations are low, they contribute to soil deposition and accumulation. These elements remain in the environment and can bioaccumulate within food chains. Lead exposure, in particular, is associated with various health hazards, including hypertension, anemia, and impaired reproductive, respiratory, nervous, and immune system functions. Children exposed to lead may suffer from a dose-dependent decrease in brain volume, resulting in lower academic performance and intelligence levels, with these effects potentially continuing into adulthood (Fatmi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Mazumdar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Lead poisoning can result in cognitive impairments, neurological issues, difficulties with focus, behavioral challenges, and excessive activity in infants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood tests are used to evaluate blood lead levels (BLL) in children, which is a valuable technique for diagnosing lead exposure (Ladele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Naranjo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2012), it is estimated that more than 800\u0026nbsp;million children have blood lead levels (BLLs) exceeding 5 \u0026micro;g/dL, which is considered a standard reference level. Nevertheless, the most recent information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates that no level of lead in blood is deemed safe (CDC, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa is one of the few African countries that has tightened its regulations regarding lead in paints. Since 2009, the Hazardous Substances Act of South Africa has established a maximum permissible lead level (MPLL) of 600 ppm of lead in household paint. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays a map of African countries with and without lead paint regulations as of December 2021 (WHO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This regulatory action aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 4 (quality education) by ensuring that children are protected from lead exposure, which can have detrimental effects on their cognitive development and academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, cadmium exposure is associated with damage to the kidneys and bones, and it is classified as a possible human carcinogen, notably increasing the risk of lung cancer. While mercury is harmful in both its inorganic forms and elemental, it is particularly concerning in its organic compounds, such as methylmercury. Methylmercury accumulates in the food chain, especially in predatory fish from lakes and oceans, and represents a major pathway for human exposure (Abd Elnabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Briffa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Jadaa \u0026amp; Mohammed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kafayat Kehinde Lawal et al., 2021; Mahurpawar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Mitra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study assesses the lead and other heavy metals (HMs) content in South African paints using ICP-MS to understand their environmental impact and enhance future traceability. It innovatively uses lead isotopic ratios and REE patterns to create paint fingerprints, aiding traceability when necessary. Lead isotopic ratios can trace the sources of lead pollution in the environment, helping identify potential contamination sources and understand lead pathways. Additionally, examining the REE pattern normalized to chondrite values provides insights into environmental pollution origins. Comparing these patterns with known sources allows scientists to pinpoint pollution sources, aiding environmental protection (Moody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The research contributes to understanding the chemical composition of South African paints, highlighting their compliance with regulations and offering insights into environmental health. The findings enhance paint traceability efforts, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental safety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eSampling, samples\u0026rsquo; preparation and samples\u0026rsquo; digestion\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe visited major building hardware shops in Mahikeng, the capital of North West Province, South Africa, where we purchased commonly used six (6) brands of paint (labelled as SF-A \u0026ndash; SF-F), and three brands of paint tints (labelled as SF-G \u0026ndash; SF-I). We sampled the bright colors of each brand, having 30 samples, labelled as SF-A1, 2, 3\u0026hellip;. SF-I1, 2, 3\u0026hellip; respectively. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the picture of the purchased paints and paint tints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA single-use clean stirrer was used to thoroughly stir each paint in its can. Subsequently, a single-use clean brush was used to apply each sample to clean pre-labelled polycarbonate plastic (A4 size). The applied samples were dried at room temperature, then each sample was scraped and placed in an individual labelled zip-lock plastic bag.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach paint scraping was digested at 95\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC in a heated block for 15 minutes with 1.25 mL of HCl acid, then allowed to cool for 5 minutes. It was subsequently heated at 95\u0026deg;C for 15 minutes with 1.25 mL of HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e acid (Kambarami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Siddiqui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It was allowed to cool and then diluted to a final volume of 50 mL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eICP-MS measurement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach final solution was analyzed for total Pb content, other heavy metals (HMs) levels, REE elements and Pb isotopic ratio using PerkinElmer NexION 2000 ICP-MS spectrometer at CARST in North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, South Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eICP-MS determines the concentration of particular elements in a solution. In ICP-MS, the components of the sample are broken down into their atomic forms as a result of ionization in the argon plasma, which operates at temperatures ranging from approximately 6000 to 8000 K (Perkin, 2011; Wilschefski \u0026amp; Baxter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The positively charged ions are picked from the plasma and directed into the vacuum chamber of the mass spectrometer. Within the vacuum chamber, the charged ions are separated by filters before being detected and measured. Each sample is analyzed in two runs, with each run lasting approximately 60 seconds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TotalQuant method, along with PerkinElmer Pure Plus NexION Dual Detector Calibration Solution standard, was used to enhance the analytical accuracy of the results. Calibration for TotalQuant was performed using 200 \u0026micro;g/L concentrations of Al, Ba, Ce, Co, Cu, In, Li, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Tb, U, and Zn (John et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For quality control purposes, replicate samples were analyzed alongside the standard and blank solutions (Kamunda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the flowchart of the sample preparation and analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e outlines the concentrations of the most prominent elements found in the samples. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays the lead concentration of each sample, excluding Sample SF-C3, which exhibited the highest concentration at 4.17 ppm. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e lists other heavy metals (HMs) and some radionuclides detected in the samples. Additionally, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e depicts the conventional plot of \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb versus \u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb ratios for the samples, while Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e show the REE patterns normalized to chondrite for various sample groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLead (Pb) and other heavy metals (HMs) concentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the 30 analyzed samples, the most prominent and nontoxic elements detected are Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Carbon (C), Aluminum (Al), and Phosphorus (P), with their concentrations ranging from 0 ppm to 584.74 ppm, 0.04 ppm to 171.78 ppm, 2.49 ppm to 14.95 ppm, 0 ppm to 3.67 ppm, and 0 ppm to 1.80 ppm, respectively. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the concentration range and the samples with the highest value for each of the elements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lead concentrations found in the samples range from 0 ppm to 4170 ppb, with a mean concentration of 139.79 ppb, and a median of 0.2 ppb, and sample SF-C3 having the highest concentration of 4.17 ppm. These concentrations are comfortably well below the 600 ppm Maximum Permissible Lead Levels (MPLL) allowed in paints in South Africa. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the lead concentration of each of the samples, except for Sample SF-C3, which has the highest concentration of 4.17 ppm. This finding is consistent with the results of a study on six paints manufactured in South Africa and used in Botswana (Kambarami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Kambarami et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) reported on the lead (Pb) concentrations in paint samples from Zimbabwe and Botswana. In Zimbabwe, 70% of the samples had Pb levels exceeding 90 ppm, 60% were over 600 ppm, and 20% surpassed 10,000 ppm, with an average concentration of 4863 ppm, a median of 6900 ppm, and a maximum of 12,000 ppm. These concentrations significantly exceed the limits set by the World Health Organization and the United Nations. Conversely, in Botswana, the 19 samples tested were all below the laboratory detection limit, and of the seven brands analyzed, six were produced in South Africa, where a 600-ppm lead limit for paint is enforced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe low lead concentration in the paints may reflect the efforts of various agencies such as the South African Paint Manufacturing Association (SAPMA), the South African Medical Research Council, and the promulgation of legislation in 2010 to control the use of lead in paint (Mathee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; SAPMA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, while the detected lead concentrations in the paints are lower than the MPLL, no BLL is considered safe.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the analysis of the samples, it was found that besides lead (Pb), the samples also contained several other heavy metals (HMs). These heavy metals included Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Antimony (Sb), Mercury (Hg), Barium (Ba), Strontium (Sr), Thorium (Th), and Uranium (U). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e details the concentrations of various heavy metals (HMs) and radionuclides found in the samples. Beryllium (Be) exhibited a low mean concentration of 0.016 ppm, with a maximum value of 0.09 ppm in sample SF-G1. Chromium (Cr) showed significant variability, with a mean concentration of 52.636 ppm and a peak of 810.57 ppm in sample SF-C3. Nickel (Ni) also varied widely, averaging 17.317 ppm and reaching 322.27 ppm in sample SF-F1. Arsenic (As) levels were generally low, averaging 0.113 ppm and maxing out at 0.76 ppm in sample SF-D2. Cadmium (Cd) and Antimony (Sb) presented mean concentrations of 0.034 ppm and 0.660 ppm, respectively, with notable peaks in sample SF-C3. Mercury (Hg) levels were consistently low across all samples. Barium (Ba) and Strontium (Sr) showed broader ranges, with maximum concentrations of 516.44 ppm and 90.44 ppm, respectively. Thorium (Th) and Uranium (U) were present in low concentrations, with maximum values of 0.86 ppm and 0.45 ppm. The variability in these concentrations highlights localized contamination and suggests the need for targeted remediation in areas with high levels of specific elements. This analysis of heavy metals is important, as these elements, even at low levels, can have significant environmental and health implications. Understanding their presence and concentrations in the samples can help in assessing potential risks and implementing appropriate mitigation measures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most prominent elements in the samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003es/n\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration range (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean concentration (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample with Highest Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrogen (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;27866.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3219.173\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;864.941\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2673.758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-H1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcium (Ca)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;584.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.509\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.454\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-H1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron (Fe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026ndash;171.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.427\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-G6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon (C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.49\u0026ndash;14.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.541\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.595\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.403\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-F1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminum (Al)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;3.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.067\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.626\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-C1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphorus (P)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.287\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.079\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-D2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther heavy metals (HMs) and some radionuclides found in the samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003es/n\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic Element\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration Range (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Concentration (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample with Maximum Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeryllium (Be)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.016\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-G1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChromium (Cr)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u0026ndash;810.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.636\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.735\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.380\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-C3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNickel (Ni)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;322.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.317\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.287\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.195\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-F1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArsenic (As)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.113\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-D2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCadmium (Cd)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-C3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntimony (Sb)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;19.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.660\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-C3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMercury (Hg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.010\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-A1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarium (Ba)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;516.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.821\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.273\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-I5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrontium (Sr)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;90.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.058\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.449\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.355\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-C3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThorium (Th)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.223\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.070\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-G5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUranium (U)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.139\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSF-G4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp colspan=\"6\"\u003eFingerprint development\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e displays the conventional plot of \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb versus \u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb ratios for the samples. The plot reveals variations in the ratios of different lead isotopes (\u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb and \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb) to the common lead isotope \u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb, which are crucial for environmental studies aiming to understand the sources and histories of lead in the samples. These variations indicate diverse lead sources or processes that have influenced the lead isotopic composition in the samples. For instance, samples with higher \u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb ratios may have different sources or histories compared to those with lower ratios. Notably, Sample SF-H3 exhibits extremely high isotopic ratios (5.399 for \u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb and 6.264 for \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb), suggesting a unique lead source or a process that significantly altered its lead isotopic composition. By comparing these ratios with known values from different lead sources, it is possible to potentially identify the origins of the lead, aiding in tracing the sources of lead pollution in the environment. The correlation coefficient of the trend line is 0.92.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe normalized Rare Earth Element (REE) concentrations in the samples (SF-A1 to SF-I5) can offer valuable insights into the geological and environmental conditions of the sampled locations (Moody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The REE concentrations in these samples exhibit diverse patterns, reflecting the complex interplay of geological processes and environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, samples SF-A1 and SF-A2 show low concentrations of most REEs, while SF-A3 and SF-A4 exhibit higher concentrations (enrichment) of Nd compared to the other samples. With slight variations in cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), and neodymium (Nd) concentrations. These samples suggest a similar geochemical signature, possibly indicating a common source. The REE concentrations in samples SF-B1, SF-B2, and SF-B3 of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e show similar patterns, with relatively low concentrations across most REEs. However, there are slight variations in the concentrations of certain elements, indicating potential differences in the source or geological processes affecting these samples. Samples SF-C1, SF-C2, and SF-C3 exhibit varying concentrations of REEs, with SF-C3 showing slightly higher concentrations of Ce, Pr, and Nd compared to the other two samples. These variations suggest different geochemical conditions or sources for these samples. Samples SF-D1 to SF-D4 show varying patterns in REE concentrations, with SF-D1 and SF-D2 exhibiting higher concentrations of La, Ce, Pr, and Nd compared to SF-D3 and SF-D4. This indicates potential enrichment of these Light REE elements in SF-D1 and SF-D2, as in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, samples SF-E1, SF-F1, SF-G1 to SF-G6, SF-H1 to SF-H3, and SF-I1 to SF-I5 also exhibit distinct patterns in REE concentrations, indicating a wide range of geological and environmental influences across the sampled locations. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e display the normalized Rare Earth Element (REE) plots for three brands of paint samples, showing a consistent pattern among each brand's samples, with Nd, Gd and Tb, and Gd anomalies, respectively. The HREE (Tb \u0026ndash; Lu) are not enriched nor depleted in all samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study provide valuable insights into the environmental and health implications of lead and other heavy metals (HMs) in household paints. The study reveals that lead concentrations in the analyzed samples from South Africa are below the Maximum Permissible Lead Levels (MPLL), as mandated by the South Africa\u0026rsquo;s Hazardous Substances Act. This indicates compliance with regulatory measures and reflects the effectiveness of initiatives aimed at reducing lead exposure. Furthermore, the study highlights the presence of other HMs in paints, including Beryllium, Chromium, Nickel, Arsenic, Cadmium, Antimony, Mercury, as well as some radionuclide, Barium, Strontium, Thorium, and Uranium. While they were found at relatively low levels in the samples, their presence underscores the importance of monitoring and regulating HMs in paints to protect human health and the environment. The development of fingerprints using lead isotopic ratios and Rare Earth Element (REE) patterns is a novel approach that enhances traceability efforts and provides valuable information on the sources of lead and other HMs in paints. By comparing these patterns with known sources, it is possible to identify potential contamination sources and understand the pathways of heavy metal pollution. Overall, the study emphasizes the need for continued monitoring and regulation of heavy metals in paints to ensure environmental and human health protection. The findings can inform policy-making and regulatory efforts to reduce heavy metal exposure and enhance environmental sustainability. It highlights the need for sustainable practices in paint manufacturing and usage to reduce the environmental and health impacts of heavy metals.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003eAll authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on \"Ethical responsibilities of Authors\" as found in the Instructions for Authors\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research was conducted under the Postdoctoral Research Fellowship (PDRF) with funding from the NWU PDRF Fund NW.1G01487\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSFO: Conceptualization, sample collection and preparation, methodology, data analysis, result interpretation, manuscript writing; SOOJ: Sample collection and preparation, methodology, content review; TGK: Guidance, methodology, ICP-MS analysis, content review; OFO: Sample collection and preparation (other African countries), content review; JM: Sample collection and preparation; HOS: Sample collection and preparation (other African countries), content review; MM: funding acquisition, recruitment, supervision, sample collection, methodology, results analysis, content review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the entire staff of Center for Applied Radiation Science and Technology (CARST), North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, South Africa under the Directorship of Prof. Hellen Drummond. CARST admin officer Ms. Monde Kakula and Technologist Ms. Desiree Mokgele are also highly appreciated.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbd Elnabi, M. K., Elkaliny, N. E., Elyazied, M. M., Azab, S. H., Elkhalifa, S. A., Elmasry, S., Mouhamed, M. S., Shalamesh, E. M., Alhorieny, N. A., Abd Elaty, A. E., Elgendy, I. M., Etman, A. E., Saad, K. E., Tsigkou, K., Ali, S. S., Kornaros, M., \u0026amp; Mahmoud, Y. A. G. (2023). Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Recent Advances in Their Removal: A Review. Toxics, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(7). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11070580\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/toxics11070580\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhamed, M., \u0026amp; Siddiqui, M. K. J. (2007). Environmental lead toxicity and nutritional factors. Clinical Nutrition, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(4), 400\u0026ndash;408. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2007.03.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.clnu.2007.03.010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli, H., \u0026amp; Khan, E. (2017). Environmental chemistry in the twenty-first century. Environmental Chemistry Letters, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(2), 329\u0026ndash;346. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0601-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10311-016-0601-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli, H., \u0026amp; Khan, E. (2018). What are heavy metals? Long-standing controversy over the scientific use of the term \u0026lsquo;heavy metals\u0026rsquo;\u0026ndash;proposal of a comprehensive definition. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, \u003cem\u003e100\u003c/em\u003e(1), 6\u0026ndash;19. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2017.1413652\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/02772248.2017.1413652\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBriffa, J., Sinagra, E., \u0026amp; Blundell, R. (2020). Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(9), e04691. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEwers, L., Scott Clark, C., Peng, H., Roda, S. M., Menrath, B., Lind, C., \u0026amp; Succop, P. (2011). Lead levels in new residential enamel paints in Taipei, Taiwan and comparison with those in mainland China. Environmental Research, \u003cem\u003e111\u003c/em\u003e(6), 757\u0026ndash;760. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2011.05.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envres.2011.05.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFatmi, Z., Sahito, A., Ikegami, A., Mizuno, A., Cui, X., Mise, N., Takagi, M., Kobayashi, Y., \u0026amp; Kayama, F. (2017). Lead exposure assessment among pregnant women, newborns, and children: Case study from Karachi, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1\u0026ndash;15. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14040413\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ijerph14040413\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJadaa, W., \u0026amp; Mohammed, H. (2023). Heavy Metals \u0026ndash; Definition, Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Releasing into Ecosystems, Toxicity, and Removal Methods \u0026ndash; An Overview Study. Journal of Ecological Engineering, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e(6), 249\u0026ndash;271. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/162955\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.12911/22998993/162955\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJohn, S. O. O., Olukotun, S. F., Kupi, G. T., \u0026amp; Mathuthu, M. (2024). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and physicochemical parameters in natural mineral bottled drinking water using ICP \u0026ndash; MS in South Africa. Applied Water Science. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02267-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13201-024-02267-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKafayat Kehinde Lawal, Ike Kenneth Ekeleme, Chinemerem Martin Onuigbo, Victor Okezie Ikpeazu, \u0026amp; Smart Obumneme Obiekezie. (2021). A review on the public health implications of heavy metals. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(3), 255\u0026ndash;265. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2021.10.3.0249\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.30574/wjarr.2021.10.3.0249\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKambarami, R. A., Coulter, L. L., Mudawarima, L. C., Kandawasvika, G., Rafferty, J., Donaldson, C., \u0026amp; Stewart, B. (2022). Lead levels of new solvent-based household paints in Zimbabwe and Botswana: A preliminary study. African Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;4. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v14i1.3486\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4102/phcfm.v14i1.3486\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamunda, C., Mathuthu, M., \u0026amp; Madhuku, M. (2016). Health risk assessment of heavy metals in soils from witwatersrand gold mining basin, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(7). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13070663\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ijerph13070663\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamunda, C., Mathuthu, M., \u0026amp; Madhuku, M. (2018). Potential human risk of dissolved heavy metals in gold mine waters of Gauteng Province, South Africa. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(6), 56\u0026ndash;63. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5897/jtehs2018.0422\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5897/jtehs2018.0422\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLadele, J. I., Fajolu, I. B., \u0026amp; Ezeaka, V. C. (2019). Determination of lead levels in maternal and umbilical cord blood at birth at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital, Lagos. PLoS ONE, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(2), 1\u0026ndash;21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211535\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0211535\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLu, Y., Song, S., Wang, R., Liu, Z., Meng, J., Sweetman, A. J., Jenkins, A., Ferrier, R. C., Li, H., Luo, W., \u0026amp; Wang, T. (2015). Impacts of soil and water pollution on food safety and health risks in China. Environment International, \u003cem\u003e77\u003c/em\u003e, 5\u0026ndash;15. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.12.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envint.2014.12.010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahurpawar, M. (2015). Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Healtheffects of Heavy Metals on Human Health. International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(9SE), 1\u0026ndash;7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v3.i9se.2015.3282\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.29121/granthaalayah.v3.i9se.2015.3282\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMathee, A. (2014). Towards the prevention of lead exposure in South Africa: Contemporary and emerging challenges. NeuroToxicology, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e, 220\u0026ndash;223. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2014.07.007\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.neuro.2014.07.007\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMazumdar, M., Bellinger, D. C., Gregas, M., Abanilla, K., Bacic, J., \u0026amp; Needleman, H. L. (2011). Low-level environmental lead exposure in childhood and adult intellectual function: A follow-up study. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(1), 24. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-24\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/1476-069X-10-24\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMegertu, D. G., \u0026amp; Bayissa, L. D. (2020). Heavy metal contents of selected commercially available oil-based house paints intended for residential use in Ethiopia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, \u003cem\u003e27\u003c/em\u003e(14), 17175\u0026ndash;17183. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08297-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11356-020-08297-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMitra, S., Chakraborty, A. J., Tareq, A. M., Emran, T. Bin, Nainu, F., Khusro, A., Idris, A. M., Khandaker, M. U., Osman, H., Alhumaydhi, F. A., \u0026amp; Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Impact of heavy metals on the environment and human health: Novel therapeutic insights to counter the toxicity. Journal of King Saud University - Science, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(3), 101865. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101865\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101865\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoody, K. J., Grant, P.., \u0026amp; Hutcheon, I. D. (2014). \u003cem\u003eNuclear Forensic Analysis\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003e2nd ed.)\u003c/em\u003e. CRC Press. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1201/b17863\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1201/b17863\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMuluneh, E. Y., Mekonnen, M. L., \u0026amp; Debebe, S. E. (2023). Determination of Lead(II) and Cadmium(II) in Selected Commercially Available Water-Based Paints of Ethiopia by Anodic Stripping Voltammetry Using a Bismuth-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode. ChemistrySelect, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(30). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202300963\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/slct.202300963\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNaranjo, V. I., Hendricks, M., \u0026amp; Jones, K. S. (2020). Lead Toxicity in Children: An Unremitting Public Health Problem. Pediatric Neurology, \u003cem\u003e113\u003c/em\u003e, 51\u0026ndash;55. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.08.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.08.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNjati, S. Y., \u0026amp; Maguta, M. M. (2019). Lead-based paints and children\u0026rsquo;s PVC toys are potential sources of domestic lead poisoning \u0026ndash; A review. Environmental Pollution, \u003cem\u003e249\u003c/em\u003e, 1091\u0026ndash;1105. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.062\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.062\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eO\u0026rsquo;Connor, D., Hou, D., Ye, J., Zhang, Y., Ok, Y. S., Song, Y., Coulon, F., Peng, T., \u0026amp; Tian, L. (2018). Lead-based paint remains a major public health concern: A critical review of global production, trade, use, exposure, health risk, and implications. Environment International, \u003cem\u003e121\u003c/em\u003e(July), 85\u0026ndash;101. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.052\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.052\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOladejo, O. F., Ogundele, L. T., Inuyomi, S. O., Olukotun, S. F., Fakunle, M. A., \u0026amp; Alabi, O. O. (2021). Heavy metals concentrations and naturally occurring radionuclides in soils affected by and around a solid waste dumpsite in Osogbo metropolis, Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, \u003cem\u003e193\u003c/em\u003e(11). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09480-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10661-021-09480-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePerkin, E. (2004\u0026ndash;2011). (2011). \u003cem\u003eICP-Mass Spectrometry, Tehnical Note.USA. Accessed 13 March 2024\u003c/em\u003e. www.perkinelmer.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSAPMA. (2022). \u003cem\u003eNo Title\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sapma.org.za/about-sapma/index\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sapma.org.za/about-sapma/index\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSiddiqui, D.-A., Coulter, L., Loudon, C., \u0026amp; Fatmi, Z. (2023). \u0026lsquo;The brighter the worse\u0026rsquo;: Lead content of commercially available solvent-based paints intended for residential use in Pakistan. \u003cem\u003eF1000Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 166. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.128909.1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.12688/f1000research.128909.1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShi, W., Zhang, Y., Chen, S., Polle, A., Rennenberg, H., \u0026amp; Luo, Z. Bin. (2019). Physiological and molecular mechanisms of heavy metal accumulation in nonmycorrhizal versus mycorrhizal plants. Plant Cell and Environment, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1087\u0026ndash;1103. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/pce.13471\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/pce.13471\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTurner, A., \u0026amp; Filella, M. (2023). Lead and chromium in European road paints. Environmental Pollution, \u003cem\u003e316\u003c/em\u003e(P1), 120492. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120492\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120492\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO. (2021). \u003cem\u003eUpdate on the global status of legal limits on lead in paint, December 2021\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978924005002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978924005002\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilschefski, S. C., \u0026amp; Baxter, M. R. (2019). Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry: Introduction to Analytical Aspects. Clinical Biochemist Reviews, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(3), 115\u0026ndash;133. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.33176/AACB-19-00024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.33176/AACB-19-00024\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization (WHO). (2012). \u003cem\u003eThe Toxic Truth Children\u0026rsquo;s Exposure to Lead Pollution Undermines a Generation of Future Potential\u003c/em\u003e. 232\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWu, Z., Zhang, D., Xia, T., \u0026amp; Jia, X. (2022). Characteristics, sources and risk assessments of heavy metal pollution in soils of typical chlor-alkali residue storage sites in northeastern China. PLoS ONE, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(9 9), 1\u0026ndash;18. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273434\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0273434\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Lead, Heavy metals (HMs), Paints, ICP-MS analysis, South Africa, Environmental health","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013484/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013484/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDespite global efforts to mitigate lead in paints, studies reveal persisting lead levels above safety thresholds in household paints in many nations. Alongside lead, other heavy metals (HMs) in paints pose health risks. The study aims to assess lead content and heavy metals levels, and develop a fingerprint for paints in Mahikeng, the capital of North West Province, South Africa, using ICP-MS analysis. We purchased and analyzed 30 paint samples from Mahikeng. The most prominent and nontoxic elements detected are Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Carbon (C), Aluminum (Al), and Phosphorus (P). Lead concentrations ranged from 0 ppm to 4.17 ppm, below South Africa's 600 ppm MPLL. Other HMs detected included Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Antimony (Sb), Mercury (Hg), as well as radionuclides Barium (Ba), Strontium (Sr), Thorium (Th), and Uranium (U). Their concentrations range from 0 ppm to 810.57 ppm, with most elements found at relatively low levels. The obtained Pb isotopic ratios and rare earth elements (REE) patterns were used to develop a fingerprint. These findings offer insights into the environmental health implications of lead and heavy metals contamination by the paints, as well as the identification of their sources. This research contributes to sustainable cities and communities by promoting responsible consumption and production practices, enhancing quality education on environmental health, and supporting good health and well-being through the reduction of hazardous exposures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing heavy metals and developing a fingerprint for Mahikeng paints using ICP-MS analysis: implications for environmental health","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-10-08 15:21:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013484/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a7f5d831-675d-43ae-bfed-3e3c947fd154","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 8th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-26T14:24:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-10-08 15:21:28","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5013484","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5013484","identity":"rs-5013484","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}