Insights into radiography education in Ghana: Document analysis of curricula contents and perspectives of selected stakeholders

Insights into radiography education in Ghana: Document analysis of curricula contents and perspectives of selected stakeholders | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Insights into radiography education in Ghana: Document analysis of curricula contents and perspectives of selected stakeholders Jacob Leonard Ago, Samuel Anim-Sampong, Loyal Gold Marteki Markwei, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5759313/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background The current state of radiography education (RE) in Ghana is unclear due to the surge in public universities offering radiography programmes (RPs) in the last eight years. This study examined RE in Ghana through an exploration of students’, educators, and a regulatory official’s perspectives and a comparison of curricula used by training institutions. Methods A mixed-method approach allowed the study to be conducted in four phases. Study participants in all phases were purposively sampled. Data from Phase one (P1) was analysed by content analysis approach while thematic analysis was applied to the data in phases two (P2) and three (P3) using NVivo™ 14. In contrast, the data from Phase four (P4) were descriptively and inferentially analysed using SPSS v29. These analysis methods allowed for the generation of themes, frequency tables and graphs. Associations were deemed significant at p < 0.05. Results The results in P1 revealed variations in curricula employed by training institutions. In P2, the accreditation process and criteria were identified. Three themes emerged from P3: RP comparison, challenges in RE and impact, and improvement strategies. Several negative and positive perspectives were identified in P4. Conclusion The RE curriculum structure provides a solid foundation for training radiographers, nonetheless, the lack of harmonisation across institutions and resource constraints pose significant challenges to the quality of education and training. These could be addressed through curriculum reforms, improved resource allocation, and enhanced collaboration between academic and clinical institutions. Radiography education curriculum clinical practice low-resourced setting Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Radiography involves the use of ionising and non-ionising radiation to diagnose and treat various health conditions. The rapid technological advancements, new imaging procedures, and the call for advanced practice, require professionals with several capabilities to practice competently and efficiently in this constantly evolving profession [ 1 ]. The first requirement for professional recognition as a radiographer in many countries is to complete a radiography programme (RP) accredited by a national accreditation body or professional body or a RP approved by a national regulatory body. Additionally, some countries require that graduates undertake a national professional licensure examination, as in Ghana. While exploring strategies to achieve accreditation requirements in RE, Arruzza [ 2 ] argued that “the world (of radiography) has changed, and we must change with it” (p.1). Consequently, the development of training curricula must be geared towards spearheading the acquisition of required professional capabilities [ 3 ]. Thus, the curriculum for radiography education (RE) must balance giving students a strong foundation in the principles that underpin radiography practice with career advancement opportunities to effectively practice beyond entry-level [ 2 , 3 ]. Without a guideline to ensure that graduates possess the required professional capabilities, modern undergraduate RPs may prioritise teaching projection radiographic imaging skills over other imaging modalities [ 4 ]. This may be problematic for new graduates as they may not be able to meet the demands of the workplace to assist in advanced radiography procedures. Notably, there has been a significant increase in the number of these advanced imaging procedures such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). For example, 204,660 CT examinations were performed in Ghana in 2020 [ 5 ] while the international literature has reported a constant increase in the frequency of MRI procedures [ 6 ]. Due to the constantly evolving nature of radiography practice, approach to developing effective curricula could follow the guidelines given by Thomas et al. [ 7 ]. According to Thomas et al. [ 7 ], the first step to developing effective medical education curricula is to identify the current problems and assessment of general needs. As a resource-limited country, one of the key challenges of radiography education in Ghana is inadequate advanced imaging modalities, which could hinder students’ hands-on training in these modalities. However, it is unclear how the current state of the radiography curricula in Ghana is structured to ensure that students are provided with adequate training in not only projection radiography. Against the challenges of inadequate training resources [ 8 ], an increase in the number of RE providers in Ghana has occurred with seven current providers in the last eight years (2016–2024). This could be a positive development for strengthening the radiography workforce. However, there are concerns regarding rising challenges of increased student enrollment which has exacerbated inadequate hands-on training [ 8 ]. This study, therefore, explored the current state of RE in Ghana and strategies for improving the training of the future workforce. Methods Study design, population and sample size, and inclusion and exclusion criteria This was a mixed-methods study with four distinct, but interrelated phases. The approach was deemed appropriate as the researchers intended to explore the phenomenon under study using a blend of qualitative and quantitative designs. A sample size of 90 students was estimated using Cochran’s formula for categorical variables [ 9 ], with a 5% error margin. However, only 73 students participated in the study. Table 1 outlines the design, population, sampling and sample size, and inclusion and exclusion criteria for each phase while Fig. 1 shows the geographical location of the radiography training institutions in Ghana. Table 1 Summary of the research methods Description Phase one (P1) Phase two (P2) Phase three (P3) Phase four (P4) Study design Comparative descriptive design Exploratory descriptive design Exploratory sequential design Population Curricula for radiography education from five radiography training institutions An Official Member from the Allied Health Professions Council, Ghana Head of Departments (HoDs) of Radiography from five radiography training institutions 117 final year diagnostic radiography students Sampling and sample size Five publicly available radiography curricula were included using convenient sampling. The Official Member was recruited by purposive sampling. Three conveniently sampled HoDs 73 purposively sampled final year diagnostic radiography students Inclusion criteria Only the current versions of the diagnostic radiography curricula The Official Member in charge of radiography curricula assessment and evaluation. All consenting HoDs from the institutions that agreed to participate in the study All consenting final-year Diagnostic Radiography students from the institutions that agreed to participate in the study Exclusion criteria Older versions of diagnostic radiography curricula and all versions of non-diagnostic radiography curricula Officers in charge of other allied health programmes HoDs from the non-consenting institutions. Final year diagnostic radiography students from non-consenting institutions, non-final year diagnostic radiography students, and all non-diagnostic radiography students Data collection Document analysis Semi-structured interviews Quantitative survey Data analysis Content analysis Reflexive thematic analysis Descriptive and inferential statistics Data collection tools In Phase one (P1), a self-designed data collection sheet using Microsoft Excel (Version 2016) and an adapted course classification tool [ 10 ] were employed. The classification tool enabled the courses identified in the curricula to be categorised into natural sciences (NS), humanities, imaging technology and technique (ITT), clinical practice (CP), and research. The self-designed sheet sought information concerning institution name (which was coded), programme duration, yearly term, other non-diagnostic radiography, total credit hour per classification, uniqueness in terms of courses, and teaching methods. In Phases two (P2) and three (P3), self-designed semi-structured interview guides with two main questions, and probing questions where needed, were applied. Furthermore, the findings from P3 informed the self-designed questionnaire which was applied to gather data on students’ perspectives of the RPs (P4). All tools can be found in Supplementary sheet 1. Reliability and validity of quantitative data collection tools The data collection sheets applied in P1 were pilot tested using a previous version of one of the curricula to ascertain its efficacy. Again, the questionnaire utilised in P4 was independently assessed by two experienced radiography academics to ensure validity. All suggestions and corrections from the two academics were incorporated before pilot-testing with five third-year diagnostic radiography students. After adjustments were made following feedback from the pilot study, the questionnaire was re-tested with the five students, resulting in a test-retest reliability. Trustworthiness of the qualitative data As suggested by Johnson et al. [ 11 ], P2 and P3 were conducted with all four qualitative rigour indicators upheld: credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. Credibility was achieved through member checking. Participants were sent a summary of the transcripts to confirm that the transcripts represent their actual opinion on the subject matter [ 12 ]. Confirmability was achieved by the use of quotes from participants in reporting the findings [ 11 ], while the use of a mixed-methods approach and a clarification of the different deigns (Table 1 ) satisfy the dependability and transferability requirements [ 13 , 14 ]. Data collection process Regarding P1, the five curricula were assessed by downloading the students’ handbooks available on each institutional website. Data was then extracted according to the data collection sheets after an analysis of each content. This spanned 2 weeks and was conducted by GA and SAS. Furthermore, in-depth interviews with the AHPC Official (P2) and the HoDs (P3) were conducted via Microsoft Teams™ (version 24091.214.2846.1452; Redmond, USA, 2024). This spanned 4 weeks and was conducted by JLA and LMM. Additionally, a Qualtrics™ (Qualtrics, Provo, UT)-generated questionnaire was used for P4. The link to the survey was distributed on the official WhatsApp platforms of the included students and was available for four weeks. Data analysis Data from P1 were analysed using content analysis approach. Findings were presented as frequencies using tables and bar graphs. In P2 and P3, reflexive thematic analysis [ 15 ] were performed separately with NVivo™ 14 (QSR International Pty Ltd., Australia), following verbatim transcription of the interview recordings. This allowed for the generation of codes in P3 which were then classified as themes. Furthermore, both descriptive and inferential statistics were applied in P4 using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics was used to describe the data findings with the generation of frequency tables and bar graphs while inferentially, the chi-square test was used to ascertain associations at a significance of p < 0.05. Ethics considerations The study was ethically approved by the ethics and protocol review committee of the School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana (SBAHS/AA/RAD/ 1087699/2023–2024 ). The names of the radiography training institutions were assigned alphabetical codes for anonymity, while all participants in P2 to P4 were pre-informed of their requirements, including the right to leave the study at any point in time. Regarding P2 to P4, participants’ names were not asked, and where appropriate pseudonyms were used to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. It was also ensured that participants consented to partake in the study before enlistment. Results Document analysis Programme duration, other disciplines, teaching methodologies and course content uniqueness From Table 2 , all five schools run a four-year programme with two semesters in each academic year, except school D which runs on a trimester system. While no school runs a nuclear medicine programme, Schools B and C run diagnostic medical sonography programmes in addition to the diagnostic radiography stream while students from School A has the option to choose therapy RP from the third year. Again, most institutions (n = 3, 60%) employed the didactic lecture teaching method while only two institutions (40%) provide reading tasks as a teaching method. The lack of clarity about teaching methods from two providers made analysis extremely challenging. Table 2 Document analysis CURRICULA CHARACTERISTICS Institution Program Duration (Years) System Other Streams Curriculum Uniqueness A 4 Semester Radiotherapy Forensic imaging, Artificial intelligence in medical imaging, critical thinking B 4 Semester sonography Clinical seminar, critical thinking C 4 Semester sonography Problem-based learning, Radiological pharmacology, Contrast media imaging, specialisation/career progression D 4 Trimester - Critical thinking, Forensic imaging, French Language E 4 Semester - First aid and disaster management, pharmacology in radiology, French Language, Forensic imaging, Artificial intelligence TEACHING METHODOLOGIES Didactic lectures Tutorials Clinical skill training Group presentation Practical sessions Problem-based learning Reading tasks A B C † * † ** † † *** † D † * † ** † † † *** † † E † * † ** † *** A and B were unspecified regarding teaching methodologies † = Teaching methodology type is applied † * = Teaching methodology applied the most † ** = Second most applied teaching method † *** = third most applied teaching method Generally, the various institutions have similar course contents. The results revealed that most schools include introductory courses in Forensic Radiography, Nuclear Medicine, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in medical imaging. However, this was not a case for Schools B and D, as they did not have an AI course. In addition, the former do not have courses in Nuclear Medicine and Forensic Radiography, although they were the only institution with a Clinical Seminar course. Further, whereas School E were the only institution without a critical thinking course, they were the only institution which have a course in First Aid and Disaster Management. In terms of radiopharmacology and contrast media imaging, it was found that institutions either incorporate them in Patient Management or Specialized Imaging Modalities respectively. Table 2 details the uniqueness of course contents found in the document analysis. Course Contents Overall, 36 different courses were identified across curricula (NS = 10 courses, humanities = 11, ITT = 9, CP = 3, and research = 3) (Table 3 ). From Fig. 2 , all institutions dedicate most of their credit hours to courses in the ITT category and focus sparingly on research. Again, across institutions, more time is spent on courses in the natural sciences than CP, with School C allocating almost equal total credit hours to courses in natural sciences and imaging technology and technique. Proportionately, School E spend the maximum amount of time in CP (37 total credit hours). It was unclear from the document analysis how many hours of teaching and clinical training correspond to a credit hour. Table 3 Course classification grid used for the credit-hour analysis Natural Science Humanities Imaging Technology & Technique Clinical practice Research Fundamental & medical imaging physics Academic Writing/Communication skills Introduction to Radiography Professional practice (Bio)statistics (Bio)chemistry Critical Thinking Computer Applications Clinical seminar Research Methodology Microbiology African Studies Radiographic Imaging Processes placement Research project General pathology Psychology Radiographic Technique Anatomy & physiology Medical Sociology Forensic Imaging Mathematics Patient Management Quality Assurance and quality management Basic Medical Genetics Health Law Specialized Imaging Modalities Radiobiology & Radiation Protection Entrepreneurship and Management Pattern recognition History and Philosophy of Science Public health Artificial Intelligence Radiological pharmacology (and contrast media imaging) French Medical Terminology African Studies First aid NB: All courses appearing in two or more of the curricula were written once Stakeholders’ perspectives Results from P2 The AHPC regulates the training of radiography students and reviews the radiography curriculum of institutions before accreditation (Table 4 , Report 1) and considers factors such as admission criteria and availability of resources (Table 4 , Report 2). The AHPC official indicated that the radiography curricula in Ghana lack harmony and have many limitations (Table 4 , Report 3), while emphasising on the expectation of the council for graduates to demonstrate many professional capabilities (Table 4 , Report 4a). However, he indicated that due to inadequate modalities and training facilities as well as differences in curricula, the AHPC’s annual licensure exams focus basically on general radiography although students are expected to understand the principles of all other imaging modalities (Table 4 , Report 4b). Table 4 Sample reports from Phase 2 Description Reference quote Report 1 [The AHPC] regulate the professional training, … they see to it that the training is in line with international norms and then we don't produce, or we don't allow quacks to operate within our health system Report 2 … the criteria [include a] faculty [with] at least a master's degree, [basically] research master's, … [the number of] … professional radiographers in the faculty [and] other supporting staff, [such as] technical staff, … and source of funds for the training programme, so that we don't start and then get stuck … along the way … . Report 3 … the curriculum is not harmonised. Each institution has its own curriculum … [and sometimes] the important courses are [excluded]. You will not find dental radiography and mammography, relevant courses that the students should do to be able to practice in some areas … So, there are a lot of limitations on the curriculum that we learn in the country…. Report 4a [Graduates] should have the skills that require [them] to do whatever [they] are asked to do when [they] are in the real world or … hospital as a radiographer. So, you can't enumerate the competencies because each course needs competence or the skills that you need to have . Report 4b The Licensure exam is normally based on the conventional radiography practice and … other things like radiation protection, which is so relevant, radiographic anatomy, [and] patient care … [The reason is that] we know, we are now certain that not all hospitals or all places have MRI, CT, fluoroscopy and others, [and] … [differences in course contents] … [However], that doesn't mean that we cannot ask questions on MRI or CT because it is [expected] that you should know… Report 5a … faculty, lack of personnel to supervise the students, … constant breakdown of equipment and lack of imaging modalities [are the main challenges]. Some of the students at times will complete their whole four-year programme without having access to modalities like MRI or CT, or even fluoroscopy... Report 5b [In one of my curriculum reviews], I saw one person teaching about eight courses. How effective would this be? And what time will he get to even do research? … [which is] part of his [responsibilities] ... Report 6 … there is a need for the Ministry of Education and Health to look into this by supporting the training programmes everywhere in the [country]. On changes, the AHPC official shared that radiography institutions in Ghana lack human and material resources which can lead to burnout in the few available staff (Table 4 , Reports 5a and 5b). He concluded that the support of the Ministries of Education and Health will help to overcome these challenges (Table 4 , Report 6). Results from P3 (HoDs): Reflexive thematic analysis RP comparison, challenges in RE and Impact, and strategies for improvement were the three themes identified Theme 1: RPs comparison The HoD from School D confirmed that his institution runs a trimester system. Regarding credit hour allocation for theory and clinical components, the HoD of School A indicated that a one-credit hour theoretical course equates to one hour of teaching and/or one hour of practical training per week whereas a one-credit hour of CP corresponds to three hour of clinical training per week. … [School D] runs a trimester-based system, which means rather than having a semester where you have two times we run three times. So, we have normal lectures in the 1st and 2nd trimesters. (HoD, School D). In my school, a one-credit hour theoretical course equates to one hour of teaching [and/or] one hour of practical training per week … For the clinical training, we usually assign six credits per block, and students spend six hours per day for three days per week on placement … but … some students prefer to do longer than six hours depending on the training facility. (HoD, School A) It was revealed that most of the institutions start intensive CP from the 2nd year, with the first-year placement serving as a period of orientation to the hospital settings. … the clinical training is more intense from the second year … (HoD, School A). … what we do [in the first year] is we let them get exposure to hospital practise right from the [out-patient department] up to the radiology units ... [in order] to understand how patients come in, how they are received, record keeping [and] modes of payment. They also learn how [to use] other equipment outside of the imaging units [such as] BP apparatus, oxygen monitors, etc. (HoD, school D). CP assessment generally centres on general radiography and starts from year two. Although School A have clinical logbooks, there has been a recent challenge in implementation. CP assessment in School C is done by both clinical supervisors and an academic staff member. … in year one, we don't assess students after that [ CP ] because at that stage they have not done any radiography yet… (HoD, School D). “We have logbooks for students. [But] over the past two or three years, … the logbooks are not available … [Also], the assessment has not been fair [because it] is usually based on just one basic procedure, which is the general X-rays.” (HoD, School A). … we have different forms of assessment, so … we are able to use enough faculty and also preceptors on the site. … We send [faculty members] to various facilities to inspect the training of the students, [and] … we assign specific faculty members to specific students . (HoD, School C). Theme 2: Challenges in RE and Impact Radiography institutions lack an adequate number of academic staff and support from radiographers in clinical supervision. We started off with nine faculty members and just before we got to the radiography level, three of our members left. And these were all radiographers. It’s challenging. (HoD, School D). … as for challenges, we don’t have enough faculty members and the [entire] country is plagued with shortage of clinical staff, which is one big challenge that we have. So there are no radiographers to assist with clinical training because they are leaving the country. (HoD, School A). Monetary issues and lack of government support are factors in staff shortages. Salaries are generally not good, [and] the motivation is not there. So, people finish and they want to run into places that they will be comfortable. (HoD, School A) But … the fact that the government is not recruiting into the public institutions, … we have very little to do here. People are outside now [and want] to come in, but we cannot recruit them because we don't have the capacity to do that [sigh]. (HoD, School D). The other challenge identified was a high number of student enrolments, which may impede students’ hands-on training due to the inadequate resources. Ordinarily when we started, [we planned on] admitting only between 20 and 25 to start with and we could give them the training that could be of quality. But presently we are handling classes not less than 70 for every level. (HoD, School D). The identified impact was ineffective training which could result from academic staff burnout. … you can imagine … how the pressure would be like having to train 70 radiography [students with] only six faculty members. (HoD, School D). … the unavailability of [human and material] resources affect the quality of the training we provide … students are [unable to] acquire all the necessary skills that will enhance their [professional capabilities]. (HoD, School A). Theme 3: Improvement strategies Firstly, there is a need to recruit more academic staff. I think we need to get more people. We need to get the younger ones [and] try to get them to align with the university. It's a general thing in terms of the country. (HoD School D). To achieve this, RPs would need support from the government and the various institutions. … but of course, you know, the system will not change at once. I think that we need to work our way out. And I feel that if we want to help, it's a holistic approach from the governmental level to the university, to the school, and to the department ( HoD, School A). Again, there is a need to optimise clinical training with appropriate strategies as indicated below. …the issue is the organisation, how we organise the clinical training even with the limited resources that we have [is important] … the department[s] [must] do a number of things, ensuring that everywhere [the] students are trained is quite sufficient enough to meet [the training] goal[s]… [as well as to] incorporate international radiography training activities into the Ghanaian curricula … What we do [at School C] is that at the start of the CP, we assign students to specific [clinical and academic] staff so that we can monitor [them] well … (HoD, School C). Finally, there is also a need to reduce the number of student enrolments. … what we have done so far is to move towards reducing numbers. … We don't take large number of students [so that we can] provid[e] effective training for them. … We want them to be knowledgeable and obtain sufficient skills for clinical practise rather than taking large numbers whereby our equipment and by virtue of our location, [we] will not be able to have [the resources] to [effectively] train them. (HoD, School C). P4: student participants’ account Clinical and lecture hours, workload and clinical logbook assessment From Table 5 , a significant proportion of the student participants ( n = 43, 58.9%) indicated that weekly, they spend more than 15 hours attending lectures. Again, most of the participants ( n = 30, 41.1%) spend 6–10 hours per week attending CP. Table 5 Participants’ perceptions of work effort Hours spent by participants in class and clinical placements per week Number of Hours Number of participants per institution Total A C D Lectures 1–5 hours 4 0 5 9 6–10 hours 4 1 3 8 11–15 hours 5 0 8 13 > 15 hours 11 22 10 43 Total 24 23 26 73 Intra-semester clinical placement 1–5 hours 1 1 13 15 6–10 hours 12 8 10 30 11–15 hours 6 6 3 15 > 15 hours 5 8 0 23 Total 24 23 26 73 Perceptions about workload High workload Gender X 2 (p-value) Institution X 2 (p-value) Male Female Total A C D Total No 18 9 27 0.004 (0.094) 9 4 14 27 6.963 (0.032) Yes 31 15 46 15 19 12 46 Total 49 24 73 24 23 26 73 Clinical logbooks assessment Response Number of participants per institution Total X 2 (p-value) A C D My logbook was assessed 1 10 10 21 52.330 (0.000) My logbook was not assessed 2 13 14 29 I did not have a logbook 21 0 2 23 Total 24 23 26 73 Most participants indicated that the academic workload was overwhelming ( n = 46, 63.0%). While the majority of participants in Schools A ( n = 15, 62.5%) and C ( n = 19, 82.6%) agreed with this assertion, the majority of participants ( n = 14, 53.8%) in School D disagreed. This association between institution and workload was significant on chi-square (X 2 (2) = 6.963, p = 0.032). Regarding clinical logbooks, most participants (n = 50, 68.5%) agreed to possess one. However, only 58% ( n = 29), indicated that their logbooks were assessed (Table 5 ). Student participants from Schools C and D had logbooks while almost all participants in school A did not have logbooks. This association was significant on chi-square (X 2 (2) = 52.330, p = 0.000). Improving the workload. From Fig. 3 , the most important step to improve the workload on radiography students according to participants is to include only the most significant courses in a revised radiography curriculum ( n = 27, 41.54%). A significant proportion of the participants also indicated that institutions should recruit clinical tutors ( n = 20, 30.77%), while recruitment of more teaching staff ( n = 13, 20.0%) and a reduction in number of admitted students ( n = 5, 7.69%) were of less significance to students. Students’ preferred teaching and learning style. From Fig. 4 , most student participants indicated their preference for experimental /practical (n = 51) and interactive (n = 49) teaching approaches. Regarding learning styles, most student participants indicated their affinity to PowerPoint presentations (n = 65) followed by audio-visual (n = 44). Student participants’ perception of research in RE. As demonstrated in Fig. 5 , most participants (n = 72, 98.63%) agreed that they undertook research as part of their education. However, a relatively smaller proportion of them received adequate preparation to undertake their bachelor’s research dissertation (n = 38, 52.05%), although approximately three-fourths of them (n = 55, 75.34%) received the necessary support from their assigned supervisors. Additionally, most participants (n = 53, 72.60%) believed that research should be an integral component of RP. Challenges in RE. From Fig. 6 , the majority of the participants (64.38%) believed that the unavailability of clinical skill development laboratories is a major challenge. Just like the HoDs, a significant proportion of the student participants indicated that inadequate training facilities (60.27%), teaching staff (52.05%), and clinical supervisors (47.95%) are a challenge to RE and training in Ghana. Only 24.66% of the student participants were of the view that large class size is a challenge. Discussion In the past, research exploring RE and training, has, mainly focused on European countries [ 10 , 16 , 17 ]. This study aimed to investigate the phenomenon in the Ghanaian domain. The discussion focused on the curriculum contents, required professional capabilities, challenges, and suggestions to improve the education and training of radiography students. The role of AHPC in RE in Ghana According to McNulty et al. [ 16 ], training curricula for radiography are usually controlled by requirements set by respective national regulatory bodies as well as healthcare needs. This assertion is similar to Ghana’s case, as it was revealed that the AHPC regulates the professional training of radiographers. According to the AHPC official, this is in line with international requirements to prevent unqualified individuals from practising the profession. It was discovered that the AHPC, before granting an institution accreditation to run a RP, considers various criteria, such as faculty members with at least research master’s degrees, the number of professional and supporting staff, and the source of funds for the training program. As a profession that demands graduates to demonstrate key skills and capabilities, it is appropriate that radiography institutions recruit personnel with the relevant knowledge and skills to help in the training of students. However, due to the inadequate faculty members in the various RPs, resulting in burnout and ineffective training as indicated by the HoDs, there is the need for the regulator to consider making provisions for radiographers with appropriate level of experience to support the education and training activities of the RPs. This will enable the professional body to be closely involved with the academic activities, potentially enhancing their motivation to undertake further studies. Professional capability requirements Chan et al. [ 18 ] posit that graduate health professionals are required to demonstrate professional competence within a rapidly changing environment without putting the patient at risk. However, it is important to emphasise that with the current trend in technological advancement in radiography [ 1 ], graduates are expected to develop professional capability, and not just competence [ 19 , 20 ]. According to the Medical Radiation Practice Board of Australia [ 20 ], the requirement for capability is the minimum level of knowledge and skill needed to competently perform a radiographic task. The result of this study aligns with this requirement. Characteristics of RPs in Ghana The study found that all institutions run a four-year program that leads to the award of a bachelor’s degree with honours in either diagnostic radiography (n = 5), diagnostic medical sonography (n = 2), or therapy radiography (n = 1). Studies conducted by McNulty et al. [ 16 ] and Sa Dos Reis et al. [ 10 ] reported that RE in Europe is usually a three-year program. However, these also lead to the award of a bachelor’s degree [ 17 , 21 , 22 ]. The difference could be a result of readily available training resources in European countries, which improve clinical contact hours. Couto et al. [ 17 ] contend that different entry-to-practice qualifications exist, including certificates and bachelor’s with honours. Report 3 from the AHPC Official revealed that RPs in Ghana are not harmonised, at least in terms of course content. Specifically, it was found that most of the training periods were allocated to courses related to imaging technology and technique, whereas the average time allocated to clinical training was 24.6 credit hours. This constitutes approximately 16% of the average training periods of the five diagnostic RPs (Fig. 2 ). This shows that RPs in Ghana are generally concentrated in their theoretical contents. From Table 5 , 58.9% of the participants reported that they spend more than 15 credit hours attending classroom lectures, while only 17.8% spend the same amount of time in CP. However, a similar study by Sa Dos Reis et al. [ 10 ] found that a significant proportion of RPs were dedicated to CP, while Stewart-Lord et al. [ 23 ] have previously contended that RE consists of approximately 50% each of classroom lecture and CP. Thus, the results from this study indicate the 50–50 philosophy of theory and CP in RE may differ between institutions depending on factors such as the availability of human and material resources, potentially influencing credit hour allocation, supervision, and assessment. The wide disparity in credit hours between theoretical and clinical components of the RPs resulted in excessive workload. In P4, 63.0% of the participants reported that the workload was excessive, which may lead to frequent burnout in students. The results from P4 revealed a significant association between student participants’ perceptions of clinical workload and the academic institutions (Table 5 ), signifying a variation in the duration of CP among the institutions as seen in the document analysis (Fig. 2 ). This is similar to the results found by Sa Dos Reis et al. [ 10 ], who, subsequently contended that this may result in graduates with varying professional abilities, including their levels of autonomy, attitudes towards patients, and the ability to adapt protocols for given radiographic scenarios. Also, it was found that all the RPs have a research component, accounting for 8% of the average radiography training period was assigned to research. However, including research activities in the Ghanaian radiography curricula appeared challenging as it averagely formed less than a tenth of the total credit hours. Additionally, about 47.95% (n = 20) of the student participants reported that the preparation for their research projects was inadequate, while about a fourth (24.55%, n = 18) received inadequate support from their assigned research supervisors. This phenomenon could be due to inadequate academic staff, resulting in a high workload on the available faculty members. Other documented causal factors include limited time and resources, poor cooperation, the constantly changing role of radiographers and the increase in CP scope [ 24 , 25 ]. Although the inclusion of research in the RPs underscores the importance of research in enhancing evidence-based practice, its effects may not be realised. This is because the role of research in ensuring the growth of the profession may be achieved if practitioners with the requisite research skillset are motivated to engage in research. Thus, the inclusion of research in the Ghanaian radiography curricula is in the right direction to promote evidence-based radiography [ 25 ]. Assessment of CP activities This research identified that all the programmes have a CP component, just as it is done in other parts of the world [ 17 , 21 , 26 ]. Although the assessment of CP in the various institutions varies, the common strategies were the use of logbooks and on-site observation by both academic lecturers and clinical supervisors. However, it was unclear which criteria the institutions use in assessing students’ CP. Baird [ 27 ] and Castle [ 28 ] suggested that to achieve students’ training objectives, learning tasks and assessment tools must be judiciously applied within the training structure. Similarly, Mc Inerney and Baird [ 19 ] contend that the assessment and teaching strategies used must ensure that learners can communicate their thought processes through self-assessment. Also, Barry et al. [ 29 ] stated that students should be assigned to specific clinical supervisors and assessors who will evaluate the progress of their clinical training and recommend appropriate strategies to overcome any unmet learning objectives. This is in line with the activities at School C in this study, where students are assigned supervisors before CP. There are also calls for the inclusion of online assessment and supervision of students’ CP, although there are foreseeable challenges [ 30 , 31 ]. However, in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, many educational institutions have moved towards implementing this in their training programmes [ 30 , 32 – 34 ]. It is worth reflecting on the significance of the online assessment of CP made by McAllister and Nagarajan [ 31 ]. They emphasised that adopting tele-supervision will enhance CP in less-resourced areas. Notably, this strategy is currently being adopted by School C whose HoD enthusiastically described how his department is moving towards virtual supervision. Ideally, virtual supervision and assessment may be useful in the Ghanaian setting due to the inadequate resources in terms of personnel and equipment. However, it should be considered carefully to reduce possible ethical implications. Challenges in RE and Strategies for Improvement The main challenges identified by the student participants were a lack of skill development labs, inadequate faculty, and inadequate training facilities, whereas the HoDs and the AHPC Official indicated that the major challenges were inadequate resources and a high student intake. Consistent with the literature, RE is characterised by challenges related to resources and increased enrolment [ 24 , 35 , 36 ]. The effect of this could be inadequate student supervision and assessment as indicated in Report 5 from the AHPC Official and by some HoDs, or inadequate exposure of students to certain specialised imaging procedures [ 35 ]. To overcome these challenges, participants in this study advocated for a holistic approach from the government, radiographers, and academic institutions. It was also suggested that schools should move towards reducing student intake and plan on organising robust clinical training that can ensure the attainment of students’ learning goals regardless of the challenges. Other documented strategies in the literature include the use of simulation training [ 26 ] and active collaboration between academic institutions and clinical training centres [ 37 ]. There is also a need for radiography educators to incorporate quality assurance activities in their programmes to ensure that students are given the necessary training [ 19 ]. The HOD of School C indicated that this practice enables them to identify facilities with adequate resources supportive workforce. Conclusion The current state of RE in Ghana is characterised by both strengths and challenges. The curriculum structure provides a solid foundation for training radiographers, nonetheless, the lack of harmonisation across institutions and resource constraints pose significant challenges to the quality of education and training. Addressing these issues through curriculum reform, improved resource allocation, and enhanced collaboration between academic and clinical institutions will be essential for advancing RE in Ghana and ensuring that graduates are well-equipped to meet the demands of modern healthcare practice. Further, since the criteria for assessing students were unclear from this study, a further project is required to evaluate the assessment strategies and how this affects students’ professional capability development and their motivation to select specific CP centres. Additionally, future research should explore how simulation activities can enhance RE and training in low-resourced settings such as Ghana. Strength and limitation There was a challenge getting all institutions to participate in the study which reduced the response rate. However, the data collection and analysis methods reduced the effects associated with low responses. Also, only diagnostic radiography curricula were used for the document analysis. Future studies should consider other radiography streams. Abbreviations AHPC Allied Health Professions Council AI Artificial intelligence CP Clinical practice CT Computed tomography HoD Head of Department ITT Imaging technology and technique MRI Magnetic resonance imaging NS Natural science P1 Phase one P2 Phase two P3 Phase three P4 Phase four RE Radiography education RP Radiography programme Declarations Acknowledgement We extend our profound gratitude to all participants of this study without them this manuscript would not have been possible. Author contributions JLA : Conceptualised the study and developed the study design, contributed to participant recruitment, data collection and analysis, and prepared the initial draft. SAS : contributed to study design, participant recruitment, and data collection and analysis. LGMM : participated in participant recruitment, data collection, and drafting the initial script. GA : contributed to research design and data collection and analysis. JJN : contributed to participant recruitment, data collection, and analysis. WKA : Contributed to study design, data analysis, and interpretation. SNAT : contributed to data analysis and interpretation. FA : Contributed to data analysis and interpretation. All authors participated in the revisions of the drafted manuscript and approved the final version. Funding Not applicable Data availability The data from this will be made available by the corresponding authors upon reasonable request Clinical trial number Not applicable Ethics approval and consent This study adhered to ethical guidelines. The protocol for the study was approved by the Ethics and Protocol Review Committee of the School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, prior to recruitment and data collection. All participants provided informed consent before their inclusion in the study and were informed of their rights and responsibilities in the Participants’ Information and Consent Form. All participants’ personal data were de-identified to ensure anonymity and privacy. Consent for publication Not applicable Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests References Munn Z, McArthur A, Mander GTW, Steffensen CJ, and Jordan Z. The only constant in radiography is change: A discussion and primer on change in medical imaging to achieve evidence-based practice. Radiography (Lond). 2020;26 Suppl 2:S3-S7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2020.07.001 Arruzza E. 'The world (of radiography) has changed, and we must change with it': An exploration of strategies to meet accreditation standards in radiography education. Journal of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences. 2023;54(3):400-4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2023.05.007 Elkhadir AM, and Saeed IO. Sudanese Radiologic Technology Specialist Embrace A challenge: Focus on Image interpretation -A survey Study. 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"Watch them do what they do": Effects of the clinical learning environment on radiography students' clinical placement experiences. Radiography. 2025;31(1):320–7 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2024.12.009 Cochran WG. Sampling techniques: John Wiley & Sons; 1977. Sa Dos Reis C, Pires-Jorge JA, York H, Flaction L, Johansen S, and Maehle S. Curricula, attributes and clinical experiences of radiography programs in four European educational institutions. Radiography (Lond). 2018;24(3):e61-e8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2018.03.002 Johnson JL, Adkins D, and Chauvin S. A Review of the Quality Indicators of Rigor in Qualitative Research. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 2020;84(1):138-46 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe7120 Connelly LM. Trustworthiness in qualitative research. MEDSURG Nursing. 2016;25(6):435-6 Korstjens I, and Moser A. Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 4: Trustworthiness and publishing. Eur J Gen Pract. 2018;24(1):120-4 https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375092 Ayton D. Rigour. In: D. Ayton, T. Tsindos, Berkovic D, editors. Qualitative research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners. Melbourne, Australia: Monash University; 2023. Braun V, and Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006;3(2):77-101 https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa McNulty JP, Rainford L, Bezzina P, Henner A, Kukkes T, Pronk-Larive D, and Vandulek C. A picture of radiography education across Europe. Radiography. 2016;22(1):5-11 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2015.09.007 Couto JG, McFadden S, Bezzina P, McClure P, and Hughes C. An evaluation of the educational requirements to practise radiography in the European Union. Radiography (Lond). 2018;24(1):64-71 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2017.07.009 Chan BC, Perkins D, Wan Q, Nick Z, Chris D, Patrick C, and Mark FH. Finding common ground? Evaluating an intervention to improve teamwork among primary health-care professionals. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. 2010;22(6):519-24 https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzq057 Mc Inerney J, and Baird M. Developing critical practitioners: A review of teaching methods in the Bachelor of Radiography and Medical Imaging. Radiography. 2016;22(1):e40-e53 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2015.07.001 Medical Radiation Practice Board of Australia. Professional Capabilities for Medical Radiation Practitioners. Australia: MRPBA; 2020 McNulty JP, England A, and Shanahan MC. International perspectives on radiography practice education. Radiography (Lond). 2021;27(4):1044-51 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2021.04.004 Prentakis AG, Stefanoyiannis AP, Georgiadis K, Coleman L, Foley SJ, Herlig D, . . . and Chatziioannou SN. Education, training, and professional issues of radiographers in six European countries: a comparative review. Journal of European CME. 2016;5(1):31092 https://doi.org/10.3402/jecme.v5.31092 Stewart-Lord A, Walker C, and Williams R. Adopting Review, Reflect and Re-focus [Triple R] sessions to support pre-registration therapeutic radiography students post clinical placement. Radiography (Lond). 2021;27(4):1094-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2021.04.011 Ogbu SOI. Radiography students’ perceptions of clinical placements – A Nigerian perspective. Radiography. 2008;14(2):154-61 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2007.01.003 England A, and McNulty JP. Inclusion of evidence and research in European radiography curricula. Radiography (Lond). 2020;26 Suppl 2:S45-S8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2020.04.018 England A, Geers-van Gemeren S, Henner A, Kukkes T, Pronk-Larive D, Rainford L, and McNulty JP. Clinical radiography education across Europe. Radiography (Lond). 2017;23 Suppl 1:S7-S15 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2017.05.011 Baird M. Towards the development of a reflective radiographer: challenges and constraints. Biomedical Imaging and Interventional Journal. 2008;4(1):1-8 https://doi.org/10.2349/biij.4.1.e9 Castle A. Defining and assessing critical thinking skills for student radiographers. Radiography. 2009;15(1):70-6 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2007.10.007 Barry K, Shields M, McGavin S, and Blefari C. How to navigate the evolving world of clinical placement: an Australian university collaboration to support clinical supervision. Journal of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences. 2021;52(4S):S39-S44 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2021.08.015 Tay YX, and McNulty JP. Radiography education in 2022 and beyond - Writing the history of the present: A narrative review. Radiography (Lond). 2023;29(2):391-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2023.01.014 McAllister L, and Nagarajan S. Accreditation requirements in allied health education: Strengths, weaknesses and missed opportunities. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability. 2015;6(1):2-24 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21153/jtlge2015vol6no1art570 Zalat MM, Hamed MS, and Bolbol SA. The experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic among university medical staff. PLoS One. 2021;16(3):e0248758 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758 Mohammadi MK, Mohibbi AA, and Hedayati MH. Investigating the challenges and factors influencing the use of the learning management system during the Covid-19 pandemic in Afghanistan. Education and Information Technologies. 2021;26(5):5165-98 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10517-z Thepwongsa I, Sripa P, Muthukumar R, Jenwitheesuk K, Virasiri S, and Nonjui P. The effects of a newly established online learning management system: the perspectives of Thai medical students in a public medical school. Heliyon. 2021;7(10):e08182 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08182 Kyei K, Antwi WK, K. B-Q, and Offei RO. Challenges Faced by Radiography Students During Clinical Training Clinical Medicine Research. 2015;4(3):36-41 https://doi.org/10.11648/j.cmr.s.2015040301.18 Chinene B, Sanyamandwe C, and Hlahla T. Challenges Experienced by Radiography Students During Clinical Placements in a Low Resource Setting: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study. South African Radiographer. 2023;61(2):32-40 https://doi.org/10.54450/saradio.2023.61.2.753 Hyde E. A critical evaluation of student radiographers' experience of the transition from the classroom to their first clinical placement. Radiography. 2015;21(3):242-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2014.12.005 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5759313","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":400033132,"identity":"e3850a43-9a9a-4e93-9235-7f38de1cb93c","order_by":0,"name":"Jacob Leonard Ago","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABDElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYGBmaGAghHAojlQIwDDwhqMUBoMQZrSSBgE4qWxAYQC58W5vbDDx8XGNjImbOffXjjxy+b9Plhhx8CbbGT023A4bCeNGPjGQZpxpY96caWvX1puRtvpxkAtSQbmx3A5ZccNmkeg8OJGw6ksUnw9hzO3Tg7AaTlQOI2XFr634C0/E/ccP4Zm+TfnsPphrPTP+DXMgNsy4HEDTfSgIwfhxPkpXMI2DLjGcgvycYGN54xW8s2pBlukM4pOJBggNsvhv3JwBCrsJMzOJ/GePPNHxt5+dnpmz98AIrg1NKAYmcbA4MBWKUBduUgII/K/QMUacCqcBSMglEwCkYwAABE5GJbm8ZbqwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Radiography, School of Biomedical \u0026 Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu Campus","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jacob","middleName":"Leonard","lastName":"Ago","suffix":""},{"id":400033133,"identity":"8d8de030-f934-461e-bf77-c5d76be40768","order_by":1,"name":"Samuel Anim-Sampong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Radiography, School of Biomedical \u0026 Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu Campus","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"","lastName":"Anim-Sampong","suffix":""},{"id":400033134,"identity":"43a7acbd-966b-4fc9-809e-2cdcc77c184d","order_by":2,"name":"Loyal Gold Marteki Markwei","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Radiography, School of Biomedical \u0026 Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu Campus","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Loyal","middleName":"Gold Marteki","lastName":"Markwei","suffix":""},{"id":400033135,"identity":"08b11c99-9d6f-421e-bf78-68fe027b541c","order_by":3,"name":"Godwill Acquah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Radiography, School of Biomedical \u0026 Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu Campus","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Godwill","middleName":"","lastName":"Acquah","suffix":""},{"id":400033136,"identity":"dc0c4696-b705-46cc-ab28-730ddb8d54f5","order_by":4,"name":"Joana Justina Neequaye","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Radiography, School of Biomedical \u0026 Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu Campus","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joana","middleName":"Justina","lastName":"Neequaye","suffix":""},{"id":400033137,"identity":"f62e5b02-a551-43a0-ba3d-3eb0a5b278a7","order_by":5,"name":"William K. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTotal credit hours for the various course classifications per institution.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/587c002316238ee311dff35c.png"},{"id":73675349,"identity":"160c6de5-806c-4ca7-b6e5-c64a74b954dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-13 13:04:11","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101678,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudent participants’ perception of how to improve their workload\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNB: Participants were asked to choose as many as they perceived however only 65 responses were received.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/fffb96e2d150f6db24326399.png"},{"id":73674321,"identity":"0841e02f-4724-4e9b-b59e-906ff34d8019","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-13 12:56:11","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":111865,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudent participants’ preferred teaching and learning styles\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNB: Participants were asked to choose as many as they perceived\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/91cdfe25c1d9832539eeaf00.png"},{"id":73675351,"identity":"479a2370-798b-403b-8c69-661c979e881d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-13 13:04:11","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":115178,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudent participants’ perception of research in the radiography programs.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/c3fb79c965cd48782e6e65fd.png"},{"id":73676823,"identity":"0d7db94f-fa42-4995-a054-175c106d4e4c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-13 13:12:11","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90251,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudent participants’ perception of radiography education challenge\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNB: Participants were asked to choose as many as they perceived\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/0e875890ccd89dd280886c1e.png"},{"id":86426362,"identity":"2b87210b-937d-4c31-a89a-c306de371daf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:32:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2837758,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/2df932eb-1b60-489b-90f7-f2561503e342.pdf"},{"id":73674317,"identity":"32cc4248-dbb5-4007-af5a-1d95409b3adc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-13 12:56:11","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":24661,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarysheet.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5759313/v1/e33148b17b187b05344d4eb6.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Insights into radiography education in Ghana: Document analysis of curricula contents and perspectives of selected stakeholders","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRadiography involves the use of ionising and non-ionising radiation to diagnose and treat various health conditions. The rapid technological advancements, new imaging procedures, and the call for advanced practice, require professionals with several capabilities to practice competently and efficiently in this constantly evolving profession [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first requirement for professional recognition as a radiographer in many countries is to complete a radiography programme (RP) accredited by a national accreditation body or professional body or a RP approved by a national regulatory body. Additionally, some countries require that graduates undertake a national professional licensure examination, as in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile exploring strategies to achieve accreditation requirements in RE, Arruzza [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] argued that \u0026ldquo;the world (of radiography) has changed, and we must change with it\u0026rdquo; (p.1). Consequently, the development of training curricula must be geared towards spearheading the acquisition of required professional capabilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the curriculum for radiography education (RE) must balance giving students a strong foundation in the principles that underpin radiography practice with career advancement opportunities to effectively practice beyond entry-level [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithout a guideline to ensure that graduates possess the required professional capabilities, modern undergraduate RPs may prioritise teaching projection radiographic imaging skills over other imaging modalities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This may be problematic for new graduates as they may not be able to meet the demands of the workplace to assist in advanced radiography procedures. Notably, there has been a significant increase in the number of these advanced imaging procedures such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). For example, 204,660 CT examinations were performed in Ghana in 2020 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] while the international literature has reported a constant increase in the frequency of MRI procedures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Due to the constantly evolving nature of radiography practice, approach to developing effective curricula could follow the guidelines given by Thomas et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Thomas et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], the first step to developing effective medical education curricula is to identify the current problems and assessment of general needs. As a resource-limited country, one of the key challenges of radiography education in Ghana is inadequate advanced imaging modalities, which could hinder students\u0026rsquo; hands-on training in these modalities. However, it is unclear how the current state of the radiography curricula in Ghana is structured to ensure that students are provided with adequate training in not only projection radiography.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgainst the challenges of inadequate training resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], an increase in the number of RE providers in Ghana has occurred with seven current providers in the last eight years (2016\u0026ndash;2024). This could be a positive development for strengthening the radiography workforce. However, there are concerns regarding rising challenges of increased student enrollment which has exacerbated inadequate hands-on training [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. This study, therefore, explored the current state of RE in Ghana and strategies for improving the training of the future workforce.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design, population and sample size, and inclusion and exclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis was a mixed-methods study with four distinct, but interrelated phases. The approach was deemed appropriate as the researchers intended to explore the phenomenon under study using a blend of qualitative and quantitative designs. A sample size of 90 students was estimated using Cochran\u0026rsquo;s formula for categorical variables [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], with a 5% error margin. However, only 73 students participated in the study. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e outlines the design, population, sampling and sample size, and inclusion and exclusion criteria for each phase while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the geographical location of the radiography training institutions in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of the research methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase one (P1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase two (P2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase three (P3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase four (P4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative descriptive design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExploratory descriptive design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExploratory sequential design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurricula for radiography education from five radiography training institutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn Official Member from the Allied Health Professions Council, Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead of Departments (HoDs) of Radiography from five radiography training institutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117 final year diagnostic radiography students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling and sample size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive publicly available radiography curricula were included using convenient sampling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Official Member was recruited by purposive sampling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree conveniently sampled HoDs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 purposively sampled final year diagnostic radiography students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly the current versions of the diagnostic radiography curricula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Official Member in charge of radiography curricula assessment and evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll consenting HoDs from the institutions that agreed to participate in the study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll consenting final-year Diagnostic Radiography students from the institutions that agreed to participate in the study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExclusion criteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlder versions of diagnostic radiography curricula and all versions of non-diagnostic radiography curricula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficers in charge of other allied health programmes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHoDs from the non-consenting institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinal year diagnostic radiography students from non-consenting institutions, non-final year diagnostic radiography students, and all non-diagnostic radiography students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDocument analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative survey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReflexive thematic analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive and inferential statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection tools\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Phase one (P1), a self-designed data collection sheet using Microsoft Excel (Version 2016) and an adapted course classification tool [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] were employed. The classification tool enabled the courses identified in the curricula to be categorised into natural sciences (NS), humanities, imaging technology and technique (ITT), clinical practice (CP), and research. The self-designed sheet sought information concerning institution name (which was coded), programme duration, yearly term, other non-diagnostic radiography, total credit hour per classification, uniqueness in terms of courses, and teaching methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Phases two (P2) and three (P3), self-designed semi-structured interview guides with two main questions, and probing questions where needed, were applied. Furthermore, the findings from P3 informed the self-designed questionnaire which was applied to gather data on students\u0026rsquo; perspectives of the RPs (P4). All tools can be found in Supplementary sheet 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eReliability and validity of quantitative data collection tools\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data collection sheets applied in P1 were pilot tested using a previous version of one of the curricula to ascertain its efficacy. Again, the questionnaire utilised in P4 was independently assessed by two experienced radiography academics to ensure validity. All suggestions and corrections from the two academics were incorporated before pilot-testing with five third-year diagnostic radiography students. After adjustments were made following feedback from the pilot study, the questionnaire was re-tested with the five students, resulting in a test-retest reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTrustworthiness of the qualitative data\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs suggested by Johnson et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], P2 and P3 were conducted with all four qualitative rigour indicators upheld: credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. Credibility was achieved through member checking. Participants were sent a summary of the transcripts to confirm that the transcripts represent their actual opinion on the subject matter [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Confirmability was achieved by the use of quotes from participants in reporting the findings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], while the use of a mixed-methods approach and a clarification of the different deigns (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) satisfy the dependability and transferability requirements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection process\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding P1, the five curricula were assessed by downloading the students\u0026rsquo; handbooks available on each institutional website. Data was then extracted according to the data collection sheets after an analysis of each content. This spanned 2 weeks and was conducted by GA and SAS. Furthermore, in-depth interviews with the AHPC Official (P2) and the HoDs (P3) were conducted via Microsoft Teams\u0026trade; (version 24091.214.2846.1452; Redmond, USA, 2024). This spanned 4 weeks and was conducted by JLA and LMM. Additionally, a Qualtrics\u0026trade; (Qualtrics, Provo, UT)-generated questionnaire was used for P4. The link to the survey was distributed on the official WhatsApp platforms of the included students and was available for four weeks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData from P1 were analysed using content analysis approach. Findings were presented as frequencies using tables and bar graphs. In P2 and P3, reflexive thematic analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] were performed separately with NVivo\u0026trade; 14 (QSR International Pty Ltd., Australia), following verbatim transcription of the interview recordings. This allowed for the generation of codes in P3 which were then classified as themes. Furthermore, both descriptive and inferential statistics were applied in P4 using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics was used to describe the data findings with the generation of frequency tables and bar graphs while inferentially, the chi-square test was used to ascertain associations at a significance of \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthics considerations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was ethically approved by the ethics and protocol review committee of the School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana (SBAHS/AA/RAD/\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e1087699/2023\u0026ndash;2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"1087699/2023\u0026ndash;2024\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). The names of the radiography training institutions were assigned alphabetical codes for anonymity, while all participants in P2 to P4 were pre-informed of their requirements, including the right to leave the study at any point in time. Regarding P2 to P4, participants\u0026rsquo; names were not asked, and where appropriate pseudonyms were used to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. It was also ensured that participants consented to partake in the study before enlistment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eDocument analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProgramme duration, other disciplines, teaching methodologies and course content uniqueness\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, all five schools run a four-year programme with two semesters in each academic year, except school D which runs on a trimester system. While no school runs a nuclear medicine programme, Schools B and C run diagnostic medical sonography programmes in addition to the diagnostic radiography stream while students from School A has the option to choose therapy RP from the third year. Again, most institutions (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, 60%) employed the didactic lecture teaching method while only two institutions (40%) provide reading tasks as a teaching method. The lack of clarity about teaching methods from two providers made analysis extremely challenging.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDocument analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCURRICULA CHARACTERISTICS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstitution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProgram Duration (Years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSystem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther Streams\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCurriculum Uniqueness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSemester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiotherapy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForensic imaging, Artificial intelligence in medical imaging, critical thinking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSemester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esonography\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinical seminar, critical thinking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSemester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esonography\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProblem-based learning, Radiological pharmacology, Contrast media imaging, specialisation/career progression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrimester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCritical thinking, Forensic imaging, French Language\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSemester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFirst aid and disaster management, pharmacology in radiology, French Language, Forensic imaging, Artificial intelligence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTEACHING METHODOLOGIES\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDidactic lectures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTutorials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical skill training\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup presentation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePractical sessions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProblem-based learning\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReading tasks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; *\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; **\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; ***\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; *\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; **\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; ***\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; *\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; **\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026dagger; ***\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eA and B were unspecified regarding teaching methodologies \u0026dagger; = Teaching methodology type is applied \u0026dagger; * = Teaching methodology applied the most \u0026dagger; ** = Second most applied teaching method \u0026dagger; *** = third most applied teaching method\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenerally, the various institutions have similar course contents. The results revealed that most schools include introductory courses in Forensic Radiography, Nuclear Medicine, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in medical imaging. However, this was not a case for Schools B and D, as they did not have an AI course. In addition, the former do not have courses in Nuclear Medicine and Forensic Radiography, although they were the only institution with a Clinical Seminar course. Further, whereas School E were the only institution without a critical thinking course, they were the only institution which have a course in First Aid and Disaster Management. In terms of radiopharmacology and contrast media imaging, it was found that institutions either incorporate them in Patient Management or Specialized Imaging Modalities respectively. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e details the uniqueness of course contents found in the document analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCourse Contents\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall, 36 different courses were identified across curricula (NS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10 courses, humanities\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11, ITT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9, CP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, and research\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, all institutions dedicate most of their credit hours to courses in the ITT category and focus sparingly on research. Again, across institutions, more time is spent on courses in the natural sciences than CP, with School C allocating almost equal total credit hours to courses in natural sciences and imaging technology and technique. Proportionately, School E spend the maximum amount of time in CP (37 total credit hours). It was unclear from the document analysis how many hours of teaching and clinical training correspond to a credit hour.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCourse classification grid used for the credit-hour analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural Science\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHumanities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImaging Technology \u0026amp; Technique\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinical practice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFundamental \u0026amp; medical imaging physics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcademic Writing/Communication skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntroduction to Radiography\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfessional practice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Bio)statistics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Bio)chemistry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCritical Thinking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComputer Applications\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinical seminar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch Methodology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMicrobiology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfrican Studies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiographic Imaging Processes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eplacement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch project\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneral pathology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePsychology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiographic Technique\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnatomy \u0026amp; physiology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedical Sociology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForensic Imaging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient Management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuality Assurance and quality management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasic Medical Genetics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealth Law\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecialized Imaging Modalities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiobiology \u0026amp; Radiation Protection\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurship and Management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePattern recognition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHistory and Philosophy of Science\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePublic health\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArtificial Intelligence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiological pharmacology (and contrast media imaging)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrench\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedical Terminology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfrican Studies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFirst aid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNB: All courses appearing in two or more of the curricula were written once\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStakeholders\u0026rsquo; perspectives\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResults from P2\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe AHPC regulates the training of radiography students and reviews the radiography curriculum of institutions before accreditation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Report 1) and considers factors such as admission criteria and availability of resources (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Report 2). The AHPC official indicated that the radiography curricula in Ghana lack harmony and have many limitations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Report 3), while emphasising on the expectation of the council for graduates to demonstrate many professional capabilities (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Report 4a). However, he indicated that due to inadequate modalities and training facilities as well as differences in curricula, the AHPC\u0026rsquo;s annual licensure exams focus basically on general radiography although students are expected to understand the principles of all other imaging modalities (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Report 4b).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample reports from Phase 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReference quote\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[The AHPC] regulate the professional training, \u0026hellip; they see to it that the training is in line with international norms and then we don\u0026apos;t produce, or we don\u0026apos;t allow quacks to operate within our health system\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; the criteria [include a] faculty [with] at least a master\u0026apos;s degree, [basically] research master\u0026apos;s, \u0026hellip; [the number of] \u0026hellip; professional radiographers in the faculty [and] other supporting staff, [such as] technical staff, \u0026hellip; and source of funds for the training programme, so that we don\u0026apos;t start and then get stuck \u0026hellip; along the way \u0026hellip;\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; the curriculum is not harmonised. Each institution has its own curriculum \u0026hellip; [and sometimes] the important courses are [excluded]. You will not find dental radiography and mammography, relevant courses that the students should do to be able to practice in some areas \u0026hellip; So, there are a lot of limitations on the curriculum that we learn in the country\u0026hellip;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 4a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[Graduates] should have the skills that require [them] to do whatever [they] are asked to do when [they] are in the real world or \u0026hellip; hospital as a radiographer. So, you can\u0026apos;t enumerate the competencies because each course needs competence or the skills that you need to have\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 4b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Licensure exam is normally based on the conventional radiography practice and \u0026hellip; other things like radiation protection, which is so relevant, radiographic anatomy, [and] patient care \u0026hellip; [The reason is that] we know, we are now certain that not all hospitals or all places have MRI, CT, fluoroscopy and others, [and] \u0026hellip; [differences in course contents] \u0026hellip; [However], that doesn\u0026apos;t mean that we cannot ask questions on MRI or CT because it is [expected] that you should know\u0026hellip;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 5a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; faculty, lack of personnel to supervise the students, \u0026hellip; constant breakdown of equipment and lack of imaging modalities [are the main challenges]. Some of the students at times will complete their whole four-year programme without having access to modalities like MRI or CT, or even fluoroscopy...\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 5b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[In one of my curriculum reviews], I saw one person teaching about eight courses. How effective would this be? And what time will he get to even do research? \u0026hellip; [which is] part of his [responsibilities] ...\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReport 6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; there is a need for the Ministry of Education and Health to look into this by supporting the training programmes everywhere in the [country].\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn changes, the AHPC official shared that radiography institutions in Ghana lack human and material resources which can lead to burnout in the few available staff (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Reports 5a and 5b). He concluded that the support of the Ministries of Education and Health will help to overcome these challenges (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Report 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResults from P3 (HoDs): Reflexive thematic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRP comparison, challenges in RE and Impact, and strategies for improvement were the three themes identified\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheme 1: RPs comparison\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe HoD from School D confirmed that his institution runs a trimester system. Regarding credit hour allocation for theory and clinical components, the HoD of School A indicated that a one-credit hour theoretical course equates to one hour of teaching and/or one hour of practical training per week whereas a one-credit hour of CP corresponds to three hour of clinical training per week.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; [School D] runs a trimester-based system, which means rather than having a semester where you have two times we run three times. So, we have normal lectures in the 1st and 2nd trimesters.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn my school, a one-credit hour theoretical course equates to one hour of teaching [and/or] one hour of practical training per week \u0026hellip; For the clinical training, we usually assign six credits per block, and students spend six hours per day for three days per week on placement \u0026hellip; but \u0026hellip; some students prefer to do longer than six hours depending on the training facility.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt was revealed that most of the institutions start intensive CP from the 2nd year, with the first-year placement serving as a period of orientation to the hospital settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; the clinical training is more intense from the second year \u0026hellip;\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School A).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; what we do [in the first year] is we let them get exposure to hospital practise right from the [out-patient department] up to the radiology units ... [in order] to understand how patients come in, how they are received, record keeping [and] modes of payment. They also learn how [to use] other equipment outside of the imaging units [such as] BP apparatus, oxygen monitors, etc.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, school D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCP assessment generally centres on general radiography and starts from year two. Although School A have clinical logbooks, there has been a recent challenge in implementation. CP assessment in School C is done by both clinical supervisors and an academic staff member.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; in year one, we don\u0026apos;t assess students after that [\u003c/em\u003eCP\u003cem\u003e] because at that stage they have not done any radiography yet\u0026hellip;\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We have logbooks for students. [But] over the past two or three years, \u0026hellip; the logbooks are not available \u0026hellip; [Also], the assessment has not been fair [because it] is usually based on just one basic procedure, which is the general X-rays.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School A).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; we have different forms of assessment, so \u0026hellip; we are able to use enough faculty and also preceptors on the site. \u0026hellip; We send [faculty members] to various facilities to inspect the training of the students, [and] \u0026hellip; we assign specific faculty members to specific students\u003c/em\u003e. (HoD, School C).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheme 2: Challenges in RE and Impact\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiography institutions lack an adequate number of academic staff and support from radiographers in clinical supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe started off with nine faculty members and just before we got to the radiography level, three of our members left. And these were all radiographers. It\u0026rsquo;s challenging.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; as for challenges, we don\u0026rsquo;t have enough faculty members and the [entire] country is plagued with shortage of clinical staff, which is one big challenge that we have. So there are no radiographers to assist with clinical training because they are leaving the country.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School A).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMonetary issues and lack of government support are factors in staff shortages.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalaries are generally not good, [and] the motivation is not there. So, people finish and they want to run into places that they will be comfortable.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBut \u0026hellip; the fact that the government is not recruiting into the public institutions, \u0026hellip; we have very little to do here. People are outside now [and want] to come in, but we cannot recruit them because we don\u0026apos;t have the capacity to do that [sigh].\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe other challenge identified was a high number of student enrolments, which may impede students\u0026rsquo; hands-on training due to the inadequate resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrdinarily when we started, [we planned on] admitting only between 20 and 25 to start with and we could give them the training that could be of quality. But presently we are handling classes not less than 70 for every level.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe identified impact was ineffective training which could result from academic staff burnout.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; you can imagine \u0026hellip; how the pressure would be like having to train 70 radiography [students with] only six faculty members.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip; \u003cem\u003ethe unavailability of [human and material] resources affect the quality of the training we provide \u0026hellip; students are [unable to] acquire all the necessary skills that will enhance their [professional capabilities]. (HoD, School A).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheme 3: Improvement strategies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFirstly, there is a need to recruit more academic staff.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI think we need to get more people. We need to get the younger ones [and] try to get them to align with the university. It\u0026apos;s a general thing in terms of the country.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD School D).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo achieve this, RPs would need support from the government and the various institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; but of course, you know, the system will not change at once. I think that we need to work our way out. And I feel that if we want to help, it\u0026apos;s a holistic approach from the governmental level to the university, to the school, and to the department (\u003c/em\u003eHoD, School A).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAgain, there is a need to optimise clinical training with appropriate strategies as indicated below.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip;the issue is the organisation, how we organise the clinical training even with the limited resources that we have [is important] \u0026hellip; the department[s] [must] do a number of things, ensuring that everywhere [the] students are trained is quite sufficient enough to meet [the training] goal[s]\u0026hellip; [as well as to] incorporate international radiography training activities into the Ghanaian curricula \u0026hellip; What we do [at School C] is that at the start of the CP, we assign students to specific [clinical and academic] staff so that we can monitor [them] well\u003c/em\u003e\u0026hellip; (HoD, School C).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinally, there is also a need to reduce the number of student enrolments.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026hellip; what we have done so far is to move towards reducing numbers. \u0026hellip; We don\u0026apos;t take large number of students [so that we can] provid[e] effective training for them. \u0026hellip; We want them to be knowledgeable and obtain sufficient skills for clinical practise rather than taking large numbers whereby our equipment and by virtue of our location, [we] will not be able to have [the resources] to [effectively] train them.\u003c/em\u003e (HoD, School C).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eP4: student participants\u0026rsquo; account\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eClinical and lecture hours, workload and clinical logbook assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Table \u003cspan\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, a significant proportion of the student participants (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;43, 58.9%) indicated that weekly, they spend more than 15 hours attending lectures. Again, most of the participants (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30, 41.1%) spend 6\u0026ndash;10 hours per week attending CP.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; perceptions of work effort\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHours spent by participants in class and clinical placements per week\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of Hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of participants per institution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLectures\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;5 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;10 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u0026ndash;15 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;15 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntra-semester clinical placement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;5 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;10 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u0026ndash;15 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;15 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerceptions about workload\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh workload\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (p-value)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstitution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (p-value)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.004 (0.094)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.963 (0.032)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical logbooks assessment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of participants per institution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (p-value)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMy logbook was assessed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e52.330 (0.000)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMy logbook was not assessed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI did not have a logbook\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMost participants indicated that the academic workload was overwhelming (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46, 63.0%). While the majority of participants in Schools A (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15, 62.5%) and C (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19, 82.6%) agreed with this assertion, the majority of participants (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14, 53.8%) in School D disagreed. This association between institution and workload was significant on chi-square (X\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.963, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.032).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegarding clinical logbooks, most participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50, 68.5%) agreed to possess one. However, only 58% (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;29), indicated that their logbooks were assessed (Table \u003cspan\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Student participants from Schools C and D had logbooks while almost all participants in school A did not have logbooks. This association was significant on chi-square (X\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52.330, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImproving the workload.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Fig. \u003cspan\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the most important step to improve the workload on radiography students according to participants is to include only the most significant courses in a revised radiography curriculum (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27, 41.54%). A significant proportion of the participants also indicated that institutions should recruit clinical tutors (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20, 30.77%), while recruitment of more teaching staff (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13, 20.0%) and a reduction in number of admitted students (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5, 7.69%) were of less significance to students.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; preferred teaching and learning style.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Fig. \u003cspan\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, most student participants indicated their preference for experimental\u003cem\u003e/practical\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;51) and interactive (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;49) teaching approaches. Regarding learning styles, most student participants indicated their affinity to PowerPoint presentations (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65) followed by audio-visual (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;44). Student participants\u0026rsquo; perception of research in RE. As demonstrated in Fig. \u003cspan\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, most participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;72, 98.63%) agreed that they undertook research as part of their education. However, a relatively smaller proportion of them received adequate preparation to undertake their bachelor\u0026rsquo;s research dissertation (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38, 52.05%), although approximately three-fourths of them (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;55, 75.34%) received the necessary support from their assigned supervisors. Additionally, most participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;53, 72.60%) believed that research should be an integral component of RP.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChallenges in RE.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Fig. \u003cspan\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, the majority of the participants (64.38%) believed that the unavailability of clinical skill development laboratories is a major challenge. Just like the HoDs, a significant proportion of the student participants indicated that inadequate training facilities (60.27%), teaching staff (52.05%), and clinical supervisors (47.95%) are a challenge to RE and training in Ghana. Only 24.66% of the student participants were of the view that large class size is a challenge.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the past, research exploring RE and training, has, mainly focused on European countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. This study aimed to investigate the phenomenon in the Ghanaian domain. The discussion focused on the curriculum contents, required professional capabilities, challenges, and suggestions to improve the education and training of radiography students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe role of AHPC in RE in Ghana\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to McNulty et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], training curricula for radiography are usually controlled by requirements set by respective national regulatory bodies as well as healthcare needs. This assertion is similar to Ghana\u0026rsquo;s case, as it was revealed that the AHPC regulates the professional training of radiographers. According to the AHPC official, this is in line with international requirements to prevent unqualified individuals from practising the profession. It was discovered that the AHPC, before granting an institution accreditation to run a RP, considers various criteria, such as faculty members with at least research master\u0026rsquo;s degrees, the number of professional and supporting staff, and the source of funds for the training program. As a profession that demands graduates to demonstrate key skills and capabilities, it is appropriate that radiography institutions recruit personnel with the relevant knowledge and skills to help in the training of students. However, due to the inadequate faculty members in the various RPs, resulting in burnout and ineffective training as indicated by the HoDs, there is the need for the regulator to consider making provisions for radiographers with appropriate level of experience to support the education and training activities of the RPs. This will enable the professional body to be closely involved with the academic activities, potentially enhancing their motivation to undertake further studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProfessional capability requirements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eChan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] posit that graduate health professionals are required to demonstrate professional competence within a rapidly changing environment without putting the patient at risk. However, it is important to emphasise that with the current trend in technological advancement in radiography [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], graduates are expected to develop professional capability, and not just competence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the Medical Radiation Practice Board of Australia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], the requirement for capability is the minimum level of knowledge and skill needed to competently perform a radiographic task. The result of this study aligns with this requirement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCharacteristics of RPs in Ghana\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study found that all institutions run a four-year program that leads to the award of a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree with honours in either diagnostic radiography (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5), diagnostic medical sonography (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), or therapy radiography (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1). Studies conducted by McNulty et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] and Sa Dos Reis et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] reported that RE in Europe is usually a three-year program. However, these also lead to the award of a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. The difference could be a result of readily available training resources in European countries, which improve clinical contact hours. Couto et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] contend that different entry-to-practice qualifications exist, including certificates and bachelor\u0026rsquo;s with honours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReport 3 from the AHPC Official revealed that RPs in Ghana are not harmonised, at least in terms of course content. Specifically, it was found that most of the training periods were allocated to courses related to imaging technology and technique, whereas the average time allocated to clinical training was 24.6 credit hours. This constitutes approximately 16% of the average training periods of the five diagnostic RPs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This shows that RPs in Ghana are generally concentrated in their theoretical contents. From Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, 58.9% of the participants reported that they spend more than 15 credit hours attending classroom lectures, while only 17.8% spend the same amount of time in CP. However, a similar study by Sa Dos Reis et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] found that a significant proportion of RPs were dedicated to CP, while Stewart-Lord et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] have previously contended that RE consists of approximately 50% each of classroom lecture and CP. Thus, the results from this study indicate the 50\u0026ndash;50 philosophy of theory and CP in RE may differ between institutions depending on factors such as the availability of human and material resources, potentially influencing credit hour allocation, supervision, and assessment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe wide disparity in credit hours between theoretical and clinical components of the RPs resulted in excessive workload. In P4, 63.0% of the participants reported that the workload was excessive, which may lead to frequent burnout in students. The results from P4 revealed a significant association between student participants\u0026rsquo; perceptions of clinical workload and the academic institutions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), signifying a variation in the duration of CP among the institutions as seen in the document analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This is similar to the results found by Sa Dos Reis et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], who, subsequently contended that this may result in graduates with varying professional abilities, including their levels of autonomy, attitudes towards patients, and the ability to adapt protocols for given radiographic scenarios.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, it was found that all the RPs have a research component, accounting for 8% of the average radiography training period was assigned to research. However, including research activities in the Ghanaian radiography curricula appeared challenging as it averagely formed less than a tenth of the total credit hours. Additionally, about 47.95% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20) of the student participants reported that the preparation for their research projects was inadequate, while about a fourth (24.55%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18) received inadequate support from their assigned research supervisors. This phenomenon could be due to inadequate academic staff, resulting in a high workload on the available faculty members. Other documented causal factors include limited time and resources, poor cooperation, the constantly changing role of radiographers and the increase in CP scope [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the inclusion of research in the RPs underscores the importance of research in enhancing evidence-based practice, its effects may not be realised. This is because the role of research in ensuring the growth of the profession may be achieved if practitioners with the requisite research skillset are motivated to engage in research. Thus, the inclusion of research in the Ghanaian radiography curricula is in the right direction to promote evidence-based radiography [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment of CP activities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research identified that all the programmes have a CP component, just as it is done in other parts of the world [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the assessment of CP in the various institutions varies, the common strategies were the use of logbooks and on-site observation by both academic lecturers and clinical supervisors. However, it was unclear which criteria the institutions use in assessing students\u0026rsquo; CP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaird [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] and Castle [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] suggested that to achieve students\u0026rsquo; training objectives, learning tasks and assessment tools must be judiciously applied within the training structure. Similarly, Mc Inerney and Baird [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] contend that the assessment and teaching strategies used must ensure that learners can communicate their thought processes through self-assessment. Also, Barry et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] stated that students should be assigned to specific clinical supervisors and assessors who will evaluate the progress of their clinical training and recommend appropriate strategies to overcome any unmet learning objectives. This is in line with the activities at School C in this study, where students are assigned supervisors before CP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are also calls for the inclusion of online assessment and supervision of students\u0026rsquo; CP, although there are foreseeable challenges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. However, in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, many educational institutions have moved towards implementing this in their training programmes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. It is worth reflecting on the significance of the online assessment of CP made by McAllister and Nagarajan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. They emphasised that adopting tele-supervision will enhance CP in less-resourced areas. Notably, this strategy is currently being adopted by School C whose HoD enthusiastically described how his department is moving towards virtual supervision. Ideally, virtual supervision and assessment may be useful in the Ghanaian setting due to the inadequate resources in terms of personnel and equipment. However, it should be considered carefully to reduce possible ethical implications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChallenges in RE and Strategies for Improvement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main challenges identified by the student participants were a lack of skill development labs, inadequate faculty, and inadequate training facilities, whereas the HoDs and the AHPC Official indicated that the major challenges were inadequate resources and a high student intake. Consistent with the literature, RE is characterised by challenges related to resources and increased enrolment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The effect of this could be inadequate student supervision and assessment as indicated in Report 5 from the AHPC Official and by some HoDs, or inadequate exposure of students to certain specialised imaging procedures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo overcome these challenges, participants in this study advocated for a holistic approach from the government, radiographers, and academic institutions. It was also suggested that schools should move towards reducing student intake and plan on organising robust clinical training that can ensure the attainment of students\u0026rsquo; learning goals regardless of the challenges. Other documented strategies in the literature include the use of simulation training [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] and active collaboration between academic institutions and clinical training centres [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. There is also a need for radiography educators to incorporate quality assurance activities in their programmes to ensure that students are given the necessary training [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The HOD of School C indicated that this practice enables them to identify facilities with adequate resources supportive workforce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current state of RE in Ghana is characterised by both strengths and challenges. The curriculum structure provides a solid foundation for training radiographers, nonetheless, the lack of harmonisation across institutions and resource constraints pose significant challenges to the quality of education and training. Addressing these issues through curriculum reform, improved resource allocation, and enhanced collaboration between academic and clinical institutions will be essential for advancing RE in Ghana and ensuring that graduates are well-equipped to meet the demands of modern healthcare practice. Further, since the criteria for assessing students were unclear from this study, a further project is required to evaluate the assessment strategies and how this affects students\u0026rsquo; professional capability development and their motivation to select specific CP centres. Additionally, future research should explore how simulation activities can enhance RE and training in low-resourced settings such as Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStrength and limitation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere was a challenge getting all institutions to participate in the study which reduced the response rate. However, the data collection and analysis methods reduced the effects associated with low responses. Also, only diagnostic radiography curricula were used for the document analysis. Future studies should consider other radiography streams.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"339\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAHPC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 244px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAllied Health Professions Council\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 229px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArtificial intelligence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 215px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinical practice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 229px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComputed tomography\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHoD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 229px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHead of Department\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eITT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 244px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImaging technology and technique\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 229px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMagnetic resonance imaging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 215px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural science\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 215px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhase one\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 215px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Phase two\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 215px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhase three\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 215px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhase four\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 229px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiography education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 229px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRadiography programme\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe extend our profound gratitude to all participants of this study without them this manuscript would not have been possible.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJLA\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualised the study and developed the study design, contributed to participant recruitment, data collection and analysis, and prepared the initial draft. \u003cstrong\u003eSAS\u003c/strong\u003e: contributed to study design, participant recruitment, and data collection and analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eLGMM\u003c/strong\u003e: participated in participant recruitment, data collection, and drafting the initial script. \u003cstrong\u003eGA\u003c/strong\u003e: contributed to research design and data collection and analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eJJN\u003c/strong\u003e: contributed to participant recruitment, data collection, and analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eWKA\u003c/strong\u003e: Contributed to study design, data analysis, and interpretation. \u003cstrong\u003eSNAT\u003c/strong\u003e: contributed to data analysis and interpretation. \u003cstrong\u003eFA\u003c/strong\u003e: Contributed to data analysis and interpretation. All authors participated in the revisions of the drafted manuscript and approved the final version.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data from this will be made available by the corresponding authors upon reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study adhered to ethical guidelines. The protocol for the study was approved by the Ethics and Protocol Review Committee of the School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, prior to recruitment and data collection. All participants provided informed consent before their inclusion in the study and were informed of their rights and responsibilities in the Participants\u0026rsquo; Information and Consent Form. All participants\u0026rsquo; personal data were de-identified to ensure anonymity and privacy. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMunn Z, McArthur A, Mander GTW, Steffensen CJ, and Jordan Z. The only constant in radiography is change: A discussion and primer on change in medical imaging to achieve evidence-based practice. 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Part 4: Trustworthiness and publishing. Eur J Gen Pract. 2018;24(1):120-4 https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375092\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAyton D. Rigour. In: D. Ayton, T. Tsindos, Berkovic D, editors. Qualitative research \u0026ndash; a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners. Melbourne, Australia: Monash University; 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBraun V, and Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006;3(2):77-101 https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcNulty JP, Rainford L, Bezzina P, Henner A, Kukkes T, Pronk-Larive D, and Vandulek C. A picture of radiography education across Europe. Radiography. 2016;22(1):5-11 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2015.09.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCouto JG, McFadden S, Bezzina P, McClure P, and Hughes C. An evaluation of the educational requirements to practise radiography in the European Union. Radiography (Lond). 2018;24(1):64-71 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2017.07.009\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChan BC, Perkins D, Wan Q, Nick Z, Chris D, Patrick C, and Mark FH. Finding common ground? Evaluating an intervention to improve teamwork among primary health-care professionals. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. 2010;22(6):519-24 https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzq057\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMc Inerney J, and Baird M. Developing critical practitioners: A review of teaching methods in the Bachelor of Radiography and Medical Imaging. Radiography. 2016;22(1):e40-e53 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2015.07.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMedical Radiation Practice Board of Australia. Professional Capabilities for Medical Radiation Practitioners. Australia: MRPBA; 2020\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcNulty JP, England A, and Shanahan MC. International perspectives on radiography practice education. Radiography (Lond). 2021;27(4):1044-51 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2021.04.004\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrentakis AG, Stefanoyiannis AP, Georgiadis K, Coleman L, Foley SJ, Herlig D, . . . and Chatziioannou SN. Education, training, and professional issues of radiographers in six European countries: a comparative review. Journal of European CME. 2016;5(1):31092 https://doi.org/10.3402/jecme.v5.31092\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStewart-Lord A, Walker C, and Williams R. Adopting Review, Reflect and Re-focus [Triple R] sessions to support pre-registration therapeutic radiography students post clinical placement. Radiography (Lond). 2021;27(4):1094-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2021.04.011\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOgbu SOI. Radiography students\u0026rsquo; perceptions of clinical placements \u0026ndash; A Nigerian perspective. Radiography. 2008;14(2):154-61 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2007.01.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEngland A, and McNulty JP. 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How to navigate the evolving world of clinical placement: an Australian university collaboration to support clinical supervision. Journal of Medical Imaging \u0026amp; Radiation Sciences. 2021;52(4S):S39-S44 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2021.08.015\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTay YX, and McNulty JP. Radiography education in 2022 and beyond - Writing the history of the present: A narrative review. Radiography (Lond). 2023;29(2):391-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2023.01.014\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcAllister L, and Nagarajan S. Accreditation requirements in allied health education: Strengths, weaknesses and missed opportunities. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability. 2015;6(1):2-24 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21153/jtlge2015vol6no1art570\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZalat MM, Hamed MS, and Bolbol SA. The experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic among university medical staff. PLoS One. 2021;16(3):e0248758 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMohammadi MK, Mohibbi AA, and Hedayati MH. Investigating the challenges and factors influencing the use of the learning management system during the Covid-19 pandemic in Afghanistan. Education and Information Technologies. 2021;26(5):5165-98 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10517-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThepwongsa I, Sripa P, Muthukumar R, Jenwitheesuk K, Virasiri S, and Nonjui P. The effects of a newly established online learning management system: the perspectives of Thai medical students in a public medical school. Heliyon. 2021;7(10):e08182 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08182\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKyei K, Antwi WK, K. B-Q, and Offei RO. Challenges Faced by Radiography Students During Clinical Training Clinical Medicine Research. 2015;4(3):36-41 https://doi.org/10.11648/j.cmr.s.2015040301.18\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChinene B, Sanyamandwe C, and Hlahla T. Challenges Experienced by Radiography Students During Clinical Placements in a Low Resource Setting: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study. South African Radiographer. 2023;61(2):32-40 https://doi.org/10.54450/saradio.2023.61.2.753\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHyde E. A critical evaluation of student radiographers\u0026apos; experience of the transition from the classroom to their first clinical placement. Radiography. 2015;21(3):242-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2014.12.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Radiography education, curriculum, clinical practice, low-resourced setting","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5759313/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5759313/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current state of radiography education (RE) in Ghana is unclear due to the surge in public universities offering radiography programmes (RPs) in the last eight years. This study examined RE in Ghana through an exploration of students\u0026rsquo;, educators, and a regulatory official\u0026rsquo;s perspectives and a comparison of curricula used by training institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA mixed-method approach allowed the study to be conducted in four phases. Study participants in all phases were purposively sampled. Data from Phase one (P1) was analysed by content analysis approach while thematic analysis was applied to the data in phases two (P2) and three (P3) using NVivo\u0026trade; 14. In contrast, the data from Phase four (P4) were descriptively and inferentially analysed using SPSS v29. These analysis methods allowed for the generation of themes, frequency tables and graphs. Associations were deemed significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results in P1 revealed variations in curricula employed by training institutions. In P2, the accreditation process and criteria were identified. Three themes emerged from P3: RP comparison, challenges in RE and impact, and improvement strategies. Several negative and positive perspectives were identified in P4.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe RE curriculum structure provides a solid foundation for training radiographers, nonetheless, the lack of harmonisation across institutions and resource constraints pose significant challenges to the quality of education and training. These could be addressed through curriculum reforms, improved resource allocation, and enhanced collaboration between academic and clinical institutions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Insights into radiography education in Ghana: Document analysis of curricula contents and perspectives of selected stakeholders","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-13 12:56:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5759313/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9f1f4147-9850-4562-be1c-8990a337aab8","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-10T13:23:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-13 12:56:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5759313","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5759313","identity":"rs-5759313","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}