Advances in nitrogen fertilizer technologies for improved nutrient efficiency and sustainable coffee production

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The following parameters were analyzed: NBPT concentration, urease activity, leaf N content, N accumulation in the beans, ammonia volatilization losses, and yield. At the 150 kg N ha⁻¹ rate, N-NH₃ losses were UC (20%) > U NBPT (16%) > AN (0.87%). At 400 kg N ha⁻¹, losses were 18% (UC), 16% (U NBPT ), and 0.69% (AN), respectively. AN reduced volatilization by up to 96%, while U NBPT delayed peak loss by up to 3.3 days, reduced urease activity by 92%, and mitigated cumulative losses by 45% compared to UC. Both AN and U NBPT significantly reduced nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, with emission factors below those recommended by the IPCC. These technologies, which minimize volatilization losses and greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, are essential for sustainable coffee production. This study contributes to advances in the efficient and sustainable management of nitrogen in coffee cultivation. Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences/Environmental impact Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Atmospheric science Ammonia volatilization urease inhibitors Coffea arabica L. ammonium nitrate nitrous oxide Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 INTRODUCTION Coffee cultivation is an activity of great economic and historical importance for Brazil, which stands out as the world’s largest coffee producer, accounting for 29.6% of global production, cultivated over an area of 2.26 million hectares. The Arabica species ( Coffea arabica L.) represents approximately 82% of the national coffee-growing area, with 75% of this area concentrated in the state of Minas Gerais 1 . This strong representation of coffee cultivation in the country drives investments in increasingly efficient and sustainable management strategies. The advancement of agricultural technologies, combined with the growing demand for productive and sustainable systems in the face of climate change and the need to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, has brought about significant transformations in the coffee sector 2 , 3 . Among these transformations, the increased recognition of coffee on the international market, the improvement of agronomic practices, and the rise in investments in fertilization stand out. Nitrogen (N) is the most demanded nutrient throughout the crop cycle and is also the most heavily exported by the beans 4 . In commercial plantations, nitrogen application rates range from 200 to 500 kg ha⁻¹ per year, usually split into three to four applications between september and march 5 . Urea is the main nitrogen source used in Brazilian coffee cultivation 6 , 7 . However, when applied to the soil surface, urea undergoes rapid hydrolysis by the enzyme urease, increasing the pH around the granules and making nitrogen highly susceptible to losses through ammonia (N-NH₃) volatilization 8 . These losses, in the absence of mitigation technologies, can range from 10.54–30.5% 99 , depending on the application rate, edaphoclimatic conditions, and agricultural management 10 . In addition to volatilization, nitrogen losses also occur as nitrous oxide (N₂O) through nitrification and denitrification processes, a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential approximately 300 times greater than that of CO₂ 5 , 11 . Approximately 1% of the nitrogen applied as fertilizer is converted into N₂O, mainly through nitrification and denitrification — microbial processes influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, soil aeration, pH, and substrate availability 12 . Innovations and technologies in fertilizers are fundamental strategies to develop more sustainable products, increase nutrient use efficiency, and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in agriculture. The adoption of technologies and the use of fertilizers less prone to nitrogen losses, such as ammonium nitrate (32% N), have intensified based on the principles of the 4R nutrient stewardship: right source, rate, place, and time 5 , 13 . These practices increase nutrient use efficiency, contributing to both crop productivity and sustainability. Among the main strategies are slow- or controlled-release fertilizers, urease and nitrification inhibitors, and granule blends 14 . Urease inhibitors, such as NBPT (N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide), are effective in reducing nitrogen losses by volatilization when combined with urea. These additives, classified as stabilized nitrogen fertilizers, are rapidly oxidized to their active form (NBPTO) in the soil, especially under aerobic conditions 15 . This form inhibits urease, slowing the hydrolysis of urea and prolonging the presence of nitrogen in the amide form, which favors its incorporation into the soil. As a result, there is greater nitrogen availability in the soil solution, increased plant uptake, and improved nutrient use efficiency 10 , 14 , 16 , 17 . In coffee plantations, NBPT can reduce volatilization losses by 30–55% and increase productivity by up to 17%, compared to conventional urea 18 . The effectiveness of NBPT can be compromised by factors such as temperature, pH, soil moisture, and especially by storage time and conditions 15 , 19 – 21 . The half-life of NBPT can vary between 2.7 and 4.7 months, depending on the formulation and storage temperature, with degradation accelerated under tropical conditions 19 , 21 . This highlights the importance of proper storage and more stable formulations. In this context, it is essential to understand and adopt strategies based on nitrogen fertilizer technologies aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas losses and increasing fertilization efficiency in coffee plantations. Thus, this research aims to: i) quantify ammonia (N-NH₃) losses resulting from the application of conventional fertilizers (urea and ammonium nitrate) and urea stabilized with NBPT; ii) evaluate soil urease enzyme activity in response to different nitrogen fertilizers, assessing the potential to reduce urea hydrolysis through NBPT use; iii) identify the most efficient fertilizers based on optimal doses to maximize coffee productivity and nutrition over successive harvests; iv) provide updated information on nitrogen fertilization management in coffee cultivation, offering technical-scientific support to researchers, producers, and industry, with a focus on mitigating volatilization losses and building more sustainable production systems. RESULTS NBPT concentration in urea treated with inhibitor (U NBPT ). The NBPT concentration in the urea used for the UNBPT treatment was lower than the reference value typically applied in Brazil (530 mg kg⁻¹) 22 . In the 2021–2022 season, inhibitor levels progressively decreased across three fertilization splits: 112.5 mg kg⁻¹ (Oct 13, 2021), 99.1 mg kg⁻¹ (Nov 29, 2021), and 90.5 mg kg⁻¹ (Jan 20, 2022), representing reductions of about 12% and 20% from the first split to the second and third, respectively. Weather conditions. Data on precipitation, temperature, relative humidity (Fig. 1), and effective rainfall (Lleffect) recorded on the day before fertilization ("day 0") and during the seven days after each N application are shown in Tables S3–S5. Rainfall amount and distribution varied across the three seasons. In 2021–22, rainfall on “day 0” was 31.8, 0, and 30.2 mm for the three splits, with effective rainfall of 15.4 and 14.6 mm after the 1st and 3rd applications. Cumulative rainfall within seven days reached 124 mm, and effective rainfall 21.5 mm. Total seasonal rainfall was 1591 mm. In 2022–23, “day 0” rainfall ranged from 5.2 to 25.8 mm, with up to 12.7 mm effective rainfall. Post-fertilization rainfall reached 76.4 mm, with 41.4 mm effective. Seasonal total was 1642 mm. In 2023–24, no rainfall occurred on “day 0” for the first two splits, and 0.8 mm for the third. Rainfall in the following seven days ranged from 0 to 72.8 mm, with 0 to 37.2 mm effective. Seasonal total was 2388 mm. Ammonia (N–NH₃) Volatilization and Urease Activity Daily and Cumulative N–NH₃ Losses. Urease activity during the first six days after nitrogen application (Tables S6 and S7) was directly correlated with daily ammonia (N–NH₃) volatilization peaks (Table 1), varying with the fertilizer source. On average, activity followed the order: UC > U NBPT > AN. U NBPT reduced soil urease activity and mitigated NH₃ peaks by up to 79% compared to UC. Urease activity was classified as low (1.5). In 2021–22, applying 400 kg N ha⁻¹, UC reached 4.00 µg NH₄⁺ g⁻¹ dry soil h⁻¹ at 1 day after application (DAA), with the highest volatilization peak (85 kg N–NH₃ ha⁻¹) occurring at 3.39 DAA (Fig. 2). In the 2022–2023 season, following the application of 150 kg N ha⁻¹, the highest urease activity (2.88 µg NH₄⁺ g⁻¹ dry soil h⁻¹) was observed with UC on the first day after application (first parceled application), coinciding with the N–NH₃ volatilization peak of 11.29 kg ha⁻¹ on the second DAA. The application of U NBPT reduced enzymatic activity by 79%, resulting in the lowest loss among the parceled applications (2.91 kg ha⁻¹) (Table S7; Fig. 3; Table 1). At the 400 kg N ha⁻¹ rate, urease activity with UC reached 7.49 µg NH₄⁺ g⁻¹ on the first DAA of the first parceled application, associated with the highest N–NH₃ loss (42.54 kg ha⁻¹ at 3.14 DAA). At this rate, the application of U NBPT reduced enzymatic activity by up to 92%, with a loss of 28.31 kg ha⁻¹ — representing a 33% reduction compared to UC. Cumulative N–NH₃ losses were significantly affected by the interaction between nitrogen fertilizers and the applied N rates (p ≤ 0.05), expressed in kg ha⁻¹ (Table 1; Fig. 5). On average, cumulative losses with UC were 9.86 kg N ha⁻¹ (150 kg N ha⁻¹) and 24.90 kg N ha⁻¹ (400 kg N ha⁻¹). With U NBPT , these losses were reduced to 8.00 and 21.30 kg N ha⁻¹, respectively. In contrast, NA resulted in minimal losses: 0.79 and 0.93 kg N ha⁻¹ at the 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹ rates, respectively. The highest losses occurred with the application of urea at the 400 kg N ha⁻¹ rate. In contrast, the use of NA resulted in losses of less than 3% of the total N applied in all crop seasons, corresponding to less than 3 kg ha⁻¹, even under varying environmental conditions favorable to volatilization (moist soil, temperatures >20 °C, and precipitation >5 mm before and after fertilization) (Tables 1; S2, S4, and S5). The application of NA prevented losses of up to 82 kg N ha⁻¹ (150 kg N ha⁻¹) and 207 kg N ha⁻¹ (400 kg N ha⁻¹), corresponding to reductions of up to 98% compared to UC. Considering the three evaluated crop seasons, cumulative N–NH₃ losses relative to the applied N dose followed the decreasing order: UC > U NBPT > NA. For 150 kg N ha⁻¹, N–NH₃ losses were 20%, 16%, and 0.9% for UC, U NBPT , and NA, respectively. At the 400 kg N ha⁻¹ rate, losses were 18%, 16%, and 0.7% for UC, U NBPT , and NA, respectively. The highest cumulative N–NH₃ losses occurred in the 1st and 2nd UC parceled applications during the 2021–2022 season (Fig. 5; Table 1), a period in which rainfall reached 31.8 mm before the first DAA of the 1st parceled application, with no precipitation before and during the first DAA of the 2nd parceled application. Average temperature remained above 20 °C, and relative humidity exceeded 68% (Table S3). In this season, cumulative UC losses reached 16.6 kg ha⁻¹ at 150 kg N ha⁻¹ and 46.7 kg ha⁻¹ at 400 kg N ha⁻¹. In subsequent seasons, losses ranged from 3.35 kg ha⁻¹ (2023–24) to 27.67 kg ha⁻¹ (2022–23) (Table 1; Fig. 6). In the 2023–24 season, the application of U NBPT delayed the peak of daily N loss by up to 5.83 DAA (1st parceled application, 150 kg N ha⁻¹) compared to the peak observed with UC, which occurred at 2.54 DAA under the same condition. This difference resulted in up to 45% reduction in cumulative N–NH₃ losses compared to UC (Table 1; Fig. 4). In the 2022–23 season, the reduction reached 28% in the 2nd parceled application at 400 kg N ha⁻¹. These results demonstrate that NBPT delays the volatilization peak and reduces N–NH₃ losses compared to UC (Fig. 4). Overall, U NBPT showed greater effectiveness in reducing urease activity during the 1st parceled application, with reductions exceeding 80% in enzymatic activity and up to 50% decreases in ammonia losses relative to the applied N dose (Tables 1, S6, and S7). However, its inhibitory effect was less pronounced, particularly during the 3rd parceled application in the 2021–22 season, which recorded a maximum daily loss (MDL) of 89.45 kg N–NH₃ ha⁻¹ and a cumulative loss of 49.22 kg N–NH₃ ha⁻¹ (Table 1). This reduced effectiveness may be linked to edaphoclimatic conditions (rainfall, soil moisture, temperature) and the lower NBPT concentration in urea. In 2021–22, NBPT levels declined across applications (112, 99, and 90 mg kg⁻¹ in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd applications, respectively), totaling a 20% reduction from the initial value, which was already below the standard 530 mg kg⁻¹ used commercially in Brazil. This likely impaired urease inhibition and N loss control during the third application (Table 1). N 2 O emissions. The total average N₂O emissions from the three parceled applications showed the following decreasing pattern: U NBPT > UC > NA (Table 2). However, emissions varied among the parceled applications. In the 1st and 2nd parcels, the observed pattern was UC > U NBPT > NA, indicating the effect of NBPT degradation over the parceled applications. The lower emission factors observed for NA confirm its limited involvement in nitrification, indicating that N₂O emissions are more directly associated with urea-based nitrogen fertilizers. The total application of 400 kg N ha⁻¹ resulted in cumulative emissions of 1431 g N–N₂O ha⁻¹. Among the fertilizers evaluated, the highest emissions were recorded with UNBPT (672 g ha⁻¹), followed by UC (506 g ha⁻¹) and NA (253 g ha⁻¹). It is noteworthy that, under the edaphoclimatic conditions of this season, the NBPT inhibitor did not reduce N₂O emissions (-32% compared to UC). In contrast, the application of NA reduced emissions by 50.1%, highlighting its potential to mitigate N₂O emissions in coffee plantations. Leaf Nitrogen Content. The leaf nitrogen content in coffee plants varied significantly in response to the nitrogen source and dose across the evaluated seasons. In 2021–22, no significant effects (P ≥ 0.05) of either source or N dose were observed, with an overall mean of 33.45 g kg⁻¹. In 2022–23, there was a significant interaction between source and dose (P ≤ 0.05). UNBPT and NA promoted linear increases in leaf N content, reaching 31.66 g kg⁻¹ and 30.59 g kg⁻¹, respectively, at the maximum dose of 525 kg ha⁻¹, while UC showed the lowest accumulation (28.26 g kg⁻¹). In 2023–24, leaf N content also increased linearly with N dose, reaching 28.54 g kg⁻¹ regardless of the fertilizer applied. These results indicate that the influence of the N source on leaf nitrogen content was most pronounced in 2022–23. Coffee productivity . Coffee productivity is related to the type of nitrogen fertilizer and the applied N dose, as well as the technologies used in its production. There was a significant interaction (p ≤ 0.05) between the nitrogen fertilizers and their doses, as well as for their isolated effects. The adjustment equations for productivity for each fertilizer and N dose, using linear, quadratic, or linear-plateau models, are presented in Fig. 6 and Table S6, for the 2021–22, 2022–23, and 2023–24 crop seasons. During the 2021–22 crop season, even under adverse climatic conditions, a linear-plateau response to nitrogen fertilization was observed, with an average increase of 8.92 kg ha⁻¹ per kg of N applied (Fig. 6). The average productivity was the lowest of the period (1847 kg ha⁻¹, 31 bags ha⁻¹), highlighting the importance of nutritional management to reduce losses and support crop recovery in subsequent seasons. In 2022–23, the highest productivity was achieved with urea and ammonium nitrate (Fig. 6; Table S6). Ammonium nitrate followed a quadratic model, with a maximum productivity of 2847 kg ha⁻¹ at 447 kg N ha⁻¹, indicating greater efficiency at lower doses. Urea and urea with NBPT showed linear responses, with average increases of 4.38 and 4.23 kg ha⁻¹ per kg N, reaching 2989 and 2884 kg ha⁻¹ at the highest dose (525 kg N ha⁻¹). Maximum productivity values followed the order UC > U NBPT > NA. In the 2023–24 season, under favorable climate conditions, UNBPT and ammonium nitrate (NA) increased coffee productivity (Fig. 6; Table S6). Productivity increased linearly with UNBPT, reaching 4660 kg ha⁻¹ at 525 kg N ha⁻¹. For NA, the optimal dose was 365 kg N ha⁻¹, yielding 3841 kg ha⁻¹, exceeding the previous season. Maximum productivity values followed the order U NBPT > NA > UC, with 4660, 3841, and 3650 kg ha⁻¹ at 525, 365, and 298 kg N ha⁻¹, respectively. N content in the husk and N accumulation in the coffee bean. The accumulation of nitrogen in the beans and the nitrogen content in the husk varied according to the nitrogen source and dose across the evaluated crop seasons (Fig. 6; Supplementary Table S6). In 2021–22, nitrogen accumulation in the beans increased linearly with the applied dose (P ≤ 0.05), reaching 43.60 kg ha⁻¹ at 171.66 kg N ha⁻¹. The highest doses resulted in maximum values of 83.06 kg ha⁻¹ (UC), 72.33 kg ha⁻¹ (U NBPT ), and 69.65 kg ha⁻¹ at 421 kg N ha⁻¹. In 2023–24, the greatest efficiency was observed at intermediate doses, with 85.36 kg ha⁻¹ (353 kg N ha⁻¹) and 92.25 kg ha⁻¹ (375 kg N ha⁻¹). At the maximum dose, urea showed an accumulation of 68.66 kg ha⁻¹. For nitrogen content in the husk, in 2021–22, the maximum value (83.83 g kg⁻¹) was observed at 292 kg N ha⁻¹. In 2022–23, all sources promoted linear increases, with maximum contents at the highest dose for UC (41.80 g kg⁻¹), NA (40.15 g kg⁻¹), and U NBPT (39.63 g kg⁻¹). In 2023–24, U NBPT maintained a linear pattern, reaching 66.20 g kg⁻¹, while NA and UC showed maximum values of 66.88 g kg⁻¹ (485 kg N ha⁻¹) and 54.43 g kg⁻¹ (295 kg N ha⁻¹), respectively. These results reinforce the importance of proper management of nitrogen fertilization in coffee cultivation. DISCUSSION The application of ammonium nitrate resulted in volatilization losses lower than 3%. This is because ammonium nitrate supplies nitrogen in the ammonium form (NH₄⁺), which remains stable in the soil as an ionic form, especially in acidic soils, such as those in the present study (pH < 7) 8,23 . Under these conditions, the conversion of NH₄⁺ to NH₃ is minimized, reducing nitrogen losses. These results reinforce the importance of ammonium nitrate (AN) as an efficient strategy for coffee nutrition, with less dependence on specific soil and climate conditions for fertilization. Other studies have also reported higher efficiency of AN compared to conventional urea in coffee plantations 24 . The greatest N-NH₃ losses associated with the use of UC are due to its hydrolysis rate after soil application. Under these conditions, urea is rapidly hydrolyzed by the enzyme urease, forming ammonium (NH₄⁺) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), which favors the subsequent conversion into ammonia 14 , 25 . In addition, the NH₄⁺ formed can be oxidized to nitrate (NO₃⁻) via nitrification, a process that, especially under limited aeration conditions, can release N₂O. Urease originates from various organisms, including bacteria, yeasts, fungi, algae, and residues of animal and plant origin. The latter often results in higher urease activity in environments with significant organic matter accumulation, such as under the canopy of coffee trees 26 – 29 . This increase in enzymatic activity intensifies ammonia (N-NH₃) volatilization, especially when urea-based fertilizers are surface-applied in the presence of plant residues 18 . Urease activity was consistently high during initial urea applications (> 1.02 µg NH₄⁺ g⁻¹ dry soil h⁻¹), contributing to greater N–NH₃ losses. This underscores the importance of urease inhibitors in high-activity environments. Climatic conditions, especially rainfall and temperature, strongly influenced urease activity and volatilization in 2021–22 and 2022–23. In both seasons, rainfall occurred before fertilization (5.2–31.8 mm on day 0), followed by irregular rainfall in the subsequent seven days. The precipitation of 31.8 mm during the first application and 30.2 mm during the third application in the 2021–22 season, before nitrogen fertilization, increased soil moisture, enhancing the urease hydrolysis rate and volatilization losses. The occurrence of these rains favored urease activity in the soil, as moister soils — with moisture levels between 60% and 80% of field capacity — tend to promote higher enzymatic activity, contributing to N-NH₃ losses 30 . Temperatures above 15°C accelerate the hydrolysis rate of urea, as urease activity increases with rising temperature 26 , 29 , 31 . In this context, high temperatures recorded in this study [with daily averages of up to 26.7°C (2021–22 season) and 23.7°C (2022–23 season)], combined with soil moisture resulting from rainfall before fertilization, favored the solubilization of urea and accelerated its hydrolysis. Consequently, there was an increase in N-NH₃ losses. In the 2021–22 season, losses of up to 131 kg of N-NH₃ ha⁻¹ were quantified at the dose of 400 kg N ha⁻¹ and 34.08 kg of N-NH₃ ha⁻¹ at 150 kg N ha⁻¹, both after urea application (considering the sum of the three applications). It is important to highlight that canopy density also influences water infiltration into the soil, as denser canopies can hinder water penetration, prolonging the moisture period on the surface and intensifying N emissions. Although precipitation occurs after fertilization, rainfall has a limited effect on the incorporation of urea into the coffee row fertilization zone because most of the water runs off to the interrows without reaching the fertilized area 18 , 32 , 33 . In the 2023–24 season, NH₃-N volatilization showed a distinct pattern compared to previous seasons, mainly influenced by a more regular rainfall regime, especially during the 2nd and 3rd applications. The highest losses occurred in the first two applications, reaching 25 kg ha⁻¹ of NH₃-N at the 400 kg ha⁻¹ N rate, and 14.17 kg ha⁻¹ of NH₃-N at the 150 kg ha⁻¹ N rate. These elevated losses are associated with rainfall events in the days preceding day 0, and the absence of precipitation in the days following fertilization: 0 mm in the seven days after the 1st application and 0.4 mm recorded after the 2nd. These data indicate that fertilization was carried out under conditions of low soil moisture. A wet soil condition followed by drying is considered one of the worst scenarios for urea application, as the reduced water availability after fertilization limits its incorporation into the soil, favoring NH₃-N volatilization losses 5 , 33 . In the third application, well-distributed rainfall over the seven days following fertilization favored fertilizer incorporation, reducing volatilization and the exposure time of urea on the soil surface — which explains the lower accumulated NH₃-N losses during this period. These results reinforce that precipitation has a strong influence on N losses by volatilization in the days following fertilization 9 , 34 . Previous studies indicate that the duration of urease inhibition by NBPT ranges from 7 to 14 days, depending on the inhibitor concentration and climatic conditions (temperature and soil and air humidity). In the present study, urea with NBPT reduced NH₃-N volatilization losses compared to conventional urea and delayed emission peaks by up to 3.29 days. In coffee cultivation, the delayed nitrogen release provided by this technology is relevant, as it extends the time available for fertilizer incorporation into the soil. Considering that the coffee plant’s phenological cycle requires a continuous nitrogen supply, maintaining nitrogen in the system is essential for the proper development of the crop’s reproductive and vegetative stages. It is estimated that 6.2 kg of nitrogen are required to produce one 60-kg sack of commercial coffee, with 3.6 kg allocated to vegetation and 2.6 kg to the beans 7 . Meta-analysis studies indicate that NBPT can reduce NH₃-N volatilization losses by an average of 52% compared to urea 25 . However, its efficacy can be compromised by factors such as temperature 35 , acidic pH 15 , time and storage temperature 21 , 31 and contact with phosphate fertilizers, which contain free acidity 19 , 20 . In the 2021–22 season, analysis of NBPT concentration revealed that, as early as the first application, the fertilizer contained 110 mg of NBPT per kg of urea — a value 79% lower than the minimum required concentration (530 mg kg⁻¹) 22 . This information emphasizes the importance of quality control of the inhibitor concentration before and during split applications of N, as in the case of this study, to ensure the efficiency of technologies associated with urea. Ammonium nitrate promoted a reduction of approximately 50% in N₂O emissions compared to urea, due to its lower content of nitrogen in the ammoniacal form and, consequently, lower susceptibility to nitrification 36 . Since about 50% of the nitrogen in ammonium nitrate is in the NO₃⁻ form, N₂O formation via nitrification and denitrification tends to be reduced, especially in wet soils or those with low aeration. In contrast, urea treated with NBPT, while effective in reducing ammonia volatilization, exhibited a higher average total N₂O emission (0.168% of applied N) compared to conventional urea (0.127%). Although emission factors during the first two applications were lower for NBPT-treated urea, the increase observed in the third application suggests a decline in inhibitor efficacy over time. This indicates that NBPT degradation may have limited its inhibitory effect on nitrification during the third application, similarly to the pattern observed in ammonia volatilization losses. In general, it was observed that N₂O emissions for both nitrogen sources were below the reference value recommended by the IPCC for nitrogen fertilization (1%). Similar results have been reported in previous studies, which found emission factors below 1% for nitrogen fertilizers applied in coffee plantations 9 . Coffee productivity varied significantly over the experimental years, reflecting both the effects of nitrogen fertilization management and the specific climatic conditions of each crop season. The lowest productivity was observed in 2021–22 (1847 kg ha⁻¹), coinciding with prolonged droughts and high temperatures that impaired flowering, grain filling, and reproductive development. The absence of rainfall in June and July 2021, combined with low precipitation in August and September, was decisive for this reduction, as reported in studies highlighting the impacts of water deficit on the phenological stages of coffee 37 – 39 . The year 2021 ranked among the seven warmest years on record, with the average temperature in Brazil reaching 24.9°C (0.69°C above the historical average for the period 1991–2020) 40 , 41 . As a consequence, Brazil recorded nearly a 25% decrease in coffee production in 2021 41 . In the following crop season (2022–23), still under the residual effect of the previous climatic stress, a significant recovery in productivity was observed. Compared to the 1847 kg ha⁻¹ recorded in 2021–22, yields increased up to 1.6 times, reaching 2989 kg ha⁻¹ with urea application (525 kg N ha⁻¹), and up to 1.5 times with ammonium nitrate (2847 kg ha⁻¹ at a dose of 447 kg N ha⁻¹). In the 2023–24 season, despite the negative biennial cycle, improved climatic conditions, with more regular rainfall and moderate temperatures, favored the physiological recovery of the plants, resulting in the highest yield among the evaluated years. The NBPT-treated urea (U NBPT ) provided the highest productivity among all nitrogen sources, reaching 4660 kg ha⁻¹, which is nearly three times higher than the yield of unfertilized plants (0 dose, 1636 kg ha⁻¹), representing an increase of approximately 50 bags ha − 1 . In addition to the yield increase, nitrogen use efficiency also improved. For ammonium nitrate, the optimal N rate decreased from 447 kg ha⁻¹ in the 2022–23 season to 365 kg ha⁻¹ in 2023–24, while yield increased from 2847 kg ha⁻¹ to 3841 kg ha⁻¹, equivalent to a gain of approximately 16 bags per hectare. For urea, the optimal N rate was reduced from 525 kg ha⁻¹ to 298 kg ha⁻¹, with a yield increase of approximately 11 bags per hectare compared to the previous season. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Ammonium nitrate showed NH₃ volatilization losses below 3% and the lowest N₂O emission factor, standing out as the most promising fertilizer to mitigate GHG emissions in coffee cultivation. Urea resulted in the highest NH₃ volatilization losses. Urea treated with NBPT reduced volatilization losses by approximately 18% compared to U and delayed the peak emission by up to 2.9 days. U NBPT was more effective in reducing both N₂O and NH₃ emission factors during the first and second fertilizer applications. However, the progressive degradation of NBPT over time significantly impacted its effectiveness in mitigating GHG emissions. We emphasize the importance of strict quality control of NBPT concentration in fertilizers to ensure their effectiveness. The selection of the appropriate nitrogen source and the efficient management of fertilization minimize nitrogen losses and enhance the economic and environmental benefits in coffee production. This study, conducted over three consecutive growing seasons, builds upon the findings of Taylor et al. (2023) and Sarkis et al. (2023), and is the first to systematically assess nitrogen losses, NBPT effectiveness, urease activity reduction, and coffee yield response under extreme climatic variability. The findings contribute valuable insights to sustainable nitrogen management practices in coffee farming. Materials and methods Environmental Characterization. This research continues a long-term experiment (9 years) with Coffea arabica L., cultivar Catuaí 99. The current phase was conducted over three consecutive crop seasons (2021–22, 2022–23, and 2023–24) under field conditions in the municipality of Santo Antônio do Amparo, Minas Gerais, Brazil, at Fazenda da Lagoa — a commercial property of Neumann Kaffee Gruppe (NKG) – Brazilian Farms. The region has a Cwa climate (hot and humid summers; cool and dry winters), with an average annual temperature of 19°C and average precipitation of 1,493 mm. The soil is classified as a red Latosol ( Oxisol ), according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy 42 . Detailed climatic information, especially after the applications of nitrogen fertilizers, is available in Table S1 , Fig. S1 and S2. Experimental Design. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replicates, arranged in a 3×5 factorial scheme, involving the application of three nitrogen fertilizers — ammonium nitrate (AN), conventional urea (UC), and urea stabilized with NBPT (U NBPT ) — and five doses: 0, 150, 275, 400, and 525 kg N ha⁻¹ per crop season. The experimental units, established since the 2015–16 crop season, were maintained over the years, each with an area of 32.64 m², consisting of 16 coffee plants spaced at 3.40 × 0.60 m. Assessments were carried out on the 10 central plants of each plot, considering a population density of 4901 plants ha⁻¹. Quantification of NBPT in urea before nitrogen fertilizer application . The concentration of NBPT in urea was determined by HPLC using an Agilent HP1100 system equipped with a diode array detector. Samples were collected before field application on 10/10/2021, 11/25/2021, and 01/15/2022, corresponding to the three nitrogen fertilizer splits during the 2021–22 crop season. Quantification was performed only in this season due to limitations in analytical resources. Samples were stored under refrigeration and analyzed according to the method of the European Committee for Standardization (2015) 43 . Agronomic Study. The nutritional management of the coffee crop followed recommendations for adult plantations, respecting the vegetative and productive phases. Agricultural gypsum was applied in October 2020 (500 kg ha⁻¹) and November 2022 (1,601 kg ha⁻¹); triple superphosphate in March 2021 (412 kg ha⁻¹, 46% P₂O₅); ulexite (60 kg ha⁻¹, 10% B) and potassium chloride (164 kg ha⁻¹, 60% K₂O) in April 2023. Complete details are provided in Table S2. Phytosanitary management was carried out annually according to the protocols of Fazenda NKG. Monitoring of Climatic Conditions . Meteorological data were monitored daily throughout the three crop seasons using a weather station installed near the experimental area. Precipitation, average temperature, and relative humidity (maximum and minimum) were recorded. In addition to total precipitation, effective rainfall (Llefect) was considered, following the approach proposed by Ramirez & Jaramillo (2010) 32 and Jaramillo & Chaves (1999) 44 , which represents the fraction of rainfall potentially infiltrating the soil after losses due to canopy interception and surface runoff. Quantification of N-NH₃ losses by volatilization. N-NH₃ losses by volatilization were evaluated using a 3 × 2 factorial design (three N sources and two doses: 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹), employing plots from the initial experiment. Quantification was performed using the semi-open static collector method with three chambers per plot 45 . Samples were collected daily during the first 7 days and on alternate days up to 45 days after application. The absorbed ammonia was extracted and quantified by distillation, with losses expressed in kg ha⁻¹ 46 . Urease Activity Soil Sampling. Urease activity was evaluated in soil samples collected from the 0–3 cm layer along the fertilizer application line, on the same days as NH₃ measurements (days 1 to 7, and 9, 11, 13, 15, 21, 30, and 45) during the 2021–22 and 2022–23 crop seasons. In the 2021–22 season, sampling followed Sarkis et al. (2023) 47 and included only the 400 kg N ha⁻¹ dose; in 2022–23, it was expanded to include both 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹ doses. No sampling was conducted in the 2023–24 season due to protocol changes. Samples were sieved (2 mm) and stored at 4°C to preserve soil integrity. Analysis of soil urease activity. Urease activity was determined following the methodology based on quantifying the ammonium released after the incubation of 5 g of soil with Tris-THAM buffer (pH 9) and 0.2 M urea, at 37°C for 2 hours 48 . The reaction was stopped with KCl–Ag₂SO₄ (2.5 M), and the released ammonium was quantified by distillation with magnesium oxide, and subsequently titrated with 0.005 M H₂SO₄ 46 . Evaluation of N₂O fluxes and emissions . N₂O fluxes were quantified using static closed chambers installed under the canopies in plots receiving 400 kg N ha⁻¹, representing commercial fertilization. Metal bases (0.182 m²) were inserted 5 cm into the soil one week before application and remained fixed. The chambers were attached to the bases with a water seal and protected against heating. Fluxes were monitored for 40 days after each split application (between october 2021 and february 2022), with sampling preferably after rainfall events, and subsequently every 25 days until harvest (August). Sampling occurred between 8:30 and 10:00 a.m., with samples collected at 0, 20, 40, and 60 minutes and transferred to vacuum flasks. Air, soil, and chamber temperatures were digitally recorded. N₂O concentrations were determined by gas chromatography equipped with an electron capture detector. Fluxes were calculated according to Martins et al. (2017) 49 and Sarkis et al. (2023). The emission factor (EF) was calculated using the formula: $$\:EF=(N-(N2Otreatment-N-N2Ocontrol)/Ntotal$$ where EF is the emission factor of the applied fertilizers; N₂O_treat represents the total N–N₂O emission from each fertilizer treatment; N–N₂O_control is the total N–N₂O emission from the control treatment; and N_total is the total nitrogen applied as fertilizer. Plant Analyses: Nitrogen Content in Beans, Pulp, and Leaves. At the onset of fruit development, approximately 40 healthy leaves were collected from the middle third of each plant per plot. After washing, leaves were digested using the sulfuric acid method for nitrogen determination 46 , 50 . Manual harvest was carried out at the end of the crop cycle when less than 20% of the fruits remained green. Ten plants per plot were harvested, and the total fruit volume was measured in liters. A 5 L subsample was dried to 12% moisture to estimate the processed coffee yield (kg ha⁻¹), considering a plant density of 4901 plants ha⁻¹. Nitrogen contents in beans and pulp were determined using the same method as for the leaves. Nitrogen accumulation was calculated by multiplying the nitrogen content by the yield, divided by 1000. Statistical Analysis The data were subjected to nonlinear regression analysis using a logistic model to evaluate the variable ammonia loss by volatilization (Eq. 1). This model is widely used by our research group to estimate the accumulated loss of N-NH₃ 9 , 16 , 51 . $$\:{y}_{\dot{i}}={E}_{i}\left[\frac{a}{1+{{exp}}^{k}\left(b-daai\right.}\right]+{E}_{\dot{I}}$$ where: \(\:y\) i is the i-th observation of the accumulated N-NH₃ loss (%) with i = 1,2 … n; daai is the i-th ay after application; α is the asymptotic value, which can be interpreted as the maximum accumulated N-NH₃ loss; b is the abscissa of the inflection point and indicates the day at which the maximum volatilization loss occurs; k is the precocity index, where a higher value indicates a shorter time to reach the maximum accumulated loss (α); Ei s the random error associated with the ii à i-th observation, assumed to be independent and identically distributed according to a normal distribution with mean zero and constant variance E ∼ N(0, 1σ2). To estimate the maximum daily N-NH₃ loss (MDL), i.e., to determine the inflection point of the curve, the following equation was used:: \(\:MDL=k\left(\frac{a}{4}\right)\) , where k is a relative index used to obtain the maximum daily loss (MDL), and α is the asymptotic value interpreted as the maximum cumulative N-NH₃ loss. After verifying the normality and homogeneity of variances for productivity data and nitrogen content in leaves and coffee beans obtained for each crop season, analyses were performed using the R software. In case of significant effects among nitrogen sources by the F-test (P < 0.05), mean values were grouped using Tukey’s test at the same significance level. To model the dependent variable’s response to applied doses, different regression models were tested. For some variables in each season, the Linear-Plateau model was selected for providing the best statistical fit, as indicated by the lowest AIC value and highest adjusted R². The analysis was conducted in R using the 'nls()' function from the 'stats' package 52 . Declarations Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Agency for Improvement of Higher-Level Personnel (Capes), the National Council for Scientific Development and Technology (CNPq), the Minas Gerais Research Foundation (FAPEMIG) and Yara International. Ethical approval Te study was in accordance with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. Data availability The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Author contributions A.B.da.F. Conducted the experiment, data collection, analysis, writing and interpretation of dados, M.P.D. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection, analysis, writing and interpretation of dados. D.P.O Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. G.H.F.de.L Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. A.dos.S.Z Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. C.J.H. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. M.V.A.P. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. E.S.S. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. T.de.J.F. statistical analysis and and interpretation of dados. T.R.de.S. organized the research experiments. V.R.B. organized the research experiments. D.G. Conceptualization, methodology, visualization, analysis, writing and interpretation of dados. Funding This work was supported by the Agency for Improvement of Higher-Level Personnel, the National Council for Scientific Development and Technology, and the Minas Gerais. Additional information The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References CONAB - Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento. 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Annals of Applied Biology vol. 162 145–173 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1111/aab.12014 (2013). Freitas, T. et al. Technologies for Fertilizers and Management Strategies of N-Fertilization in Coffee Cropping Technologies for Fertilizers and Management Strategies of N-Fertilization in Coffee Cropping Systems to Reduce Ammonia Losses by Volatilization. (2022) doi:10.3390/plants11233323. Soares, J. R., Cantarella, H. & Menegale, M. L. de C. Ammonia volatilization losses from surface-applied urea with urease and nitrification inhibitors. Soil Biol Biochem 52 , 82–89 (2012). Besen, M. R. et al. Modelling of N2O emissions from a maize crop after the application of enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilisers. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 52 , 1645–1656 (2021). Mesquita, C. M. et al. Manual Do Café - Implantação de Cafezais (Coffea Arabica L.) . (Emater, Belo Horizonte, 2016). Paes, Â., Camargo, D. E., Bento, M. & De Camargo (, P. 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O., Bendassolli, J. A., De Santana, D. G. & Gascho, G. J. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis Calibration of a semi-open static collector for determination of ammonia volatilization from nitrogen fertilizers. (2008) doi:10.1080/00103629909370211. J. Kjeldahl. Neue Methode zur Bestimmung des Stickstoffs in organischen Körpern. Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie 22 , (1883). Sarkis, L. F. et al. Nitrogen fertilizers technologies as a smart strategy to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions and preserve carbon and nitrogen soil stocks in a coffee crop system. Atmos Environ X 20 , (2023). Tabatabai, M. A. EFFECTS OF TRACE ELEMENTS ON UREASE ACTIVITY IN SOILS*. Soil Biology Biochemistry 9 , 9–13 (1977). Martins, M. R. et al. Nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions from N fertilization of maize crop under no-till in a Cerrado soil. Soil Tillage Res 151 , 75–81 (2015). Bremner, J. M. Nitrogen Total. in Methods of Soil Analysis: Part Chemical Methods vol. 5.3 1085–1121 (1996). Santos, C. F. et al. Environmentally friendly urea produced from the association of N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide with biodegradable polymer coating obtained from a soybean processing byproduct. J Clean Prod 276 , (2020). Ferreira, D. F. Sisvar: Um sistema computacional de análise estatística. Ciencia e Agrotecnologia vol. 35 1039–1042 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-70542011000600001 (2011). Tables Table 1. Regression parameters fitted to the accumulated losses of N-NH 3 by volatilization (2021–22, 2022–23 and 2023–24 crop seasons). Fertilizers Parceled application 1 Parmeter MDL Parameter MDL a b k R² a b k R² kg (N-NH 3 ha -1 ) (day) kg (N-NH 3 ha -1 ) kg (N-NH 3 ha -1 ) (day) kg (N-NH 3 ha -1 ) Crop season 2021 – 22 Dose 150 kg ha -1 Dose 400 kg ha -1 Ammonium nitrate 1 1.83 0.71 0.18 0.92 0.08 2.25 1.04 0.27 0.93 0.15 2 0.97 2.65 0.11 0.95 0.024 1.11 2.33 0.44 0.96 0.034 3 0.97 4.49 0.37 0.98 0.022 1.94 5.13 0.24 0.99 0.119 Urea conventional 1 8.04 2.21 3.20 0.98 6.43 20.87 3.09 5.02 0.98 26.0 2 7.37 1.37 5.17 0.96 9.48 20.0 2.10 3.98 0.98 20.00 3 16.60 1.80 4.38 0.97 18.17 46.73 3.39 7.29 0.98 85.16 U NBPT 1 7.31 2.46 2.71 0.97 4.95 18.75 3.26 4.14 0.98 19.40 2 5.70 1.40 2.61 0.93 3.71 17.17 2.53 3.26 0.95 14.0 3 15.91 2.57 3.62 0.98 14.39 49.22 3.44 7.27 0.99 89.45 Crop season 2022 – 23 Ammonium nitrate 1 0.64 3.79 0.07 0.97 0.01 0.83 3.0 0.08 0.98 0.01 2 0.50 3.99 0.04 0.97 0.005 0.50 4.32 0.05 0.97 0.006 3 0.33 3.78 0.02 0.93 0.001 0.27 4.81 0.01 0.96 0.006 Urea conventional 1 12.65 2.27 3.57 0.98 11.29 27.67 3.14 6.15 0.99 42.54 2 8.22 1.34 3.21 0.99 6.59 18.33 2.04 5.55 0.98 25.43 3 9.21 1.39 4.53 0.99 10.43 23.87 2.35 7.00 0.98 41.77 U NBPT 1 7.92 3.06 1.47 0.98 2.91 24.15 3.95 4.69 0.99 28.31 2 6.49 1.93 1.64 0.97 2.66 13.27 2.45 2.61 0.97 8.65 3 7.47 2.08 2.33 0.99 4.35 20.88 2.96 3.94 0.96 20.56 Crop season 2023 – 24 Ammonium nitrate 1 0.62 6.31 0.36 0.96 0.05 0.59 5.21 0.06 0.97 0.03 2 0.73 3.00 0.10 0.89 0.02 0.58 8.07 0.15 0.93 0.021 3 0.57 5.50 0.29 0.95 0.04 0.31 7.55 0.02 0.96 0.02 Urea conventional 1 14.17 2.54 2.51 0.98 8.90 23.00 4.82 3.27 0.99 18.80 2 9.21 2.75 1.88 0.99 4.33 25.43 2.76 5.24 0.97 33.35 3 3.35 2.06 1.02 0.96 1.00 9.00 4.00 1.00 0.97 2.50 U NBPT 1 7.77 5.83 0.45 0.97 0.87 17.46 4.54 3.21 0.99 14.01 2 11.63 2.69 2.71 0.97 7.85 20.80 2.92 4.45 0.97 23.14 3 2.53 2.08 0.48 0.97 1.21 10.00 3.43 1.16 0.96 2.90 ¹: Application of nitrogen fertilizer corresponding to 1/3 of the doses of 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹. The following parameters were considered: α – asymptotic value representing the maximum accumulated N–NH₃ loss; abscissa of the inflection point, indicating the day when the highest volatilization occurs; k – precocity index, which determines the time required to reach the maximum accumulated loss (α); and MDL – maximum daily loss, corresponding to the highest value of N–NH₃ volatilized in a single day, calculated by the equation MDL = k × α/4 Table 2. N 2 O emission factor of different nitrogen fertilizers and application periods. Fertilizers 1st parceled application 2nd parceled application 3rd parceled application Media % NA 0.125 0.015 0.049 0.063 UC 0.316 0.047 0.077 0.146 U NBPT 0.256 0.038 0.150 0.148 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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International","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Victor","middleName":"Ramirez","lastName":"Builes","suffix":""},{"id":468409277,"identity":"8d5b6642-d3ea-49dd-a993-91d55a43c401","order_by":11,"name":"Douglas Guelfi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA70lEQVRIie3SsQrCMBCA4RQhLtKuzVtEBBGE+ioXOrg4i4OUBKEu4uwgPoMgOFcK7ZIH6GaLi2MncRIPJ6dGN8H8kHBDPm4JITbbL5bgKV9TS9YwI55LCDUTeE2O2oAmLP6OOPEHxM1XvSvMo2CfKyWrXerTdkIvswbCtO4PIEvDvT4pKY5IOtDu6gbCi0mfA01CXohliSSiBCiTRvKIQn6ucMsWt3ilkfRKEbcCXjhIJBLfsIXpbErEOgWmhZKQjZFUy24TcfPFoa5v0cjN05O6z4e+54VZ1UQw6uMl3h45BoAfpcZrZHpls9lsf9wTTFxYrRaX2kQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Lavras – UFLA","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Douglas","middleName":"","lastName":"Guelfi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-21 22:08:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6719604/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6719604/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84299258,"identity":"07456f71-8abe-428b-a055-4abb6b51d1a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:13:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":267903,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWeather data during the three nitrogen fertilizations in the 2021–2022, 2022–2023, and 2023–2024 crop seasons.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/9473bbb50e47d040a8e33d6b.png"},{"id":84299548,"identity":"1d6353ce-ea38-4967-b569-449f8f2abb14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:21:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":249933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily N–NH₃ losses (kg ha⁻¹) at doses of 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹ and urease activity for each parceled application of nitrogen fertilizer at the 400 kg N ha⁻¹ dose, in the 2021–22 crop season.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/f6b3813bea6bd79052227cb5.png"},{"id":84299261,"identity":"737e13fa-0e35-4842-82c5-fc1429495834","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:13:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":226562,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily N–NH₃ losses (kg ha⁻¹) and urease activity for each parceled application of nitrogen fertilizer at doses of 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹, in the 2022–23 crop season.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/f4726e0272e8df3347c08143.png"},{"id":84300411,"identity":"c3ae67f1-f4b1-4652-aa05-c12ef9c318a0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:29:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":311546,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily N–NH₃ losses (in kg of N–NH₃) within each parceled application of nitrogen fertilizer at doses of 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻¹, in the 2023–24 crop season.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/b43109810732565f20a0d96b.png"},{"id":84300412,"identity":"ede23434-1d4f-40de-babb-f9a63f5aa844","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:29:05","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":301604,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCumulative N–NH₃ losses (kg of N applied) in the 2021–22 (a), 2022–23 (b), and 2023–24 (c) crop seasons, considering different fertilizers and N doses within each parceled application period. Statistical tests used were Tukey for comparison among sources and the F test for comparison among doses, both with significance at P ≤ 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/cca5dba33ecdba9b61eaa709.png"},{"id":84299267,"identity":"cb9e5058-5592-4dcc-a983-1bbfb9a1bdf0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:13:05","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":407728,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAgronomic results [foliar N content (A–C, in g kg⁻¹), coffee bean yield (D–F, in kg ha⁻¹), nitrogen accumulation in coffee beans (G–I, in kg ha⁻¹)] and nitrogen content in the husk (J–M, in g kg⁻¹) with N sources and doses across three crop seasons according to Tukey’s test.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/835d6cdaec12a6ed8370c25a.png"},{"id":84300657,"identity":"d3765d54-2fca-4566-a28b-842654ab3673","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:37:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2800563,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/20b1bd9c-2fe2-4e6a-8814-070136f90366.pdf"},{"id":84299263,"identity":"bafd3ef6-0838-45bd-a0cd-1b85d92e6fc7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 10:13:05","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1902843,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarymaterialrevised.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6719604/v1/b4d210dfc640d6a971b987af.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Advances in nitrogen fertilizer technologies for improved nutrient efficiency and sustainable coffee production","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eCoffee cultivation is an activity of great economic and historical importance for Brazil, which stands out as the world\u0026rsquo;s largest coffee producer, accounting for 29.6% of global production, cultivated over an area of 2.26\u0026nbsp;million hectares. The Arabica species (\u003cem\u003eCoffea arabica\u003c/em\u003e L.) represents approximately 82% of the national coffee-growing area, with 75% of this area concentrated in the state of Minas Gerais\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis strong representation of coffee cultivation in the country drives investments in increasingly efficient and sustainable management strategies. The advancement of agricultural technologies, combined with the growing demand for productive and sustainable systems in the face of climate change and the need to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, has brought about significant transformations in the coffee sector\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong these transformations, the increased recognition of coffee on the international market, the improvement of agronomic practices, and the rise in investments in fertilization stand out. Nitrogen (N) is the most demanded nutrient throughout the crop cycle and is also the most heavily exported by the beans\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In commercial plantations, nitrogen application rates range from 200 to 500 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; per year, usually split into three to four applications between september and march\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea is the main nitrogen source used in Brazilian coffee cultivation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, when applied to the soil surface, urea undergoes rapid hydrolysis by the enzyme urease, increasing the pH around the granules and making nitrogen highly susceptible to losses through ammonia (N-NH₃) volatilization\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These losses, in the absence of mitigation technologies, can range from 10.54\u0026ndash;30.5%\u003csup\u003e99\u003c/sup\u003e, depending on the application rate, edaphoclimatic conditions, and agricultural management\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to volatilization, nitrogen losses also occur as nitrous oxide (N₂O) through nitrification and denitrification processes, a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential approximately 300 times greater than that of CO₂\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Approximately 1% of the nitrogen applied as fertilizer is converted into N₂O, mainly through nitrification and denitrification \u0026mdash; microbial processes influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, soil aeration, pH, and substrate availability\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInnovations and technologies in fertilizers are fundamental strategies to develop more sustainable products, increase nutrient use efficiency, and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in agriculture. The adoption of technologies and the use of fertilizers less prone to nitrogen losses, such as ammonium nitrate (32% N), have intensified based on the principles of the 4R nutrient stewardship: right source, rate, place, and time\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These practices increase nutrient use efficiency, contributing to both crop productivity and sustainability. Among the main strategies are slow- or controlled-release fertilizers, urease and nitrification inhibitors, and granule blends\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrease inhibitors, such as NBPT (N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide), are effective in reducing nitrogen losses by volatilization when combined with urea. These additives, classified as stabilized nitrogen fertilizers, are rapidly oxidized to their active form (NBPTO) in the soil, especially under aerobic conditions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This form inhibits urease, slowing the hydrolysis of urea and prolonging the presence of nitrogen in the amide form, which favors its incorporation into the soil. As a result, there is greater nitrogen availability in the soil solution, increased plant uptake, and improved nutrient use efficiency\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In coffee plantations, NBPT can reduce volatilization losses by 30\u0026ndash;55% and increase productivity by up to 17%, compared to conventional urea\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of NBPT can be compromised by factors such as temperature, pH, soil moisture, and especially by storage time and conditions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The half-life of NBPT can vary between 2.7 and 4.7 months, depending on the formulation and storage temperature, with degradation accelerated under tropical conditions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This highlights the importance of proper storage and more stable formulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, it is essential to understand and adopt strategies based on nitrogen fertilizer technologies aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas losses and increasing fertilization efficiency in coffee plantations. Thus, this research aims to: i) quantify ammonia (N-NH₃) losses resulting from the application of conventional fertilizers (urea and ammonium nitrate) and urea stabilized with NBPT; ii) evaluate soil urease enzyme activity in response to different nitrogen fertilizers, assessing the potential to reduce urea hydrolysis through NBPT use; iii) identify the most efficient fertilizers based on optimal doses to maximize coffee productivity and nutrition over successive harvests; iv) provide updated information on nitrogen fertilization management in coffee cultivation, offering technical-scientific support to researchers, producers, and industry, with a focus on mitigating volatilization losses and building more sustainable production systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNBPT concentration in urea treated with inhibitor (U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe NBPT concentration in the urea used for the UNBPT treatment was lower than the reference value typically applied in Brazil (530 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e. In the 2021\u0026ndash;2022 season, inhibitor levels progressively decreased across three fertilization splits: 112.5 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1; (Oct 13, 2021), 99.1 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1; (Nov 29, 2021), and 90.5 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1; (Jan 20, 2022), representing reductions of about 12% and 20% from the first split to the second and third, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWeather conditions.\u003c/strong\u003e Data on precipitation, temperature, relative humidity (Fig. 1), and effective rainfall (Lleffect) recorded on the day before fertilization (\u0026quot;day 0\u0026quot;) and during the seven days after each N application are shown in Tables S3\u0026ndash;S5. Rainfall amount and distribution varied across the three seasons. In 2021\u0026ndash;22, rainfall on \u0026ldquo;day 0\u0026rdquo; was 31.8, 0, and 30.2 mm for the three splits, with effective rainfall of 15.4 and 14.6 mm after the 1st and 3rd applications. Cumulative rainfall within seven days reached 124 mm, and effective rainfall 21.5 mm. Total seasonal rainfall was 1591 mm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2022\u0026ndash;23, \u0026ldquo;day 0\u0026rdquo; rainfall ranged from 5.2 to 25.8 mm, with up to 12.7 mm effective rainfall. Post-fertilization rainfall reached 76.4 mm, with 41.4 mm effective. Seasonal total was 1642 mm. In 2023\u0026ndash;24, no rainfall occurred on \u0026ldquo;day 0\u0026rdquo; for the first two splits, and 0.8 mm for the third. Rainfall in the following seven days ranged from 0 to 72.8 mm, with 0 to 37.2 mm effective. Seasonal total was 2388 mm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAmmonia (N\u0026ndash;NH₃) Volatilization and Urease Activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDaily and Cumulative N\u0026ndash;NH₃ Losses.\u003c/strong\u003e Urease activity during the first six days after nitrogen application (Tables S6 and S7) was directly correlated with daily ammonia (N\u0026ndash;NH₃) volatilization peaks (Table 1), varying with the fertilizer source. On average, activity followed the order: UC \u0026gt; U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt; AN. U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e reduced soil urease activity and mitigated NH₃ peaks by up to 79% compared to UC. Urease activity was classified as low (\u0026lt;1.0 \u0026micro;g NH₄⁺ g⁻\u0026sup1; dry soil h⁻\u0026sup1;), medium (1.0\u0026ndash;1.5), and high (\u0026gt;1.5). In 2021\u0026ndash;22, applying 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, UC reached 4.00 \u0026micro;g NH₄⁺ g⁻\u0026sup1; dry soil h⁻\u0026sup1; at 1 day after application (DAA), with the highest volatilization peak (85 kg N\u0026ndash;NH₃ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) occurring at 3.39 DAA (Fig. 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 2022\u0026ndash;2023 season, following the application of 150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, the highest urease activity (2.88 \u0026micro;g NH₄⁺ g⁻\u0026sup1; dry soil h⁻\u0026sup1;) was observed with UC on the first day after application (first parceled application), coinciding with the N\u0026ndash;NH₃ volatilization peak of 11.29 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; on the second DAA. The application of U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e reduced enzymatic activity by 79%, resulting in the lowest loss among the parceled applications (2.91 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;) (Table S7; Fig. 3; Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; rate, urease activity with UC reached 7.49 \u0026micro;g NH₄⁺ g⁻\u0026sup1; on the first DAA of the first parceled application, associated with the highest N\u0026ndash;NH₃ loss (42.54 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 3.14 DAA). At this rate, the application of U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e reduced enzymatic activity by up to 92%, with a loss of 28.31 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; \u0026mdash; representing a 33% reduction compared to UC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCumulative N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses were significantly affected by the interaction between nitrogen fertilizers and the applied N rates (p \u0026le; 0.05), expressed in kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (Table 1; Fig. 5). On average, cumulative losses with UC were 9.86 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; (150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and 24.90 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; (400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;). With U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e, these losses were reduced to 8.00 and 21.30 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively. In contrast, NA resulted in minimal losses: 0.79 and 0.93 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; at the 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; rates, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe highest losses occurred with the application of urea at the 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; rate. In contrast, the use of NA resulted in losses of less than 3% of the total N applied in all crop seasons, corresponding to less than 3 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, even under varying environmental conditions favorable to volatilization (moist soil, temperatures \u0026gt;20 \u0026deg;C, and precipitation \u0026gt;5 mm before and after fertilization) (Tables 1; S2, S4, and S5). The application of NA prevented losses of up to 82 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; (150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and 207 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; (400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;), corresponding to reductions of up to 98% compared to UC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the three evaluated crop seasons, cumulative N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses relative to the applied N dose followed the decreasing order: UC \u0026gt; U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt; NA. For 150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses were 20%, 16%, and 0.9% for UC, U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e, and NA, respectively. At the 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; rate, losses were 18%, 16%, and 0.7% for UC, U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e, and NA, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe highest cumulative N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses occurred in the 1st and 2nd UC parceled applications during the 2021\u0026ndash;2022 season (Fig. 5; Table 1), a period in which rainfall reached 31.8 mm before the first DAA of the 1st parceled application, with no precipitation before and during the first DAA of the 2nd parceled application. Average temperature remained above 20 \u0026deg;C, and relative humidity exceeded 68% (Table S3). In this season, cumulative UC losses reached 16.6 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; and 46.7 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. In subsequent seasons, losses ranged from 3.35 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (2023\u0026ndash;24) to 27.67 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (2022\u0026ndash;23) (Table 1; Fig. 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 2023\u0026ndash;24 season, the application of U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e delayed the peak of daily N loss by up to 5.83 DAA (1st parceled application, 150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;) compared to the peak observed with UC, which occurred at 2.54 DAA under the same condition. This difference resulted in up to 45% reduction in cumulative N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses compared to UC (Table 1; Fig. 4). In the 2022\u0026ndash;23 season, the reduction reached 28% in the 2nd parceled application at 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. These results demonstrate that NBPT delays the volatilization peak and reduces N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses compared to UC (Fig. 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e showed greater effectiveness in reducing urease activity during the 1st parceled application, with reductions exceeding 80% in enzymatic activity and up to 50% decreases in ammonia losses relative to the applied N dose (Tables 1, S6, and S7). However, its inhibitory effect was less pronounced, particularly during the 3rd parceled application in the 2021\u0026ndash;22 season, which recorded a maximum daily loss (MDL) of 89.45 kg N\u0026ndash;NH₃ ha⁻\u0026sup1; and a cumulative loss of 49.22 kg N\u0026ndash;NH₃ ha⁻\u0026sup1; (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis reduced effectiveness may be linked to edaphoclimatic conditions (rainfall, soil moisture, temperature) and the lower NBPT concentration in urea. In 2021\u0026ndash;22, NBPT levels declined across applications (112, 99, and 90 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1; in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd applications, respectively), totaling a 20% reduction from the initial value, which was already below the standard 530 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1; used commercially in Brazil. This likely impaired urease inhibition and N loss control during the third application (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO emissions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe total average N₂O emissions from the three parceled applications showed the following decreasing pattern: U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt; UC \u0026gt; NA (Table 2). However, emissions varied among the parceled applications. In the 1st and 2nd parcels, the observed pattern was UC \u0026gt; U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt; NA, indicating the effect of NBPT degradation over the parceled applications. The lower emission factors observed for NA confirm its limited involvement in nitrification, indicating that N₂O emissions are more directly associated with urea-based nitrogen fertilizers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total application of 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; resulted in cumulative emissions of 1431 g N\u0026ndash;N₂O ha⁻\u0026sup1;. Among the fertilizers evaluated, the highest emissions were recorded with UNBPT (672 g ha⁻\u0026sup1;), followed by UC (506 g ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and NA (253 g ha⁻\u0026sup1;). It is noteworthy that, under the edaphoclimatic conditions of this season, the NBPT inhibitor did not reduce N₂O emissions (-32% compared to UC). In contrast, the application of NA reduced emissions by 50.1%, highlighting its potential to mitigate N₂O emissions in coffee plantations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf Nitrogen Content.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe leaf nitrogen content in coffee plants varied significantly in response to the nitrogen source and dose across the evaluated seasons. In 2021\u0026ndash;22, no significant effects (P \u0026ge; 0.05) of either source or N dose were observed, with an overall mean of 33.45 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;. In 2022\u0026ndash;23, there was a significant interaction between source and dose (P \u0026le; 0.05). UNBPT and NA promoted linear increases in leaf N content, reaching 31.66 g kg⁻\u0026sup1; and 30.59 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively, at the maximum dose of 525 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, while UC showed the lowest accumulation (28.26 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;). In 2023\u0026ndash;24, leaf N content also increased linearly with N dose, reaching 28.54 g kg⁻\u0026sup1; regardless of the fertilizer applied. These results indicate that the influence of the N source on leaf nitrogen content was most pronounced in 2022\u0026ndash;23.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCoffee productivity\u003c/strong\u003e. Coffee productivity is related to the type of nitrogen fertilizer and the applied N dose, as well as the technologies used in its production. There was a significant interaction (p \u0026le; 0.05) between the nitrogen fertilizers and their doses, as well as for their isolated effects. The adjustment equations for productivity for each fertilizer and N dose, using linear, quadratic, or linear-plateau models, are presented in Fig. 6 and Table S6, for the 2021\u0026ndash;22, 2022\u0026ndash;23, and 2023\u0026ndash;24 crop seasons.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the 2021\u0026ndash;22 crop season, even under adverse climatic conditions, a linear-plateau response to nitrogen fertilization was observed, with an average increase of 8.92 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; per kg of N applied (Fig. 6). The average productivity was the lowest of the period (1847 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, 31 bags ha⁻\u0026sup1;), highlighting the importance of nutritional management to reduce losses and support crop recovery in subsequent seasons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2022\u0026ndash;23, the highest productivity was achieved with urea and ammonium nitrate (Fig. 6; Table S6). Ammonium nitrate followed a quadratic model, with a maximum productivity of 2847 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 447 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, indicating greater efficiency at lower doses. Urea and urea with NBPT showed linear responses, with average increases of 4.38 and 4.23 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; per kg N, reaching 2989 and 2884 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at the highest dose (525 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;). Maximum productivity values followed the order UC \u0026gt; U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt; NA.\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 2023\u0026ndash;24 season, under favorable climate conditions, UNBPT and ammonium nitrate (NA) increased coffee productivity (Fig. 6; Table S6). Productivity increased linearly with UNBPT, reaching 4660 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 525 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. For NA, the optimal dose was 365 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, yielding 3841 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, exceeding the previous season. Maximum productivity values followed the order U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt; NA \u0026gt; UC, with 4660, 3841, and 3650 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 525, 365, and 298 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN content in the husk and N accumulation in the coffee bean.\u003c/strong\u003e The accumulation of nitrogen in the beans and the nitrogen content in the husk varied according to the nitrogen source and dose across the evaluated crop seasons (Fig. 6; Supplementary Table S6). In 2021\u0026ndash;22, nitrogen accumulation in the beans increased linearly with the applied dose (P \u0026le; 0.05), reaching 43.60 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 171.66 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. The highest doses resulted in maximum values of 83.06 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (UC), 72.33 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e), and 69.65 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 421 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. In 2023\u0026ndash;24, the greatest efficiency was observed at intermediate doses, with 85.36 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (353 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and 92.25 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; (375 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;). At the maximum dose, urea showed an accumulation of 68.66 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor nitrogen content in the husk, in 2021\u0026ndash;22, the maximum value (83.83 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;) was observed at 292 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. In 2022\u0026ndash;23, all sources promoted linear increases, with maximum contents at the highest dose for UC (41.80 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;), NA (40.15 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;), and U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e (39.63 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;). In 2023\u0026ndash;24, U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003emaintained a linear pattern, reaching 66.20 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;, while NA and UC showed maximum values of 66.88 g kg⁻\u0026sup1; (485 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and 54.43 g kg⁻\u0026sup1; (295 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;), respectively. These results reinforce the importance of proper management of nitrogen fertilization in coffee cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe application of ammonium nitrate resulted in volatilization losses lower than 3%. This is because ammonium nitrate supplies nitrogen in the ammonium form (NH₄⁺), which remains stable in the soil as an ionic form, especially in acidic soils, such as those in the present study (pH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;7)\u003csup\u003e8,23\u003c/sup\u003e. Under these conditions, the conversion of NH₄⁺ to NH₃ is minimized, reducing nitrogen losses. These results reinforce the importance of ammonium nitrate (AN) as an efficient strategy for coffee nutrition, with less dependence on specific soil and climate conditions for fertilization. Other studies have also reported higher efficiency of AN compared to conventional urea in coffee plantations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe greatest N-NH₃ losses associated with the use of UC are due to its hydrolysis rate after soil application. Under these conditions, urea is rapidly hydrolyzed by the enzyme urease, forming ammonium (NH₄⁺) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), which favors the subsequent conversion into ammonia\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, the NH₄⁺ formed can be oxidized to nitrate (NO₃⁻) via nitrification, a process that, especially under limited aeration conditions, can release N₂O.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrease originates from various organisms, including bacteria, yeasts, fungi, algae, and residues of animal and plant origin. The latter often results in higher urease activity in environments with significant organic matter accumulation, such as under the canopy of coffee trees\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR27 CR28\" citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This increase in enzymatic activity intensifies ammonia (N-NH₃) volatilization, especially when urea-based fertilizers are surface-applied in the presence of plant residues\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrease activity was consistently high during initial urea applications (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.02 \u0026micro;g NH₄⁺ g⁻\u0026sup1; dry soil h⁻\u0026sup1;), contributing to greater N\u0026ndash;NH₃ losses. This underscores the importance of urease inhibitors in high-activity environments. Climatic conditions, especially rainfall and temperature, strongly influenced urease activity and volatilization in 2021\u0026ndash;22 and 2022\u0026ndash;23. In both seasons, rainfall occurred before fertilization (5.2\u0026ndash;31.8 mm on day 0), followed by irregular rainfall in the subsequent seven days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe precipitation of 31.8 mm during the first application and 30.2 mm during the third application in the 2021\u0026ndash;22 season, before nitrogen fertilization, increased soil moisture, enhancing the urease hydrolysis rate and volatilization losses. The occurrence of these rains favored urease activity in the soil, as moister soils \u0026mdash; with moisture levels between 60% and 80% of field capacity \u0026mdash; tend to promote higher enzymatic activity, contributing to N-NH₃ losses\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperatures above 15\u0026deg;C accelerate the hydrolysis rate of urea, as urease activity increases with rising temperature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In this context, high temperatures recorded in this study [with daily averages of up to 26.7\u0026deg;C (2021\u0026ndash;22 season) and 23.7\u0026deg;C (2022\u0026ndash;23 season)], combined with soil moisture resulting from rainfall before fertilization, favored the solubilization of urea and accelerated its hydrolysis. Consequently, there was an increase in N-NH₃ losses. In the 2021\u0026ndash;22 season, losses of up to 131 kg of N-NH₃ ha⁻\u0026sup1; were quantified at the dose of 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; and 34.08 kg of N-NH₃ ha⁻\u0026sup1; at 150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, both after urea application (considering the sum of the three applications).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is important to highlight that canopy density also influences water infiltration into the soil, as denser canopies can hinder water penetration, prolonging the moisture period on the surface and intensifying N emissions. Although precipitation occurs after fertilization, rainfall has a limited effect on the incorporation of urea into the coffee row fertilization zone because most of the water runs off to the interrows without reaching the fertilized area\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the 2023\u0026ndash;24 season, NH₃-N volatilization showed a distinct pattern compared to previous seasons, mainly influenced by a more regular rainfall regime, especially during the 2nd and 3rd applications. The highest losses occurred in the first two applications, reaching 25 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; of NH₃-N at the 400 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; N rate, and 14.17 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; of NH₃-N at the 150 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; N rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese elevated losses are associated with rainfall events in the days preceding day 0, and the absence of precipitation in the days following fertilization: 0 mm in the seven days after the 1st application and 0.4 mm recorded after the 2nd. These data indicate that fertilization was carried out under conditions of low soil moisture. A wet soil condition followed by drying is considered one of the worst scenarios for urea application, as the reduced water availability after fertilization limits its incorporation into the soil, favoring NH₃-N volatilization losses\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the third application, well-distributed rainfall over the seven days following fertilization favored fertilizer incorporation, reducing volatilization and the exposure time of urea on the soil surface \u0026mdash; which explains the lower accumulated NH₃-N losses during this period. These results reinforce that precipitation has a strong influence on N losses by volatilization in the days following fertilization\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies indicate that the duration of urease inhibition by NBPT ranges from 7 to 14 days, depending on the inhibitor concentration and climatic conditions (temperature and soil and air humidity). In the present study, urea with NBPT reduced NH₃-N volatilization losses compared to conventional urea and delayed emission peaks by up to 3.29 days. In coffee cultivation, the delayed nitrogen release provided by this technology is relevant, as it extends the time available for fertilizer incorporation into the soil. Considering that the coffee plant\u0026rsquo;s phenological cycle requires a continuous nitrogen supply, maintaining nitrogen in the system is essential for the proper development of the crop\u0026rsquo;s reproductive and vegetative stages. It is estimated that 6.2 kg of nitrogen are required to produce one 60-kg sack of commercial coffee, with 3.6 kg allocated to vegetation and 2.6 kg to the beans\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeta-analysis studies indicate that NBPT can reduce NH₃-N volatilization losses by an average of 52% compared to urea\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, its efficacy can be compromised by factors such as temperature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, acidic pH\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, time and storage temperature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and contact with phosphate fertilizers, which contain free acidity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the 2021\u0026ndash;22 season, analysis of NBPT concentration revealed that, as early as the first application, the fertilizer contained 110 mg of NBPT per kg of urea \u0026mdash; a value 79% lower than the minimum required concentration (530 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This information emphasizes the importance of quality control of the inhibitor concentration before and during split applications of N, as in the case of this study, to ensure the efficiency of technologies associated with urea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmmonium nitrate promoted a reduction of approximately 50% in N₂O emissions compared to urea, due to its lower content of nitrogen in the ammoniacal form and, consequently, lower susceptibility to nitrification\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Since about 50% of the nitrogen in ammonium nitrate is in the NO₃⁻ form, N₂O formation via nitrification and denitrification tends to be reduced, especially in wet soils or those with low aeration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, urea treated with NBPT, while effective in reducing ammonia volatilization, exhibited a higher average total N₂O emission (0.168% of applied N) compared to conventional urea (0.127%). Although emission factors during the first two applications were lower for NBPT-treated urea, the increase observed in the third application suggests a decline in inhibitor efficacy over time. This indicates that NBPT degradation may have limited its inhibitory effect on nitrification during the third application, similarly to the pattern observed in ammonia volatilization losses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, it was observed that N₂O emissions for both nitrogen sources were below the reference value recommended by the IPCC for nitrogen fertilization (1%). Similar results have been reported in previous studies, which found emission factors below 1% for nitrogen fertilizers applied in coffee plantations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoffee productivity varied significantly over the experimental years, reflecting both the effects of nitrogen fertilization management and the specific climatic conditions of each crop season. The lowest productivity was observed in 2021\u0026ndash;22 (1847 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;), coinciding with prolonged droughts and high temperatures that impaired flowering, grain filling, and reproductive development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe absence of rainfall in June and July 2021, combined with low precipitation in August and September, was decisive for this reduction, as reported in studies highlighting the impacts of water deficit on the phenological stages of coffee\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR38\" citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The year 2021 ranked among the seven warmest years on record, with the average temperature in Brazil reaching 24.9\u0026deg;C (0.69\u0026deg;C above the historical average for the period 1991\u0026ndash;2020)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. As a consequence, Brazil recorded nearly a 25% decrease in coffee production in 2021\u003csup\u003e41\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the following crop season (2022\u0026ndash;23), still under the residual effect of the previous climatic stress, a significant recovery in productivity was observed. Compared to the 1847 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; recorded in 2021\u0026ndash;22, yields increased up to 1.6 times, reaching 2989 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; with urea application (525 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;), and up to 1.5 times with ammonium nitrate (2847 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; at a dose of 447 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the 2023\u0026ndash;24 season, despite the negative biennial cycle, improved climatic conditions, with more regular rainfall and moderate temperatures, favored the physiological recovery of the plants, resulting in the highest yield among the evaluated years. The NBPT-treated urea (U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e) provided the highest productivity among all nitrogen sources, reaching 4660 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, which is nearly three times higher than the yield of unfertilized plants (0 dose, 1636 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;), representing an increase of approximately 50 bags ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the yield increase, nitrogen use efficiency also improved. For ammonium nitrate, the optimal N rate decreased from 447 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; in the 2022\u0026ndash;23 season to 365 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; in 2023\u0026ndash;24, while yield increased from 2847 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; to 3841 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, equivalent to a gain of approximately 16 bags per hectare. For urea, the optimal N rate was reduced from 525 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; to 298 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, with a yield increase of approximately 11 bags per hectare compared to the previous season.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFUTURE PERSPECTIVES\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmmonium nitrate showed NH₃ volatilization losses below 3% and the lowest N₂O emission factor, standing out as the most promising fertilizer to mitigate GHG emissions in coffee cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea resulted in the highest NH₃ volatilization losses. Urea treated with NBPT reduced volatilization losses by approximately 18% compared to U and delayed the peak emission by up to 2.9 days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e was more effective in reducing both N₂O and NH₃ emission factors during the first and second fertilizer applications. However, the progressive degradation of NBPT over time significantly impacted its effectiveness in mitigating GHG emissions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe emphasize the importance of strict quality control of NBPT concentration in fertilizers to ensure their effectiveness. The selection of the appropriate nitrogen source and the efficient management of fertilization minimize nitrogen losses and enhance the economic and environmental benefits in coffee production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study, conducted over three consecutive growing seasons, builds upon the findings of Taylor et al. (2023) and Sarkis et al. (2023), and is the first to systematically assess nitrogen losses, NBPT effectiveness, urease activity reduction, and coffee yield response under extreme climatic variability. The findings contribute valuable insights to sustainable nitrogen management practices in coffee farming.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEnvironmental Characterization.\u003c/b\u003e This research continues a long-term experiment (9 years) with \u003cem\u003eCoffea arabica\u003c/em\u003e L., cultivar Catua\u0026iacute; 99. The current phase was conducted over three consecutive crop seasons (2021\u0026ndash;22, 2022\u0026ndash;23, and 2023\u0026ndash;24) under field conditions in the municipality of Santo Ant\u0026ocirc;nio do Amparo, Minas Gerais, Brazil, at Fazenda da Lagoa \u0026mdash; a commercial property of Neumann Kaffee Gruppe (NKG) \u0026ndash; Brazilian Farms. The region has a Cwa climate (hot and humid summers; cool and dry winters), with an average annual temperature of 19\u0026deg;C and average precipitation of 1,493 mm. The soil is classified as a red Latosol (\u003cem\u003eOxisol\u003c/em\u003e), according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Detailed climatic information, especially after the applications of nitrogen fertilizers, is available in Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e, Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e and S2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eExperimental Design.\u003c/b\u003e The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replicates, arranged in a 3\u0026times;5 factorial scheme, involving the application of three nitrogen fertilizers \u0026mdash; ammonium nitrate (AN), conventional urea (UC), and urea stabilized with NBPT (U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026mdash; and five doses: 0, 150, 275, 400, and 525 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; per crop season. The experimental units, established since the 2015\u0026ndash;16 crop season, were maintained over the years, each with an area of 32.64 m\u0026sup2;, consisting of 16 coffee plants spaced at 3.40 \u0026times; 0.60 m. Assessments were carried out on the 10 central plants of each plot, considering a population density of 4901 plants ha⁻\u0026sup1;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eQuantification of NBPT in urea before nitrogen fertilizer application\u003c/b\u003e. The concentration of NBPT in urea was determined by HPLC using an Agilent HP1100 system equipped with a diode array detector. Samples were collected before field application on 10/10/2021, 11/25/2021, and 01/15/2022, corresponding to the three nitrogen fertilizer splits during the 2021\u0026ndash;22 crop season. Quantification was performed only in this season due to limitations in analytical resources. Samples were stored under refrigeration and analyzed according to the method of the European Committee for Standardization (2015)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAgronomic Study.\u003c/b\u003e The nutritional management of the coffee crop followed recommendations for adult plantations, respecting the vegetative and productive phases. Agricultural gypsum was applied in October 2020 (500 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and November 2022 (1,601 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;); triple superphosphate in March 2021 (412 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, 46% P₂O₅); ulexite (60 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, 10% B) and potassium chloride (164 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, 60% K₂O) in April 2023. Complete details are provided in Table S2. Phytosanitary management was carried out annually according to the protocols of Fazenda NKG.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMonitoring of Climatic Conditions\u003c/b\u003e. Meteorological data were monitored daily throughout the three crop seasons using a weather station installed near the experimental area. Precipitation, average temperature, and relative humidity (maximum and minimum) were recorded. In addition to total precipitation, effective rainfall (Llefect) was considered, following the approach proposed by Ramirez \u0026amp; Jaramillo (2010)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Jaramillo \u0026amp; Chaves (1999)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which represents the fraction of rainfall potentially infiltrating the soil after losses due to canopy interception and surface runoff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eQuantification of N-NH₃ losses by volatilization.\u003c/b\u003e N-NH₃ losses by volatilization were evaluated using a 3 \u0026times; 2 factorial design (three N sources and two doses: 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;), employing plots from the initial experiment. Quantification was performed using the semi-open static collector method with three chambers per plot\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Samples were collected daily during the first 7 days and on alternate days up to 45 days after application. The absorbed ammonia was extracted and quantified by distillation, with losses expressed in kg ha⁻\u0026sup1; \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eUrease Activity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSoil Sampling.\u003c/b\u003e Urease activity was evaluated in soil samples collected from the 0\u0026ndash;3 cm layer along the fertilizer application line, on the same days as NH₃ measurements (days 1 to 7, and 9, 11, 13, 15, 21, 30, and 45) during the 2021\u0026ndash;22 and 2022\u0026ndash;23 crop seasons. In the 2021\u0026ndash;22 season, sampling followed Sarkis et al. (2023)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and included only the 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; dose; in 2022\u0026ndash;23, it was expanded to include both 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; doses. No sampling was conducted in the 2023\u0026ndash;24 season due to protocol changes. Samples were sieved (2 mm) and stored at 4\u0026deg;C to preserve soil integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnalysis of soil urease activity.\u003c/b\u003e Urease activity was determined following the methodology based on quantifying the ammonium released after the incubation of 5 g of soil with Tris-THAM buffer (pH 9) and 0.2 M urea, at 37\u0026deg;C for 2 hours\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The reaction was stopped with KCl\u0026ndash;Ag₂SO₄ (2.5 M), and the released ammonium was quantified by distillation with magnesium oxide, and subsequently titrated with 0.005 M H₂SO₄\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEvaluation of N₂O fluxes and emissions\u003c/b\u003e. N₂O fluxes were quantified using static closed chambers installed under the canopies in plots receiving 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, representing commercial fertilization. Metal bases (0.182 m\u0026sup2;) were inserted 5 cm into the soil one week before application and remained fixed. The chambers were attached to the bases with a water seal and protected against heating. Fluxes were monitored for 40 days after each split application (between october 2021 and february 2022), with sampling preferably after rainfall events, and subsequently every 25 days until harvest (August). Sampling occurred between 8:30 and 10:00 a.m., with samples collected at 0, 20, 40, and 60 minutes and transferred to vacuum flasks. Air, soil, and chamber temperatures were digitally recorded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN₂O concentrations were determined by gas chromatography equipped with an electron capture detector. Fluxes were calculated according to Martins et al. (2017)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Sarkis et al. (2023). The emission factor (EF) was calculated using the formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:EF=(N-(N2Otreatment-N-N2Ocontrol)/Ntotal$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere EF is the emission factor of the applied fertilizers; N₂O_treat represents the total N\u0026ndash;N₂O emission from each fertilizer treatment; N\u0026ndash;N₂O_control is the total N\u0026ndash;N₂O emission from the control treatment; and N_total is the total nitrogen applied as fertilizer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePlant Analyses: Nitrogen Content in Beans, Pulp, and Leaves.\u003c/b\u003e At the onset of fruit development, approximately 40 healthy leaves were collected from the middle third of each plant per plot. After washing, leaves were digested using the sulfuric acid method for nitrogen determination\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Manual harvest was carried out at the end of the crop cycle when less than 20% of the fruits remained green. Ten plants per plot were harvested, and the total fruit volume was measured in liters. A 5 L subsample was dried to 12% moisture to estimate the processed coffee yield (kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;), considering a plant density of 4901 plants ha⁻\u0026sup1;. Nitrogen contents in beans and pulp were determined using the same method as for the leaves. Nitrogen accumulation was calculated by multiplying the nitrogen content by the yield, divided by 1000.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were subjected to nonlinear regression analysis using a logistic model to evaluate the variable ammonia loss by volatilization (Eq.\u0026nbsp;1). This model is widely used by our research group to estimate the accumulated loss of N-NH₃\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{y}_{\\dot{i}}={E}_{i}\\left[\\frac{a}{1+{{exp}}^{k}\\left(b-daai\\right.}\\right]+{E}_{\\dot{I}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:y\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003ei is the i-th observation of the accumulated N-NH₃ loss (%) with i\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1,2 \u0026hellip; n;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003edaai\u003c/em\u003e is the i-th ay after application; \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e is the asymptotic value, which can be interpreted as the maximum accumulated N-NH₃ loss; \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e is the abscissa of the inflection point and indicates the day at which the maximum volatilization loss occurs; \u003cem\u003ek\u003c/em\u003e is the precocity index, where a higher value indicates a shorter time to reach the maximum accumulated loss (α); \u003cem\u003eEi\u003c/em\u003e s the random error associated with the ii \u0026agrave; i-th observation, assumed to be independent and identically distributed according to a normal distribution with mean zero and constant variance E \u0026sim; N(0, 1σ2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo estimate the maximum daily N-NH₃ loss (MDL), i.e., to determine the inflection point of the curve, the following equation was used:: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:MDL=k\\left(\\frac{a}{4}\\right)\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, where \u003cem\u003ek\u003c/em\u003e is a relative index used to obtain the maximum daily loss (MDL), and \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e is the asymptotic value interpreted as the maximum cumulative N-NH₃ loss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter verifying the normality and homogeneity of variances for productivity data and nitrogen content in leaves and coffee beans obtained for each crop season, analyses were performed using the R software. In case of significant effects among nitrogen sources by the F-test (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), mean values were grouped using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test at the same significance level. To model the dependent variable\u0026rsquo;s response to applied doses, different regression models were tested. For some variables in each season, the Linear-Plateau model was selected for providing the best statistical fit, as indicated by the lowest AIC value and highest adjusted R\u0026sup2;. The analysis was conducted in R using the 'nls()' function from the 'stats' package\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to the Agency for Improvement of Higher-Level Personnel (Capes), the National Council for Scientific Development and Technology (CNPq), the Minas Gerais Research Foundation (FAPEMIG) and Yara International. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTe study was in accordance with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA.B.da.F. Conducted the experiment, data collection, analysis, writing and interpretation of dados, M.P.D. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection, analysis, writing and interpretation of dados. D.P.O Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. G.H.F.de.L Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. A.dos.S.Z Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. C.J.H. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. M.V.A.P. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. E.S.S. Helped in conducted the experiment, data collection. T.de.J.F. statistical analysis and and interpretation of dados. T.R.de.S. organized the research experiments. V.R.B. organized the research experiments. D.G. Conceptualization, methodology, visualization, analysis, writing and interpretation of dados.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Agency for Improvement of Higher-Level Personnel, the National Council for Scientific Development and Technology, and the Minas Gerais.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdditional information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCONAB - Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento. \u003cem\u003eAcompanhamento Da Safra Brasileira de Caf\u0026eacute;\u003c/em\u003e. vol. 1 https://www.gov.br/conab/pt-br/atuacao/informacoes-agropecuarias/safras/safra-de-cafe/1o-levantamento-de-cafe-safra-2025/boletim-cafe-janeiro-2025 (2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVargas, V. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eCarbon Footprint in Agriculture: Insights towards Neutral Crop Production and Industry Integration\u003c/em\u003e. (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuelfi, D., Silva, R. C., Otto, R. \u0026amp; Cantarella, H. Avan\u0026ccedil;os nas pesquisas, inova\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es e tecnologias para fertilizantes nitrogenados. in \u003cem\u003eT\u0026oacute;picos em ci\u0026ecirc;ncia do solo \u003c/em\u003evol. 11 106\u0026ndash;158 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMartinez, H. E. P., Clemente, J. M., De Lacerda, J. S., Neves, Y. P. \u0026amp; Pedrosa, A. W. Nutri\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o mineral do cafeeiro e qualidade da bebida. \u003cem\u003eRevista Ceres\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e61\u003c/strong\u003e, 838\u0026ndash;848 (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOtto, R., Cantarella, H., Guelfi, D. \u0026amp; Carvalho, M. C. S. Nitrog\u0026ecirc;nio na sustentabilidade de sistemas agr\u0026iacute;colas. in \u003cem\u003eInforma\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es agron\u0026ocirc;micas - NPCT\u003c/em\u003e vol. 9 30\u0026ndash;50 (Piracicaba, 2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFavarin, J. L., Tezotto, T. \u0026amp; Neto, A. P. Balan\u0026ccedil;o nutricional em caf\u0026eacute;: estudo de caso. \u003cem\u003eVis\u0026atilde;o agr\u0026iacute;cola\u003c/em\u003e 79\u0026ndash;86 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMatiello, J. B., Santinato, R., Almeida, S. R. \u0026amp; Garcia, A. W. R. \u003cem\u003eCultura Do Caf\u0026eacute; No Brasil\u003c/em\u003e. vol. 4 (S\u0026atilde;o Paulo, 2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCantarella, H. Fertilidade do solo - Nitrog\u0026ecirc;nio. in \u003cem\u003eFertilidade do Solo \u003c/em\u003e(eds. Novais, R. F. et al.) vol. 8 375\u0026ndash;470 (2007, Vi\u0026ccedil;osa , 2007).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSarkis, L. 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AR4 Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. 1\u0026ndash;1 (2007).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTian, H. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e A comprehensive quantification of global nitrous oxide sources and sinks. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e586\u003c/strong\u003e, 248\u0026ndash;256 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCantarella, H. \u003cem\u003eOp\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es de Fontes de Nitrog\u0026ecirc;nio Para Aa Agricultura Brasileira\u003c/em\u003e. vol. 20 (Campinas, 2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuelfi, D. Fertilizantes nitrogenados estabilizados, de libera\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o lenta ou controlada. \u003cem\u003eInforma\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es agron\u0026ocirc;micas IPNI\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e157\u003c/strong\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;32 (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEngel, R. E., Towey, B. D. \u0026amp; Gravens, E. Degradation of the Urease Inhibitor NBPT as Affected by Soil pH. \u003cem\u003eSoil Science Society of America Journal\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e79\u003c/strong\u003e, 1674\u0026ndash;1683 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChagas, W. F. T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Ammonia volatilization from blends with stabilized and controlled-released urea in the coffee system Volatiliza\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de am\u0026ocirc;nia de blends com ureia estabilizada e de libera\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o controlada no cafeeiro. \u003cem\u003eCi\u0026ecirc;ncia e Agrotecnologia\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e40\u003c/strong\u003e, 497\u0026ndash;509 (2016).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWatson, C. J., Stevens, R. J. \u0026amp; Laughlin, R. J. \u003cem\u003eEffectiveness of the Urease Inhibitor NBPT (N-(n-Butyl) Thiophosphoric Triamide) for Improving the Efficiency of Urea for Ryegrass Production\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eFertilizer Research\u003c/em\u003e vol. 24 (1990).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSouza, T. L. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Nitrogen fertilizer technologies: Opportunities to improve nutrient use efficiency towards sustainable coffee production systems. \u003cem\u003eAgric Ecosyst Environ\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e345\u003c/strong\u003e, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFonseca, A. B. da S. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Urease inhibitors technologies as strategy to mitigate agricultural ammonia emissions and enhance the use efficiency of urea-based fertilizers. \u003cem\u003eSci Rep\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSha, Z. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Effect of combining urea fertilizer with P and K fertilizers on the efficacy of urease inhibitors under different storage conditions. \u003cem\u003eJ Soils Sediments\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e, 2130\u0026ndash;2140 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWatson, C. J., Akhonzada, N. A., Hamilton, J. T. G. \u0026amp; Matthews, D. I. Rate and mode of application of the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide on ammonia volatilization from surface-applied urea. \u003cem\u003eSoil Use Manag\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e24\u003c/strong\u003e, 246\u0026ndash;253 (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCivardi, E. A., Silveira Neto, A. N. da, Ragagnin, V. A., Godoy, E. R. \u0026amp; Brod, E. Ureia De Libera\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o Lenta Aplicada Superficialmente E Ureia Comum Incorporada Ao Solo No Rendimento Do Milho. \u003cem\u003ePesqui Agropecu Trop\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e41\u003c/strong\u003e, 52\u0026ndash;59 (2011).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFontoura, S. M. V. \u0026amp; Bayer, C. Ammonia volatilization in no-till system in the south-central region of the State of Paran\u0026aacute;, Brazil. \u003cem\u003eRev Bras Cienc Solo\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e, 1677\u0026ndash;1684 (2010).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ede Souza, T. L. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Nitrogen fertilizer technologies: Opportunities to improve nutrient use efficiency towards sustainable coffee production systems. \u003cem\u003eAgric Ecosyst Environ\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e345\u003c/strong\u003e, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCantarella, H., Otto, R., Soares, J. R. \u0026amp; Silva, A. G. de B. Agronomic efficiency of NBPT as a urease inhibitor: A review. \u003cem\u003eJ Adv Res\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 19\u0026ndash;27 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdetunji, A. T., Lewu, F. B., Mulidzi, R. \u0026amp; Ncube, B. The biological activities of \u0026beta;-glucosidase, phosphatase and urease as soil quality indicators: a review. \u003cem\u003eJ Soil Sci Plant Nutr\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e, 794\u0026ndash;807 (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eByrnes, B. H. \u0026amp; Amberger, \u0026amp; A. \u003cem\u003eFate of Broadcast Urea in a Flooded Soil When Treated with N-(n-Butyl) Thiophosphoric Triamide, a Urease Inhibitor\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eFertilizer Research\u003c/em\u003e vol. 18 (1989).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlose, S., Tabatabai, M. A. \u0026amp; Klose, S. \u003cem\u003eUrease Activity of Microbial Biomass in Soils as Affected by Cropping Systems\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eBiol Fertil Soils\u003c/em\u003e vol. 31 (2000).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMotasim, A. M. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Urea application in soil: processes, losses, and alternatives\u0026mdash;a review. \u003cem\u003eDiscover Agriculture\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e, (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLei, T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Urease activity and urea hydrolysis rate under coupling effects of moisture content, temperature, and nitrogen application rate. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e, 132\u0026ndash;138 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlimczyk, M., Siczek, A. \u0026amp; Schimmelpfennig, L. Improving the efficiency of urea-based fertilization leading to reduction in ammonia emission. \u003cem\u003eScience of the Total Environment\u003c/em\u003e vol. 771 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145483 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRamirez, V. H. \u0026amp; Jaramillo, A. Estimaci\u0026oacute;n de la humedad del suelo en cafetales a libre exposici\u0026oacute;n solar. \u003cem\u003eCenicaf\u0026eacute;\u003c/em\u003e 251\u0026ndash;259 (2010).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCameron, K. C., Di, H. J. \u0026amp; Moir, J. L. Nitrogen losses from the soil/plant system: A review. \u003cem\u003eAnnals of Applied Biology\u003c/em\u003e vol. 162 145\u0026ndash;173 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1111/aab.12014 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFreitas, T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Technologies for Fertilizers and Management Strategies of N-Fertilization in Coffee Cropping Technologies for Fertilizers and Management Strategies of N-Fertilization in Coffee Cropping Systems to Reduce Ammonia Losses by Volatilization. (2022) doi:10.3390/plants11233323.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSoares, J. R., Cantarella, H. \u0026amp; Menegale, M. L. de C. Ammonia volatilization losses from surface-applied urea with urease and nitrification inhibitors. \u003cem\u003eSoil Biol Biochem\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e52\u003c/strong\u003e, 82\u0026ndash;89 (2012).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBesen, M. R. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Modelling of N2O emissions from a maize crop after the application of enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilisers. \u003cem\u003eCommun Soil Sci Plant Anal\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e52\u003c/strong\u003e, 1645\u0026ndash;1656 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMesquita, C. M. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eManual Do Caf\u0026eacute; - Implanta\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de Cafezais (Coffea Arabica L.)\u003c/em\u003e. (Emater, Belo Horizonte, 2016).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaes, \u0026Acirc;., Camargo, D. E., Bento, M. \u0026amp; De Camargo (, P. Defini\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o e esquematiza\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o das fases fenol\u0026oacute;gicas do cafeeiro ar\u0026aacute;bica nas condi\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es tropicais do Brasil. \u003cem\u003eBragantia\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e, 65\u0026ndash;68 (2001).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ede Oliveira Aparecido, L. E. \u0026amp; de Souza Rolim, G. Models for simulating the frequency of pests and diseases of Coffea arabica L. \u003cem\u003eInt J Biometeorol\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e64\u003c/strong\u003e, 1063\u0026ndash;1084 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eINMET. Ano de 2023 \u0026eacute; o mais quente da s\u0026eacute;rie hist\u0026oacute;rica no Brasil. \u003cem\u003eInstituto Nacional de Meteorologia\u003c/em\u003e (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eICO - International Coffee Organization. \u003cem\u003eCoffee Price Rise Continues in November Reaching a 10-Year High\u003c/em\u003e. (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUSDA. \u003cem\u003eKeys to Soil Taxonomy\u003c/em\u003e. (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEuropean Committee for Standardizatio. Fertilizers-Determination of N-(n-Butyl)thiophosphoric acid triamide (NBPT) and N-(n-Propyl)thiophosphoric acid triamide (NPPT)- Method using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJaramillo, A. \u0026amp; Chaves, B. Aspectos hidrologicos en un bosque y en plantaciones de cafe (Coffea arabica L.) al sol y bajo sombra. \u003cem\u003eCenicaf\u0026eacute;\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e50\u003c/strong\u003e, 97\u0026ndash;105 (1999).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCabezas, A. R. L., Trivelin, P. C. O., Bendassolli, J. A., De Santana, D. G. \u0026amp; Gascho, G. J. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis Calibration of a semi-open static collector for determination of ammonia volatilization from nitrogen fertilizers. (2008) doi:10.1080/00103629909370211.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJ. Kjeldahl. Neue Methode zur Bestimmung des Stickstoffs in organischen K\u0026ouml;rpern. \u003cem\u003eZeitschrift f\u0026uuml;r analytische Chemie\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e22\u003c/strong\u003e, (1883).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSarkis, L. F. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Nitrogen fertilizers technologies as a smart strategy to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions and preserve carbon and nitrogen soil stocks in a coffee crop system. \u003cem\u003eAtmos Environ X\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTabatabai, M. A. EFFECTS OF TRACE ELEMENTS ON UREASE ACTIVITY IN SOILS*. \u003cem\u003eSoil Biology Biochemistry \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e, 9\u0026ndash;13 (1977).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMartins, M. R. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions from N fertilization of maize crop under no-till in a Cerrado soil. \u003cem\u003eSoil Tillage Res\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e151\u003c/strong\u003e, 75\u0026ndash;81 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBremner, J. M. Nitrogen Total. in \u003cem\u003eMethods of Soil Analysis: Part Chemical Methods\u003c/em\u003e vol. 5.3 1085\u0026ndash;1121 (1996).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSantos, C. F. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Environmentally friendly urea produced from the association of N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide with biodegradable polymer coating obtained from a soybean processing byproduct. \u003cem\u003eJ Clean Prod\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e276\u003c/strong\u003e, (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFerreira, D. F. Sisvar: Um sistema computacional de an\u0026aacute;lise estat\u0026iacute;stica. \u003cem\u003eCiencia e Agrotecnologia\u003c/em\u003e vol. 35 1039\u0026ndash;1042 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-70542011000600001 (2011).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u003c/strong\u003e Regression parameters fitted to the accumulated losses of N-NH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e by volatilization (2021\u0026ndash;22, 2022\u0026ndash;23 and 2023\u0026ndash;24 crop seasons).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFertilizers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParceled application\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 205px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParmeter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMDL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMDL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ek\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ek\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(N-NH\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003eha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(N-NH\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003eha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(N-NH\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003eha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(N-NH\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003eha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"12\" style=\"width: 744px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrop season 2021 \u0026ndash; 22\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDose 150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ekg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDose 400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ekg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmmonium nitrate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.119\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econventional\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eU\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"12\" style=\"width: 744px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrop season 2022 \u0026ndash; 23\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmmonium nitrate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econventional\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eU\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"12\" style=\"width: 744px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrop season 2023 \u0026ndash; 24\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmmonium nitrate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econventional\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n 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\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eU\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.77\u003c/p\u003e\n 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82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026sup1;: Application of nitrogen fertilizer corresponding to 1/3 of the doses of 150 and 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;. The following parameters were considered: \u0026alpha; \u0026ndash; asymptotic value representing the maximum accumulated N\u0026ndash;NH₃ loss; abscissa of the inflection point, indicating the day when the highest volatilization occurs; k \u0026ndash; precocity index, which determines the time required to reach the maximum accumulated loss (\u0026alpha;); and MDL \u0026ndash; maximum daily loss, corresponding to the highest value of N\u0026ndash;NH₃ volatilized in a single day, calculated by the equation MDL = k \u0026times; \u0026alpha;/4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eN\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO emission factor of different nitrogen fertilizers and application periods.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFertilizers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1st parceled application\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2nd parceled\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eapplication\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3rd parceled\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eapplication\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 556px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.316\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eU\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.256\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Ammonia volatilization, urease inhibitors, Coffea arabica L., ammonium nitrate, nitrous oxide","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6719604/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6719604/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated, over three crop seasons, the fertilizers: ammonium nitrate (AN), conventional urea (UC), and urea with N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e), applied at five rates (0 to 525 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;). The following parameters were analyzed: NBPT concentration, urease activity, leaf N content, N accumulation in the beans, ammonia volatilization losses, and yield. At the 150 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; rate, N-NH₃ losses were UC (20%)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e (16%)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;AN (0.87%). At 400 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1;, losses were 18% (UC), 16% (U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e), and 0.69% (AN), respectively. AN reduced volatilization by up to 96%, while U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e delayed peak loss by up to 3.3 days, reduced urease activity by 92%, and mitigated cumulative losses by 45% compared to UC. Both AN and U\u003csub\u003eNBPT\u003c/sub\u003e significantly reduced nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, with emission factors below those recommended by the IPCC. These technologies, which minimize volatilization losses and greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, are essential for sustainable coffee production. This study contributes to advances in the efficient and sustainable management of nitrogen in coffee cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Advances in nitrogen fertilizer technologies for improved nutrient efficiency and sustainable coffee production","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-10 10:13:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6719604/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-25T05:03:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-25T01:56:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-22T07:29:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"46273883771123124458115526362805710273","date":"2025-06-18T02:42:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"94955886815694593024201515298361341021","date":"2025-06-15T07:12:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"173753405676268817208021084664835132444","date":"2025-06-13T02:51:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"236625589638570666361142244083773920825","date":"2025-06-10T02:15:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-06T10:53:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-06T10:48:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-02T08:50:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-29T13:07:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-05-29T13:03:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f628b179-135c-4ff0-aa66-7015d8ee7dbe","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[{"id":49727022,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences/Environmental impact"},{"id":49727023,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences"},{"id":49727024,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Atmospheric science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-11T18:23:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-10 10:13:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6719604","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6719604","identity":"rs-6719604","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}