Exploring the Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation in the Link Between Childhood Trauma and Bullying Behavior Among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Study

Exploring the Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation in the Link Between Childhood Trauma and Bullying Behavior Among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Exploring the Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation in the Link Between Childhood Trauma and Bullying Behavior Among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Study Hafez padervand, Yas Parvar, Banafsheh Hasanvand, Hossein Souri This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7742366/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Childhood Trauma (CT) is associated with a wide range of psychological disorders and behavioral problems that arise during adolescence and continue to affect individuals well into adulthood, according to extensive research. However, a critical gap in this literature is the limited exploration of mediating variables such as emotion regulation (ER) that may explain how these effects unfold. The study explored how ER might mediate the link between CT and bullying behavior (BB) in adolescents showing signs of conduct disorder (CD). This correlational survey targeted all adolescents aged 12 to 16 in Tehran who exhibited symptoms of CD during the 2024–2025 academic year, from whom a total of 300 participants were intentionally selected through purposive sampling. They completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) by Gross and John, the Youth Self-Report (YSR) by Achenbach and Rescorla, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) by Bernstein et al., and the BB Questionnaire (BVQ) by Olweus. The data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling. The proposed model demonstrated a satisfactory fit, with CT significantly predicting BB both directly and indirectly through the mediating role of ER (P < 0.05). These results highlight the potential value of enhancing ER skills in adolescents affected by CT as a strategy to reduce BB among youth with CD symptoms. Emotion Regulation Childhood Trauma Bullying Behavior Conduct Disorder Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Conduct disorder (CD) ranks among the most commonly diagnosed developmental disorders in childhood, posing a significant threat to mental health during early life. It is characterized by persistent and repetitive behavioral patterns that violate the fundamental rights of others or breach societal norms and regulations (American Psychiatric Association – APA, 2022). Within this context, bullying emerges as a distinct and systematic form of interpersonal aggression, defined by the deliberate intent to inflict harm or discomfort on the victim. A key distinguishing feature of bullying is the power imbalance between the aggressor and the target (Kallman et al., 2021 ). BBs may manifest physically (e.g., hitting), verbally (e.g., teasing), or relationally (e.g., rumor-spreading) (Swastikaningsih et al., 2023 ). Given the adverse consequences of bullying for both perpetrators and victims, a deeper exploration of its underlying mechanisms is warranted. Prior research has identified a range of biological, familial, social, and cultural factors contributing to behavioral disorders. However, among these, early childhood experiences—particularly traumatic ones—play a pivotal role (Majebi et al., 2024 ; Thoma et al., 2022 ). Childhood Trauma encompasses distressing and harmful events occurring in early life that may influence psychological functioning through behavioral, emotional, and cognitive pathways, thereby increasing vulnerability to mental illness and personality or behavioral disturbances in adulthood (Cheng et al., 2023 ). Such trauma is typically categorized into two main domains: abuse (sexual, physical, and emotional) and neglect (physical and emotional) (Narayan et al., 2021 ). These adverse experiences significantly affect mental health and impair emotional regulation capacities later in life (Nelson et al., 2020 ; Copeland et al., 2018 ; Humphreys et al., 2020 ). Empirical evidence supports the association between CT and bullying dynamics during adolescence. For instance, Kelleher et al. ( 2008 ) reported links between early trauma and both bullying perpetration and victimization. Similarly, Dargis et al. ( 2016 ) examined the relationship between CT and psychotic traits in adult offenders, while Hébert et al. ( 2018 ) demonstrated that early adversity contributes to both internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in adolescents. Early psychological harm may profoundly disrupt emotional development and regulation, leading to long-term mental health challenges (Zhou, & Zhen, 2022 ; Michalek et al., 2021 ). Abuse during early childhood is likely to interfere with normative emotion regulation (ER) processes, resulting in psychological difficulties across adolescence and adulthood (Gruhn & Compas, 2020 ). Building on this premise, the present study aims to investigate the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and bullying behavior (BB) among adolescents exhibiting symptoms of CD. ER, a specialized form of emotional self-regulation, involves internal and external processes that monitor, evaluate, and modify the intensity and duration of emotional responses (Yang et al., 2023 ). It comprises two core components: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Cognitive reappraisal entails reinterpreting emotional stimuli to reduce their impact, whereas suppression involves the deliberate inhibition of emotional expression (Gross & John, 2003 ). While cognitive reappraisal is positively associated with close interpersonal relationships and greater life satisfaction, suppression is linked to heightened negative affect, avoidance of intimacy, interpersonal disruption, and reduced optimism and well-being (Fombouchet et al., 2023 ). Deficits in ER are associated with a broader spectrum of psychological disorders and behavioral impairments (Tsujimoto et al., 2024 ). For example, Fernandes et al. ( 2023 ) found that ER difficulties correlate with emotional and behavioral problems in adolescents. Mihic and Novak ( 2018 ) reported significant associations between ER and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Moreover, Mathijs et al. ( 2024 ) identified emotional dysregulation as a mediator between overprotective parenting and adolescent social anxiety. Collectively, existing evidence underscores the high prevalence of CD during childhood and adolescence, with bullying representing a persistent behavioral feature. Such behaviors elevate the risk of future challenges, including school dropout and antisocial tendencies. Although prior studies have examined childhood, emotional, and cognitive variables in isolation, no research to date has integrated CT and ER within a unified conceptual model. Accordingly, the present study aims to investigate the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and BB in adolescents with CD symptoms, within the proposed research framework. 2. Experimental section 2.1. Participants and procedure Prior to initiating the study, ethical approval and research authorization were obtained from the Tehran Department of Education. To identify adolescents exhibiting symptoms of CD, District 18 was selected from among all educational districts in Tehran. From the 40 public middle schools located in this district, a stratified sample of 9 schools was chosen for participation. The Youth Self-Report (YSR), developed by Achenbach and Rescorla, was administered to a total of 1,200 students across the selected schools. Before data collection, informed consent was secured from school administrators, teachers, parents, and the students themselves. The questionnaires were distributed during regular class hours and returned to the research team via school staff upon completion. Based on the YSR responses, 395 students were identified as presenting symptoms consistent with CD. These students were subsequently assessed using the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (BVQ) to evaluate bullying-related behaviors. Analysis of the BVQ responses revealed that 335 of the students exhibited bullying tendencies. Among them, 300 students aged 12 to 16 years old voluntarily participated in the full study. These participants were then provided with three instruments for further assessment: the ER Questionnaire (ERQ), the BVQ, and the CT Questionnaire (CTQ). Data collection was conducted in accordance with ethical standards and under the supervision of trained school personnel and researchers. 2.2. Instruments 2.2.1. Youth Self-Report (YSR) The Youth Self-Report (YSR), developed by Achenbach and Rescorla ( 2001 ), is a standardized self-assessment tool designed for adolescents aged 11 to 18. The instrument comprises 112 items across six subscales, one of which specifically evaluates CD through 15 targeted items. Respondents rate each item on a three-point scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat true, 2 = very true), yielding a cumulative score ranging from 0 to 30. Higher scores reflect greater severity of conduct-related symptoms. The original version demonstrated strong construct validity via factor analysis (RMSEA < 0.05), and the CD subscale showed acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.70). In the present study, reliability for this subscale was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.75. 2.2.2. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) for Children and Adolescents The ERQ, developed by Gross and John ( 2003 ), assesses two primary ER strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. The instrument includes 10 items (six measuring reappraisal and four assessing suppression) rated on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Gross and John reported satisfactory psychometric properties, with internal consistency of 0.73 and test-retest reliability of 0.69 for both subscales. In the current study, the ERQ demonstrated a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.78, indicating good reliability. 2.2.3. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) Originally developed by Bernstein et al. ( 1994 ), the CTQ underwent revisions in 1995 and was finalized in 1998 with a 34-item format. This instrument evaluates CT across five domains: physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse. Responses are recorded on a five-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = always), and a total trauma score is calculated by summing the subscale scores. Bernstein et al. reported reliability coefficients ranging from 0.79 to 0.94 using both test-retest and internal consistency methods. In the present study, the CTQ demonstrated a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83. 2.2.4. Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (BVQ) Developed by Olweus (1996), the BVQ assesses students’ involvement in bullying and victimization across three dimensions: physical, verbal, and emotional/social. Suitable for adolescents aged 11 to 17, the questionnaire employs a five-point Likert scale to measure frequency and intensity of BBs. Olweus reported a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87 for the bullying subscale. Subsequent studies conducted globally have confirmed the instrument’s validity and reliability, with alpha coefficients ranging from 0.76 to 0.78 (Hamburger et al., 2011). In the current study, the bullying subscale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.77. 2.3. Data analysis The data were analyzed using a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Descriptive statistics included measures of central tendency and dispersion (mean, standard deviation), as well as distributional indices (skewness and kurtosis). Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to examine bivariate relationships among variables. To test the proposed research model, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 25 and AMOS version 24. 2.4. Ethical considerations This study received formal approval from the Research and Educational Planning Division of the Tehran Department of Education. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants, including assent from students and consent from their parents or guardians. Participants were explicitly informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without penalty. Confidentiality and anonymity of responses were strictly maintained throughout the research process. Questionnaires were administered in a quiet and distraction-free classroom environment within each participating school. Upon completion, all responses were reviewed to ensure completeness and data integrity. Administering the instruments required approximately 15 to 20 minutes per participant. 3. Results The age distribution of participants indicated that 48 individuals (16%) were 12 years old, 56 (18.7%) were 13 years old, 61 (20.3%) were 14 years old, 64 (21.3%) were 15 years old, and 71 (23.7%) were 16 years old. Thus, the highest proportion belonged to the 16-year-old group. Regarding gender, 207 participants (69%) were male and 93 (31%) were female. These figures suggest that the sample was predominantly composed of boys, with the 16-year-old male subgroup representing the largest segment. Prior to conducting the path analysis, key assumptions—including normality of distribution, independence of residuals, and absence of multicollinearity—were evaluated. Normality was assessed using skewness and kurtosis indices, confirming that all variables exhibited a normal distribution (values ranging from + 1 to -1). The Durbin-Watson statistic (D.W. = 1.90), falling within the acceptable range of 1.5 to 2.5, indicated no autocorrelation among residuals. Multicollinearity was examined through the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance metrics, with results showing VIF values below 5 and Tolerance values above 0.1, thereby confirming the absence of multicollinearity. Additionally, the assumption of linearity between independent and dependent variables was tested using Pearson correlation coefficients. The correlation results, along with the means and standard deviations of the variables, are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations among research variables Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 Adaptive ER 18.42 4.05 - Maladaptive ER 13.59 4.02 -0.58** - CT 100.98 18.97 -0.30** 0.28** - BB 93.20 13.54 -0.52** 0.39** 0.57** - \(\:\varvec{*}\varvec{*}\varvec{P}<0.01\) As given in Table 1 , CT was significantly and positively correlated with BB (r = 0.57, P < 0.01). Adaptive ER demonstrated a significant negative correlation with BB (r = − 0.52, P < 0.01), while maladaptive ER showed a significant positive correlation (r = 0.39, P < 0.01). These findings underscore the meaningful associations between emotional regulation strategies, trauma history, and bullying tendencies. To evaluate the relationships among the study variables, structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted. In the initial phase, the overall model fit was examined. Subsequently, standardized regression weights for the measurement models and path coefficients for the structural relationships were analyzed. Initially, key fit indices were considered to assess the overall model fit. The model fit indices are presented in Table 2 . For the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (X²/df), values below 3 are deemed acceptable, with values approaching zero indicating a stronger model fit. For the GFI (Goodness-of-Fit Index), IFI (Incremental Fit Index), and CFI (Comparative Fit Index), values at or above 0.90 are interpreted as indicative of a satisfactory model fit. Regarding the RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), values near or below 0.05 reflect a good fit, values up to 0.08 suggest a reasonable approximation error, and values exceeding 0.10 imply that the model should be rejected (Hooman, 2007). As shown in Table 2 , the reported fit indices collectively support the adequacy of the proposed model. Table 2 Model fit indices for the proposed structural model Model Fit Indices \(\:{\mathbf{X}}^{2}\) df \(\:{\mathbf{X}}^{2}/\mathbf{d}\mathbf{f}\) GFI IFI CFI RMSEA Value 69.89 27 2.59 0.95 0.91 0.91 0.07 In the next phase of analysis, all direct path effects within the structural equation model were systematically evaluated. The initial focus was on assessing the direct impact of CT and ER on BB. The results of this examination are summarized in Table 3 . Table 3 Standardized path coefficients for the prediction of BB based on CT mediated by ER Direct path Standardized coefficient t-value Effect of CT on adaptive ER -0.37 -4.76 Effect of CT on maladaptive ER 0.26 3.48 Effect of adaptive ER on BB -0.40 -4.99 Effect of maladaptive ER on BB 0.49 6.18 A t-value greater than 2.68 is considered statistically significant at the 0.01 level, and a t-value greater than 1.96 is considered significant at the 0.05 level. The analysis of variable relationships, based on standardized regression path coefficients presented in Table 3 , revealed that both adaptive and maladaptive ER significantly predicted BB (P < 0.01). To further investigate the mediating role of ER in the association between CT and BB, the Sobel test was employed. The results of this mediation analysis are presented in Table 4 . Table 4 Results of the Sobel test examining the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and BB Predictive variable Outcome variable Mediator variable Sobel test (z) p-value CT BB Adaptive ER 2.04 0.041 CT BB Adaptive ER 2.25 0.029 As shown in Table 4 , adaptive ER significantly mediated the relationship between CT and BB (Z = 2.04, P < 0.01). Likewise, maladaptive ER demonstrated a statistically significant mediating effect in the same relationship (Z = 2.25, P < 0.01). These findings highlight the critical role of ER strategies in explaining how early traumatic experiences may contribute to bullying tendencies. Discussion The present study aimed to examine the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and BB among adolescents exhibiting symptoms of CD. The results indicated that CT exerts a direct positive influence on BB in this population. This finding is consistent with prior research by Kelleher et al. ( 2008 ), Dargis et al. ( 2016 ), and Hebert et al. (2018). From the perspective of attachment theory, early adverse experiences can profoundly disrupt the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral systems of the individual. Adolescents exposed to abuse and neglect during childhood often experience emotional and cognitive dysregulation, which may lead to the adoption of maladaptive strategies such as impulsivity and heightened reactivity. An alternative explanation suggests that traumatic experiences in early life contribute to the formation of a behavioral repertoire dominated by aggressive responses. According to behavioral theory, parental behaviors and environmental influences play a critical role in shaping personality development. Children who have endured such adversity may rely on aggression during adolescence and adulthood—particularly in response to frustration or as a means of exerting control—due to the limited availability of alternative behavioral strategies (Berzenski & Yates, 2019 ). Additional findings revealed that CT negatively affects ER in adolescents with CD symptoms. This result aligns with studies by Zhou & Xin (2022), Michalak et al. (2021), and Gron & Komps (2020). ER skills typically emerge in early life through interpersonal emotional exchanges between caregivers and children. Repeated interpersonal trauma, especially involving caregivers, can interfere with the acquisition of effective ER strategies, resulting in emotional dysregulation. Such disruptions impair emotional cognition and processing, leading to confusion and instability in emotional responses and reducing the individual’s capacity to manage negative affect. Moreover, chronic stress during childhood sensitizes central nervous system pathways involved in stress response and ER. While adults continue to develop neurocognitive mechanisms to cope with complex challenges, the interaction between these processes and the pressures of maltreatment may diminish the individual’s ability to regulate emotions effectively. The final analysis confirmed that the proposed model demonstrated a satisfactory level of fit. CT significantly influenced BB both directly and indirectly through the mediating role of ER. This finding is supported by studies conducted by Fernandez et al. (2023), Mihic & Novak ( 2018 ), and Mathis et al. (2024). Neurodevelopmental evidence suggests that CT may disrupt the maturation of key brain circuits involved in emotional processing and regulation. For instance, hyperactivity of the amygdala—responsible for fear responses—can lead to exaggerated emotional reactions, while weakened connectivity between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex may impair cognitive regulation of emotions (Kim et al., 2011 ). According to complex trauma theory, exposure to repeated traumatic events during childhood can result in multifaceted trauma responses, including difficulties in emotional and behavioral regulation, challenges in forming and maintaining relationships, and disruptions in identity and self-esteem (Courtois, 2008 ). Furthermore, Gross’s ER model highlights that BB is associated with deficits across multiple emotional domains. These include poor acceptance of emotional responses, impaired goal-directed behavior, difficulty with impulse control, lack of emotional awareness and clarity, and absence of effective emotional strategies. Consequently, adolescents may encounter challenges at individual, interpersonal, and social levels and fail to resolve them through adaptive coping mechanisms. In such cases, bullying may emerge as a compensatory strategy for managing unresolved emotional difficulties. Taken together, ER ability appears to be a critical predictor of BB. Lower levels of this ability may be associated with higher levels of bullying among adolescents. Conclusion This study was conducted among adolescents aged 12 to 16 who exhibited symptoms of CD and signs of BB. The primary aim was to investigate the relationship between CT and bullying, with ER examined as a mediating factor. Although previous research has addressed the impact of CT on various psychological disorders across different age groups, to the best of our knowledge, no prior study has specifically explored this relationship in adolescents with CD symptoms through the lens of ER. The findings revealed that CT significantly predicted BB both directly and indirectly via ER. Furthermore, each component of CT—including physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse—was positively associated with BB. In terms of ER strategies, suppression showed a significant positive association with bullying, whereas cognitive reappraisal was negatively associated. Despite the novel and informative insights gained from this research, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study's cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. To strengthen the validity of these findings, future research should adopt longitudinal approaches to capture developmental trajectories and causal mechanisms more accurately. Second, the reliance on self-report questionnaires may introduce response bias. To mitigate this limitation and enhance data reliability, future studies are encouraged to incorporate complementary methods such as structured interviews and qualitative designs. Given the sensitive nature of childhood and the enduring impact of early adverse experiences on psychological functioning in adulthood, the present findings offer valuable implications for the prevention and intervention of these issues. Specifically, increasing parental awareness of their critical role—through school-based educational programs or media outreach—may serve as an effective strategy to reduce the risk of psychological disorders and promote healthier emotional development in children and adolescents. Declarations Conflicts of interest Not applicable Ethical Approval Not applicable Informed Consent Before data collection, informed consent was secured from school administrators, teachers, parents, and the students themselves. The questionnaires were distributed during regular class hours and returned to the research team via school staff upon completion. Consent for Publication Not applicable Funding Not applicable Author Contribution **Author 1** played a role in study design, data acquisition, data analysis, and data interpretation **. Author 2** actively participated in the drafting of the article and gave final approval of the submitted version. **Author 3** data acquisition **,** data acquisition. **Author 4** Accepting public responsibility and guaranteeing the integrity of the research and the article. Responsible for the submission, editing, and publication of the article **.** Data Availability Research data available for comment in Farsi format References Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Child behavior checklist for ages 6-18 (pp. 6-1). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.‏ https://www.nctsn.org/measures/child-behavior-checklist-ages-6-18 . American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition-Text Revised(DSM-5-TR). 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Child Abuse & Neglect , 129 , 105641.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105641 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7742366","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":535846728,"identity":"fce25f29-459c-4cc6-8ce5-62bee46a706b","order_by":0,"name":"Hafez padervand","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lorestan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hafez","middleName":"","lastName":"padervand","suffix":""},{"id":535846732,"identity":"a28ceeb8-3109-4a53-9352-53592523b60f","order_by":1,"name":"Yas Parvar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lorestan 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Souri","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA60lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAySSgSGhAlWcGC1niNYCA4xtRDjMnL398YcPBXcY5Nt7zD48nHcnz+AA88MPDAX3cGqx7DljJjnD4BmDwZkzxjMStz0rNjjAZizBYFCM22E3ctiYeQwOMxhI5BgzJG47nLjhAIMZUDwBj5b0x5//ALXIzwBpmQPSwv6NgJYEA2kGoBaGGyAtDSAtPARsOQP0S4/BYR6DM8eKGRKOPUuceZinWCIBn5bjwBD78eewnHx782bGHzV3EvuOt2/88OEPbi0wwAOlDzAwMAMpwhoQ4AAJakfBKBgFo2CkAACcKFXLXgsm7gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Payame Noor University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hossein","middleName":"","lastName":"Souri","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-29 13:08:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7742366/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7742366/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94622819,"identity":"10815d13-3c5d-4ee9-9e04-f1c4a9a31a9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 04:18:33","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":111808,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MainManuscript1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7742366/v1/5b88817eb8d4c8ff42a46abb.docx"},{"id":94622439,"identity":"7ced64b7-8f07-4557-8227-319748d2be16","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 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04:18:19","extension":"html","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":90174,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7742366/v1/7fbba3c41395b91ca482c00a.html"},{"id":94622191,"identity":"1b20b9fa-e2b9-4cb8-96e8-e78cd28138e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 04:18:09","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70942,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStandardized path coefficients for the relationship between CT and BB mediated by ER\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7742366/v1/4b4dd2984fbc11c992dee7ad.png"},{"id":104782905,"identity":"08e7dad9-3ef8-4e02-b224-4595dcccdf44","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 07:57:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":725496,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7742366/v1/3cbeb6d1-3126-4f27-8074-c9cd47390d93.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Exploring the Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation in the Link Between Childhood Trauma and Bullying Behavior Among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Study","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eConduct disorder (CD) ranks among the most commonly diagnosed developmental disorders in childhood, posing a significant threat to mental health during early life. It is characterized by persistent and repetitive behavioral patterns that violate the fundamental rights of others or breach societal norms and regulations (American Psychiatric Association \u0026ndash; APA, 2022). Within this context, bullying emerges as a distinct and systematic form of interpersonal aggression, defined by the deliberate intent to inflict harm or discomfort on the victim. A key distinguishing feature of bullying is the power imbalance between the aggressor and the target (Kallman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). BBs may manifest physically (e.g., hitting), verbally (e.g., teasing), or relationally (e.g., rumor-spreading) (Swastikaningsih et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the adverse consequences of bullying for both perpetrators and victims, a deeper exploration of its underlying mechanisms is warranted. Prior research has identified a range of biological, familial, social, and cultural factors contributing to behavioral disorders. However, among these, early childhood experiences\u0026mdash;particularly traumatic ones\u0026mdash;play a pivotal role (Majebi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Thoma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Childhood Trauma encompasses distressing and harmful events occurring in early life that may influence psychological functioning through behavioral, emotional, and cognitive pathways, thereby increasing vulnerability to mental illness and personality or behavioral disturbances in adulthood (Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Such trauma is typically categorized into two main domains: abuse (sexual, physical, and emotional) and neglect (physical and emotional) (Narayan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These adverse experiences significantly affect mental health and impair emotional regulation capacities later in life (Nelson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Copeland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Humphreys et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmpirical evidence supports the association between CT and bullying dynamics during adolescence. For instance, Kelleher et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) reported links between early trauma and both bullying perpetration and victimization. Similarly, Dargis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) examined the relationship between CT and psychotic traits in adult offenders, while H\u0026eacute;bert et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that early adversity contributes to both internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEarly psychological harm may profoundly disrupt emotional development and regulation, leading to long-term mental health challenges (Zhou, \u0026amp; Zhen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Michalek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Abuse during early childhood is likely to interfere with normative emotion regulation (ER) processes, resulting in psychological difficulties across adolescence and adulthood (Gruhn \u0026amp; Compas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Building on this premise, the present study aims to investigate the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and bullying behavior (BB) among adolescents exhibiting symptoms of CD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eER, a specialized form of emotional self-regulation, involves internal and external processes that monitor, evaluate, and modify the intensity and duration of emotional responses (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It comprises two core components: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Cognitive reappraisal entails reinterpreting emotional stimuli to reduce their impact, whereas suppression involves the deliberate inhibition of emotional expression (Gross \u0026amp; John, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). While cognitive reappraisal is positively associated with close interpersonal relationships and greater life satisfaction, suppression is linked to heightened negative affect, avoidance of intimacy, interpersonal disruption, and reduced optimism and well-being (Fombouchet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeficits in ER are associated with a broader spectrum of psychological disorders and behavioral impairments (Tsujimoto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Fernandes et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) found that ER difficulties correlate with emotional and behavioral problems in adolescents. Mihic and Novak (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) reported significant associations between ER and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Moreover, Mathijs et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) identified emotional dysregulation as a mediator between overprotective parenting and adolescent social anxiety.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollectively, existing evidence underscores the high prevalence of CD during childhood and adolescence, with bullying representing a persistent behavioral feature. Such behaviors elevate the risk of future challenges, including school dropout and antisocial tendencies. Although prior studies have examined childhood, emotional, and cognitive variables in isolation, no research to date has integrated CT and ER within a unified conceptual model. Accordingly, the present study aims to investigate the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and BB in adolescents with CD symptoms, within the proposed research framework.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental section","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Participants and procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrior to initiating the study, ethical approval and research authorization were obtained from the Tehran Department of Education. To identify adolescents exhibiting symptoms of CD, District 18 was selected from among all educational districts in Tehran. From the 40 public middle schools located in this district, a stratified sample of 9 schools was chosen for participation. The Youth Self-Report (YSR), developed by Achenbach and Rescorla, was administered to a total of 1,200 students across the selected schools. Before data collection, informed consent was secured from school administrators, teachers, parents, and the students themselves. The questionnaires were distributed during regular class hours and returned to the research team via school staff upon completion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the YSR responses, 395 students were identified as presenting symptoms consistent with CD. These students were subsequently assessed using the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (BVQ) to evaluate bullying-related behaviors. Analysis of the BVQ responses revealed that 335 of the students exhibited bullying tendencies. Among them, 300 students aged 12 to 16 years old voluntarily participated in the full study. These participants were then provided with three instruments for further assessment: the ER Questionnaire (ERQ), the BVQ, and the CT Questionnaire (CTQ). Data collection was conducted in accordance with ethical standards and under the supervision of trained school personnel and researchers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Youth Self-Report (YSR)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Youth Self-Report (YSR), developed by Achenbach and Rescorla (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), is a standardized self-assessment tool designed for adolescents aged 11 to 18. The instrument comprises 112 items across six subscales, one of which specifically evaluates CD through 15 targeted items. Respondents rate each item on a three-point scale (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not true, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;somewhat true, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very true), yielding a cumulative score ranging from 0 to 30. Higher scores reflect greater severity of conduct-related symptoms. The original version demonstrated strong construct validity via factor analysis (RMSEA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), and the CD subscale showed acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70). In the present study, reliability for this subscale was confirmed with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.75.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) for Children and Adolescents\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ERQ, developed by Gross and John (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), assesses two primary ER strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. The instrument includes 10 items (six measuring reappraisal and four assessing suppression) rated on a seven-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree). Gross and John reported satisfactory psychometric properties, with internal consistency of 0.73 and test-retest reliability of 0.69 for both subscales. In the current study, the ERQ demonstrated a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.78, indicating good reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOriginally developed by Bernstein et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), the CTQ underwent revisions in 1995 and was finalized in 1998 with a 34-item format. This instrument evaluates CT across five domains: physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse. Responses are recorded on a five-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;never to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;always), and a total trauma score is calculated by summing the subscale scores. Bernstein et al. reported reliability coefficients ranging from 0.79 to 0.94 using both test-retest and internal consistency methods. In the present study, the CTQ demonstrated a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.83.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (BVQ)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeveloped by Olweus (1996), the BVQ assesses students\u0026rsquo; involvement in bullying and victimization across three dimensions: physical, verbal, and emotional/social. Suitable for adolescents aged 11 to 17, the questionnaire employs a five-point Likert scale to measure frequency and intensity of BBs. Olweus reported a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.87 for the bullying subscale. Subsequent studies conducted globally have confirmed the instrument\u0026rsquo;s validity and reliability, with alpha coefficients ranging from 0.76 to 0.78 (Hamburger et al., 2011). In the current study, the bullying subscale yielded a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.77.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data were analyzed using a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Descriptive statistics included measures of central tendency and dispersion (mean, standard deviation), as well as distributional indices (skewness and kurtosis). Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to examine bivariate relationships among variables. To test the proposed research model, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 25 and AMOS version 24.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Ethical considerations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e This study received formal approval from the Research and Educational Planning Division of the Tehran Department of Education. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants, including assent from students and consent from their parents or guardians. Participants were explicitly informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without penalty. Confidentiality and anonymity of responses were strictly maintained throughout the research process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuestionnaires were administered in a quiet and distraction-free classroom environment within each participating school. Upon completion, all responses were reviewed to ensure completeness and data integrity. Administering the instruments required approximately 15 to 20 minutes per participant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe age distribution of participants indicated that 48 individuals (16%) were 12 years old, 56 (18.7%) were 13 years old, 61 (20.3%) were 14 years old, 64 (21.3%) were 15 years old, and 71 (23.7%) were 16 years old. Thus, the highest proportion belonged to the 16-year-old group. Regarding gender, 207 participants (69%) were male and 93 (31%) were female. These figures suggest that the sample was predominantly composed of boys, with the 16-year-old male subgroup representing the largest segment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrior to conducting the path analysis, key assumptions\u0026mdash;including normality of distribution, independence of residuals, and absence of multicollinearity\u0026mdash;were evaluated. Normality was assessed using skewness and kurtosis indices, confirming that all variables exhibited a normal distribution (values ranging from +\u0026thinsp;1 to -1). The Durbin-Watson statistic (D.W. = 1.90), falling within the acceptable range of 1.5 to 2.5, indicated no autocorrelation among residuals. Multicollinearity was examined through the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance metrics, with results showing VIF values below 5 and Tolerance values above 0.1, thereby confirming the absence of multicollinearity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the assumption of linearity between independent and dependent variables was tested using Pearson correlation coefficients. The correlation results, along with the means and standard deviations of the variables, are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans, standard deviations (SD), and correlations among research variables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptive ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaladaptive ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.58**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.30**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.52**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\varvec{*}\\varvec{*}\\varvec{P}\u0026lt;0.01\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, CT was significantly and positively correlated with BB (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.57, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Adaptive ER demonstrated a significant negative correlation with BB (r = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.52, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), while maladaptive ER showed a significant positive correlation (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.39, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). These findings underscore the meaningful associations between emotional regulation strategies, trauma history, and bullying tendencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the relationships among the study variables, structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted. In the initial phase, the overall model fit was examined. Subsequently, standardized regression weights for the measurement models and path coefficients for the structural relationships were analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInitially, key fit indices were considered to assess the overall model fit. The model fit indices are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. For the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (X\u0026sup2;/df), values below 3 are deemed acceptable, with values approaching zero indicating a stronger model fit. For the GFI (Goodness-of-Fit Index), IFI (Incremental Fit Index), and CFI (Comparative Fit Index), values at or above 0.90 are interpreted as indicative of a satisfactory model fit.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), values near or below 0.05 reflect a good fit, values up to 0.08 suggest a reasonable approximation error, and values exceeding 0.10 imply that the model should be rejected (Hooman, 2007). As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the reported fit indices collectively support the adequacy of the proposed model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel fit indices for the proposed structural model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel Fit Indices\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\mathbf{X}}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\mathbf{X}}^{2}/\\mathbf{d}\\mathbf{f}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGFI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIFI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the next phase of analysis, all direct path effects within the structural equation model were systematically evaluated. The initial focus was on assessing the direct impact of CT and ER on BB. The results of this examination are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandardized path coefficients for the prediction of BB based on CT mediated by ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect path\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandardized coefficient\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect of CT on adaptive ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect of CT on maladaptive ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect of adaptive ER on BB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect of maladaptive ER on BB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA t-value greater than 2.68 is considered statistically significant at the 0.01 level, and a t-value greater than 1.96 is considered significant at the 0.05 level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of variable relationships, based on standardized regression path coefficients presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, revealed that both adaptive and maladaptive ER significantly predicted BB (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). To further investigate the mediating role of ER in the association between CT and BB, the Sobel test was employed. The results of this mediation analysis are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults of the Sobel test examining the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and BB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredictive variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutcome variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMediator variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSobel test (z)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptive ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptive ER\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, adaptive ER significantly mediated the relationship between CT and BB (Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.04, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Likewise, maladaptive ER demonstrated a statistically significant mediating effect in the same relationship (Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.25, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). These findings highlight the critical role of ER strategies in explaining how early traumatic experiences may contribute to bullying tendencies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study aimed to examine the mediating role of ER in the relationship between CT and BB among adolescents exhibiting symptoms of CD. The results indicated that CT exerts a direct positive influence on BB in this population. This finding is consistent with prior research by Kelleher et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), Dargis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and Hebert et al. (2018). From the perspective of attachment theory, early adverse experiences can profoundly disrupt the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral systems of the individual. Adolescents exposed to abuse and neglect during childhood often experience emotional and cognitive dysregulation, which may lead to the adoption of maladaptive strategies such as impulsivity and heightened reactivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn alternative explanation suggests that traumatic experiences in early life contribute to the formation of a behavioral repertoire dominated by aggressive responses. According to behavioral theory, parental behaviors and environmental influences play a critical role in shaping personality development. Children who have endured such adversity may rely on aggression during adolescence and adulthood\u0026mdash;particularly in response to frustration or as a means of exerting control\u0026mdash;due to the limited availability of alternative behavioral strategies (Berzenski \u0026amp; Yates, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditional findings revealed that CT negatively affects ER in adolescents with CD symptoms. This result aligns with studies by Zhou \u0026amp; Xin (2022), Michalak et al. (2021), and Gron \u0026amp; Komps (2020). ER skills typically emerge in early life through interpersonal emotional exchanges between caregivers and children. Repeated interpersonal trauma, especially involving caregivers, can interfere with the acquisition of effective ER strategies, resulting in emotional dysregulation. Such disruptions impair emotional cognition and processing, leading to confusion and instability in emotional responses and reducing the individual\u0026rsquo;s capacity to manage negative affect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, chronic stress during childhood sensitizes central nervous system pathways involved in stress response and ER. While adults continue to develop neurocognitive mechanisms to cope with complex challenges, the interaction between these processes and the pressures of maltreatment may diminish the individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to regulate emotions effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe final analysis confirmed that the proposed model demonstrated a satisfactory level of fit. CT significantly influenced BB both directly and indirectly through the mediating role of ER. This finding is supported by studies conducted by Fernandez et al. (2023), Mihic \u0026amp; Novak (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and Mathis et al. (2024). Neurodevelopmental evidence suggests that CT may disrupt the maturation of key brain circuits involved in emotional processing and regulation. For instance, hyperactivity of the amygdala\u0026mdash;responsible for fear responses\u0026mdash;can lead to exaggerated emotional reactions, while weakened connectivity between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex may impair cognitive regulation of emotions (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to complex trauma theory, exposure to repeated traumatic events during childhood can result in multifaceted trauma responses, including difficulties in emotional and behavioral regulation, challenges in forming and maintaining relationships, and disruptions in identity and self-esteem (Courtois, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, Gross\u0026rsquo;s ER model highlights that BB is associated with deficits across multiple emotional domains. These include poor acceptance of emotional responses, impaired goal-directed behavior, difficulty with impulse control, lack of emotional awareness and clarity, and absence of effective emotional strategies. Consequently, adolescents may encounter challenges at individual, interpersonal, and social levels and fail to resolve them through adaptive coping mechanisms. In such cases, bullying may emerge as a compensatory strategy for managing unresolved emotional difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together, ER ability appears to be a critical predictor of BB. Lower levels of this ability may be associated with higher levels of bullying among adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted among adolescents aged 12 to 16 who exhibited symptoms of CD and signs of BB. The primary aim was to investigate the relationship between CT and bullying, with ER examined as a mediating factor. Although previous research has addressed the impact of CT on various psychological disorders across different age groups, to the best of our knowledge, no prior study has specifically explored this relationship in adolescents with CD symptoms through the lens of ER.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed that CT significantly predicted BB both directly and indirectly via ER. Furthermore, each component of CT\u0026mdash;including physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse\u0026mdash;was positively associated with BB. In terms of ER strategies, suppression showed a significant positive association with bullying, whereas cognitive reappraisal was negatively associated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the novel and informative insights gained from this research, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study's cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. To strengthen the validity of these findings, future research should adopt longitudinal approaches to capture developmental trajectories and causal mechanisms more accurately. Second, the reliance on self-report questionnaires may introduce response bias. To mitigate this limitation and enhance data reliability, future studies are encouraged to incorporate complementary methods such as structured interviews and qualitative designs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the sensitive nature of childhood and the enduring impact of early adverse experiences on psychological functioning in adulthood, the present findings offer valuable implications for the prevention and intervention of these issues. Specifically, increasing parental awareness of their critical role\u0026mdash;through school-based educational programs or media outreach\u0026mdash;may serve as an effective strategy to reduce the risk of psychological disorders and promote healthier emotional development in children and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore data collection, informed consent was secured from school administrators, teachers, parents, and the students themselves. The questionnaires were distributed during regular class hours and returned to the research team via school staff upon completion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e**Author 1** played a role in study design, data acquisition, data analysis, and data interpretation **. Author 2** actively participated in the drafting of the article and gave final approval of the submitted version. **Author 3** data acquisition **,** data acquisition. **Author 4** Accepting public responsibility and guaranteeing the integrity of the research and the article. Responsible for the submission, editing, and publication of the article **.**\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch data available for comment in Farsi format\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAchenbach, T. M., \u0026amp; Rescorla, L. A. (2001). \u003cem\u003eChild behavior checklist for ages 6-18\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 6-1). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.\u0026rlm; \u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003ehttps://www.nctsn.org/measures/child-behavior-checklist-ages-6-18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmerican Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition-Text Revised(DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American psychiatric association. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBernstein, D. P., Fink, L., Handelsman, L., \u0026amp; Foote, J. (1994). 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The roles of emotional regulation and anger. \u003cem\u003eChild Abuse \u0026amp; Neglect\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e129\u003c/em\u003e, 105641.\u0026rlm; \u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105641\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Emotion Regulation, Childhood Trauma, Bullying Behavior, Conduct Disorder","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7742366/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7742366/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eChildhood Trauma (CT) is associated with a wide range of psychological disorders and behavioral problems that arise during adolescence and continue to affect individuals well into adulthood, according to extensive research. However, a critical gap in this literature is the limited exploration of mediating variables such as emotion regulation (ER) that may explain how these effects unfold. The study explored how ER might mediate the link between CT and bullying behavior (BB) in adolescents showing signs of conduct disorder (CD).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis correlational survey targeted all adolescents aged 12 to 16 in Tehran who exhibited symptoms of CD during the 2024\u0026ndash;2025 academic year, from whom a total of 300 participants were intentionally selected through purposive sampling. They completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) by Gross and John, the Youth Self-Report (YSR) by Achenbach and Rescorla, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) by Bernstein et al., and the BB Questionnaire (BVQ) by Olweus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling. The proposed model demonstrated a satisfactory fit, with CT significantly predicting BB both directly and indirectly through the mediating role of ER (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). These results highlight the potential value of enhancing ER skills in adolescents affected by CT as a strategy to reduce BB among youth with CD symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Exploring the Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation in the Link Between Childhood Trauma and Bullying Behavior Among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-29 03:57:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7742366/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0b2bc6db-8fb1-40f2-bc8a-fa340b9e72ec","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-15T21:54:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-29 03:57:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7742366","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7742366","identity":"rs-7742366","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}